THEORY ». OF ELASTICITY By 8. TIMOSHENKO And J. N. GOODIER Profesvors of Hngincormng Mechanics Stanford Univoreity GEES Bp ‘os: \@ a, Sioeri Maga 001281 ae "A CENTRALE cwneaci srovrmurans fi smi Wb Fe: aes Tao i Bie a Valu! oil? 24. peu Duise naw vo yonk ToRoNvo — _ MeGRAW-HILLL BOOK COMPANY, Ise, 1951THBORY UF ELASTICITY Copyright, 1954, by the United Engineering Trustees, Inc. Copyright, 1951, by the MeCiraw- Till Book Company, Inc. Printed in Uwe Thited Btateo of America, AUl rights rewrved. This book, for parte thereof, may nol. le reprwduced in any form without permission of the publisbers. ‘att rm MAPLE PRESS COMPANY, TORK, PALPREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION ‘The many developments and clarifications in the theory of elasticity and its applications which have occurred since the first edition was written are reflected in numerous additions and emendations in the present edition, ‘The arrangement of the book remains the same for the most part. . ‘The treatments of the photoelastic method, two-dimensional problems in curvilinear coordinates, and thermal stress have been rewritten and enlarged into separate new chapters which present many methods and solutions not given in the former edition. An appendix on the method of finite differences and its applications, including the relaxation method, has been added. New articles and paragraphs incorporated in the other chapters deal with the theory of the strain gauge rosette, gravity stresses, Saint-Venant’s principle, the components of rotation, the reciprocal theorem, general solutions, the approximate character of the plane stress solutions, center of twist and center of shear, torsional stress concentration at fillets, the approximate treat- ment of slender (¢g., solid airfoil) sections in torsion and bending, and the circular cylinder with a band of pressure. Problems for the student have been added covering the text as far as the end of the chapter on torsion. It isa pleasure to make grateful acknowledment of the many helpful suggestions which have been contributed by readers of the book. 8. TrwosHENKo J, N. Goovrer Pato Auto, Carr, February, 1991PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION During recent years the theory of elasticity has found euusiderahle application in the solution of engineering problems. ‘There are many cases in which the elementary methods of strength of materials are juncerate to furnish satisfactory information egurding stress distri- bution in engineering structures, and recourse must be made to the more powerful methods of the theory of elasticity. The elementary theory is insufficient to give information regarding Incal stresses near the loads and ueur the supports af beams. It fails also in the cases when the stress distribution in bodies, all the dimensious of which are of the same order, has to be investigated. ‘I'he stresses in rollors ‘nd in balls of bewrings ean he found only by using the methods of the theory of elasticity. Tho clementary theory gives no means of investigating stresses in regiuus of sharp variation in cross scetion of beams or slufts. It is known that at reentrant corners 2 high slress concentration occurs and as & result of this cracks are likely to start at euch corners, espeviully if the structure is submitted to a reversal of stresses. The majority of fractutes of machine parts in service can be attributed to such cracks. ‘During recent years considerable progress has been made in solving such practically important problems. In cases where 2 rigurous solii~ tion cannot be readily obtained, approximate methods have been developed. In sume cases solutions have boon obtained by using experimental methods. As an example of this lke photoelastic method of solving two-dimensiousl problems of elasticity may bo mentioned. The phatorlastic equipment may be found now xb universities and also in many industrial research Iuboratories. ‘Ihe resulta of photoslastie experiments lave proved especially uocful in studying variuus cases of stress concentration at points of sharp Variation of cross-sectional dimensions and at sharp fillets of reentrant ecurners, Without any doubt these results have considerably influ- enced {he modern design of machine parts and helped in many cuses to improve the construction by eliminating weuk spots from which cracks may start. Another example of the succcssful application of experiments in the golution of clasticity problems is the soup.filn methad for deter mining stresses in torsion and bending of prismatioal bars. The viiviii PREFACE 10 THE FiRST FDITION difficult problems of the solution of partial differential equations with tgiven boundary conditions are replaced in this ease by measurements ff slopes and deflections of a properly stretched and loaded soap film. ‘The experiments show that in this way not only a visual picture of ‘the stress distribution but also the necessary information regarding magnitude of stresses can be obtained with an accuracy sufficient for practical application. ‘Again, the electrical analogy which gives a means of investigating torsional stresses in shafts of variable diameter at the fillets and grooves is interesting, ‘The analogy between the problem of bending Of plates and the two-dimensional problem of elasticity has also been successfully applied in the solution of important engineering problems. Tn the preparation of this book the intention was to give to engi- neers, in a simple form, the necessary fundamental knowledge of the theory of elasticity. Tt was also intended to bring together solutions of special problems which may be of practical importance and to Geseribe approximate and experimental methods of the solution of elasticity problems. Having in mind practical applications of the theory of elasticity, matters of more theoretical interest and those which havo not at present any direct applications in engineering have been omitted in favor of the discussion of specific cases. Only by studying such cases ‘with all the details and by comparing the results of exact investigations With the approximate solutions usually given in the elementary books on strength of materials can a designer acquire a thorough under~ standing of stress distribution in engineering structures, and learn to tise, to his advantage, the more rigorous methods of stress analysis. Ta the discussion of special problems in most cases the method of direct determination of stresses and the use of the compatibility equations in terms of stress components has been applied. | This method is more familiar to engineers who aro usually interested in the magnitude of stresses. By a suitable introduction of stress functions thir method is also often simpler than that in which equations of equilibrium in terms of displacements are used. ‘In many cases the energy method of solution of elasticity problems bas been used. In this way the integration of differential equations is replaced by the investigation of minimum conditions of certain inte- grals. Using Ritz’s method this problem of variational caleulus is Reduced to a simple problem of finding a minimum of a function. Tn this manner useful approximate solutions can be obtained in many practically important cases,PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION ix To simplify the presentation, the book begins with the discussion of two-dimensional problome and only later, when the reuder has familiar ined himself with Ube vuriuus methods ased in the solution of problems of the (heory of elasticity, are thrcc-dimensional problems discussed. ‘The portions of the book that, although uf practical importance, are such that they cun be umilted curing the first reading are put in emall type. The reader may retun to the study of euch problems after finishing with the most essential portions of the Louk. ‘The mathematical derivations are put in an elementary form and usually du act recinire more mathematical knowledge than is given in eugineering schools, In the cases of more complicated problems all necessary explanations aud intermediate calonlations are given 90 that the reader can follow without difficulty through all the deriva- uns. Only in a fow easoe aro final results given without eunplete derivations, ‘Then the uecessury references to the papers in which the derivations cun be fond are always given. Tn mimeraus footnotes reforonoes to papers and buoks on (he heory of elasticity which may be of pructival importance are given. Thess references muy be of interest to engineers who wish to study some special problems in more detail. They give also a picture of the modern devclopmont of the theory of eluslicity and may he of some ‘use to graduate sludents who are planning to take their worl: in this field. In the preparation of the book the contents of previous book (“Theory of Elasticity,” vol. J, St. Petersburg, Hussia, 1914) on Uke same subject, which represented a couruc of lectures on the theory of elasticity given in several Russian engineering schovls, were used to a large extent, The author was avsisled in his wrk hy Dr. L. H. Donnell and Dr. J... Gandier, who read over the complete manuscript and tu whom ho ia indebted for many corrections and suyyestious. ‘The anthor tukes this opportunity lo thunk also l'rof. (i. H. MacCullough, Dr. E. f. Weibel, Prof. M. Sadowsky, and Mr. D. H. Young, who assisted in the final preparation of the book by roading sume porlivus of the uanuscript. He ie indebted also to Mr. L. 8. Veenstra for the prep- aration of drawings und to Mrs. J. 1). Webster for the typing of the Manuscript. 8. TorossenKka Uxivenstrr or Micmaan December, 1989CONTENTS pnevace v1 umm SECOND EDIOM. 66 fey Ppopsox wo wr, Pinar Komnos. + vit ‘Noramion. Lee xvii Cuarren 1, INTRODUCTION Elnaticity « Stress . | Notation for Boren and treooca + ‘Components of Stress Components of Strain. |. Tooke's Lav. . Problems oc ee viene dl 1 2 8, 4. Onarmen 2, PLANE STRESS AND PLANE STRAIN 7 Phu Stress te u 8, Plane Sirnin 2. bees tae 2 y, Strossata Pink 33 10, Strain at a Point . W 11, Measurement of Surface Sirius 0 et 19 12. Constrnction of Mohr Strain Circle for Strain Hosctte, . a 1, Different Tquations of Baquiibrium bee OE 14, Boundary Conditions... . te 22 16, Compatibility Equations. ©... 6 6 ss : 1 16, Stress Function... - see 26 Problema.) .. om Cuapren 3, TWO-DIMENSIONAL PROBLEMS IN RUULANGULAR COORDINATES 17. Solution by Polynomials... . - bee cy 18, Saint-Vennnt’s Principle... . + + be 33 |. Determination of Displacements... . . 34 1W, Bending of a Cantilever Tanded ab the End . - 36 21. Bending of a Boam by Uniform Toad . . a9 22. Other Cases of Continuously Loaded Rea “4 23. Solulivn of Uke ‘Two-dimensional Problem Series. - 16 24, Other Applications uf Rou cy Probleme... - 53 INSTITU Tit POLITEHN. | TIMISOARA Fant 1+ tan 7 tans we find Ait re, 20+ rE B “ ‘Thus tho relation between shearing siruin aud shearing stress is defincd by the couslauls J and ». Often the notation : E TTR ® is used. Then Eq. (4) becomes =f VG ‘Vhe constant G, defined by (5), is called Uke modulus of elasticity in shear or the modulus of riyidily Tf shearing stresses act on the sides of an clement, as shown in Fig. 3, the distortion of the angle between any two coordinate axes depends only on shearing-stress components parallel lo these axes and we obtain aaedm edn mide The elongutious (3) and the distortions (6) are independent of cach other, Hence the general case of strain, produced by three normal and three shearing compononts of stress, can be obtained Ly superposition on the three elongations given by Es. (8) are superposed three shear- ing strains yiven by Eys. (6). Fiqnations (4) and (6) give the camponcnts of strain as functions of the components of stregs. Sometimes the components of slress expressed as functions of the components of slrain are needed. ‘These cau be obtained us fulluws, Adding equations (3) together and using the notations ese tbate Onratate m We obtain the folluwing relation hetween the volume expansion ¢ and the sum of normal stresses: en ize ®)10 PHBURY OF ELASTICITY In the case of @ uniform hydrostatie pressure of the amount p we have vou NP and a, (8) gives _ 8 -2)p . oF which reprevenis the relation betwee unit, volume expansion ¢ nd Iiydrostatio pressure p. The quanlily £/( — 2») is exlled the modulus of volume expansion. Lising notations (7) and solving Eqs. (8) fru, va, on, we find vE RE G4 idem TT Hes vE B . wn aes Tite - weg Ene nr a ae or using the notation ti = 7FHna=% (0) and Fry. (5), these become os — M+ Whey ay — de + 2G ay) 4 De +t Dies Protiems 4 Show thal gs (1) continue t Tul ifthe clement of Fig, 4 is in motion and hha an nngular acceleration lke 2 rigid body. 4 Sapmose an clastic mulrrinl contains a lange minutes of evenly distributed wa ee partir, no thak a magnatic Ald ents on any clement ds dy Os ee are dy dz nnna an ax parallel Uwe axis, What moliGowon will be needed in Eqs (1)? Ging somervasons why the formule (2) will be vaid for small nicains omy Fee rele ayer is unndwichelhehwcen two porfeety rir yates, to which 1 ie hombal. The layer 18 eomprserl Lxtween tho plate, Une comroroseive, SA Hie” gappeaing thas the attachment to the piss prevento late, strain aa svrpleely rd the mpsuent Young's mods Gs yu/a) an cars of Rand». Fearne raany tines 1 ifthe material of tie layer is nearly neon yevsible BY hydrostatic presnure oe prove ta: Fa, (8) follows from Fas. (12), (10), and (8)CHAPTER 2 PLANE STRESS AND PLANE STRAIN 7. Plane Stress. If a thin plate is loaded by forces applied at the Luundary, parallel to the plane uf the plale and distributed unifurmly over the thickness (Fig. 8), the stress components 7, Tas, Ty: ALE ZeTO On both faces of the plate, and it may be assumed, tentatively, that they ure zero also within Ube pluie, The state of stress is then specified by vay yy Tay ONLY, and is called plane stress. It may alsn he assumed that y Y Fra. 8. these three components are independent of 2, i.e, they do not vary (urough the thickness, They are thon funotions of z and y only. 8. Plane Strain. A si:ilur simplification is possible at the other extreme when the dimension of the hody in the z-direction is very Iurge. Téa long cylindrical or prismatical body is loaded by forces which are perpendicular to the longitudinal cloments and do not vary along the length, it may be ussumed Uhul ull cross sevtions are in the same condi- tion, Tt is simplest to suppose at first tha’ the end sectiuns are euu- {ined between fixed smooth rigid planes, so that displacement. in the axial direction is prevented. The effect of removing these will be examined later. Since Usere ix uy axial displacement at the ends, and, by symmetry, at; the mid-sention, it may he assumed that the same holds at every eross section. ‘There are muny important problome of this kind—a rotaining wall with lateral pressre (Wig. 9), a culvert ur Guumel (By, 10), w eylindsiewl tube with internal pressure, a cylindrical roller compressed by forces in n TITUTUL POUITEHN. TiMISQAKRA © BIBLIOTECA CCNTRALA13 THEORY OF ELASTICITY ‘a diametral plane as in a roller pearing (Fig. 11). In each case of conrse tho loading must nul vary along the length, Since condilions are the sume at, all crogs scetions, it is sufficient Lo consider only a slice hetwecn two sections uuil distance apart. The components u and vol the displacement arc functions of «and y Lut are independent of tho Fan He Jungitnlinal coordinate . Sinee the lougiludinal displacement w is zero, Eqs. (2) give av, aw met oy ou tw te = Eten (a) -@e a“ Gre ‘The Jongilncinal normal otreee ¢, ean bu found in terms of ge and ow by means of Hooke’s law, Eys. (8). Since ¢, = 0 wo find or — ou %) =O or os — ¥(04 + oy) @) "These normal slrexsex act over the cross sections, inclu the endo, here they represent forces required to maintain the plane strain, und provided by the: fixed smooth rigid planes.PLAND STRESS AND PLANE STRAIN 18 By Eqs. (a) and (6), the stress components r-, and ry, are cro, and, by Eq. (b), ¢, can be found from¢, and¢,. Thus the plane strain prob- lem, like the plane stress problem, reduces to the determination of v2 oy, ond ry 08 functions of z and y only. 9. Stress al a Puinl. Kuuwing the sirevs components 6,, 6), tay ab any point of a plate in a condition of plane stress or plane strain, the strese acting on any plane through this point perpendicular to the plate and inclined bo the x- aud yeuxes cau be calculated from the equations of statics. Let 0 be a point of the stressed plate and suppose the stress components ¢,, oy, Ty aro known (Pig. 12). To find the stress for any plane throngh the z-axis and inclined to tho @ and y-axes, wo take a plane BE parallel to it, wba sual distance from Q, so that this latter plane together with the coordinate planes euis out from the plate a very small triangular prism OBC. Since the stresses vary continuously over the volume of the hody the stress acting on the plane BC will approach the stress on the parallel plane through O as the element is made smaller. In diseussing the conclitions of equilibrium of the small triangular priam, the body force can be neglected aa a small quantity of a higher order (page 4). Likewise, if the element is very small, we can neglect the variation of the siresses over Uhe sides wud assume thut the sbresses are uniformly distributed. The forces acting on the triangular prism can therefore be determined by multiplying the stress components by the areus of the sides. Let N be the direction of he normal to the plane BU, and denote the cosines af the angles between the normal V and the axes # and y by Fie. 12. cosNz=1, cosNy=m ‘Chen, if A denotes the area of the side BC of the element, the areas of the ather two sides are AL and Am If we denote by ¥ and ¥ the components of stress acting on the side XC, the equations of equilibrium of the prismatical element give K — lug tomy ¥ = moy + tem ue Thus the components of stress on any plane defined by the directionCy YHBORY OF PLASTICITY casines band m can wanily be calculated from Fas. (13), provided the fhrve romponents of stress ¢., 6, Tay ab the point O ure known. Totting @ bi the angle between the sorvsal A and the a-axis, su thn ) = cosq and m = sin a, (he normal and shearing eamponenta of stress on the plane BU are (from Eys. 12) a — Keova + ¥ sina ~ uz cost « +o, sin? oe 2ray sin ey eon pm Fcos a — FX sin x = rey(oo8® a — sis? a) + (ey — 22) sin COB @ 3) Lémay be seen Uni the angle @ ean be eluasen in such a manner “hut the shenring streas r becomes eeynal to zero. For this vase. we have ta(eus! wc sin? a) + (@, — a) sin a cos. ~ 0 or . 1 sino cos 4 ] ta ate mare Ta (id) From this equation two perpendicular dirootions ean he found for ‘which the sheuring stress ig necro, These directions are called principal direstions and tho corresponding normal stresses principal strevee. Tf the principal directions are Luken as the = and yeaxes, try 18 2er0 and Liga, (J3) are simplified to re COS? ce + ny Sin & 8) ain Qa(oy — 64) (3) ‘Tho variation of the stress components «and r, 08 We vary the angle 1, can be casily represented graphically by suaking,a diagram in which oo pane taken ap coordinates. or each plane there will correspond ‘x point on this diagram, the coordinates uf whieh represent the valnes of ¢ sud r for this plane, Figure 11 represents such a diagram. For the planos perpewlienlar to tho principal directions wo obtain points A and R with abseiseas o, and oy, respectively. ‘Now it can be proved that the stress componente for any plsur 20 with on angle « (Tig. 12) will he represented by cour dinates of a point on (he circle having AB us adiameter. To find this point it is unly necessary TO mews from the ‘point Aim the same direchion a3 & jo mexsured in Fig, 12 an are sub tending an angle equal to 2a. TI /) is the point oblwined in this man- ner, then, from the Ggnre, ow obey em OF = 001 COR = Sato DF = CN sin 2a = ¥(¢, — 2) sin Bot “Thin prapical mothod Ss die us O» Mohr, Ziitngemicer, 1069, p. 113. Son) ky hig *"Teshmieche Merhnik,” 24 eda, 1014, { 4 g93 2a = a, cost a + 0, sin?PLANT STRESS AND PLANE STRAIN 15 Comparing with Iiqs. (13') it is econ that the coordinules of point: 12 sive the numorieal values of stress components on the plano BC at te fngle a. To buing into coincidence the sign of the shearing component wvo take + positive in the upward direction (Fig. 18) and consider shear Jy stresses as positive when Uhey give » comple in the clockwise direc- tion, as on Une sides he and ad of the clement abed (Fig. 136), Shearing tresses of opposite direction, as on the sides wh and de of the element, ure considered ay negulive.? ‘Ag the plane HC rotates about an axis perpendicular Lo the cy-plane (Fiz. 12) in the clockwise directiuu, snd varies from U to 7/2, the i Fra. 18, point D in Fig. 13 moves from A tu fi, so that the lower half circle determines Une sitess variation for all valuco of « within these limits, ‘The upper half of the circle gives stresses for #/2 < a < 7. Prolonging the radius CD to the point #; (I'ig. 18), t,, tating the uugle x + 2c, inslead of 2a, the stresses on the plane perpendicular ty BU (Wig. 12) are obtained. This shows that the shearing stresses on two perpendicular planes are numerically equal as previously proved. As for normal stresses, we see from the figure that OF, + OF = 20C, the sum of the normal stresses over two porpendiculur eruss ser= tions remains constant when the angle a changes. ‘The maximum shuuriug stress is given in the diagram (Fig. 13) by the maximum ordinate. at the e1rele, é.c., is equal to the radius of (he circle. Henec fom. ~ a7 (in) Tt acts ou Une plaue for which @ = +/4, i¢., on the plane biseoting the anglo between the two principal stresses. “This rule is used only in Um comstruction of Mobr’a circle, thorwiso tho File given on p. 3 holds.16 TREORY OF ELASTICITY ‘The diagram can be used also in the case when one or both principal stresses are negative (compression). It is only necessary to change the sign of the abscissa for compressive stress. In this manner Fig. la represents the case when both principal stresses are negative and Fig. 14) the ease of pure shear. (a) @) Fi. 14, From Figs. 13 and 14 itis seen that the stress at a point ean be resolved into two ports: One, uniform tension or compression, the magnitude of which ie given by the Prvoiaaa of the center of the circle; and the other, pure shear, the magnitude of siiueh is given by the radius of the circle. When several plane stress distributions veessuperposed, the uniform tensions or compressions can be added together rg ra ra algebraically. The pure shears must be added together by taking into account ‘he directions of the planes on which they are acting. Tt ean be shown that, if we superpose two systems of pure shear whose planes of maximum shear make 9» anele of 2 with each other, the resulting system will be another ease of pure shear; Fea caaple, Fig. 15 represents the determination of stress on any plane defined by a, produced by two pure shears of magnitude +, and rz acting one on the planesPLANE STRESS AND PLANE STRAIN Ww 23 au] ya (Fig. 15a) and the other on the planes inclined to xz and ye by the anele 0 (Fig. 150). In Fig, 16a the coordinates of point D represent the shear and normal stress un plane CB produced by the first system, while the coordinate of D: (Hig. ‘ob) gives the stresses on this plane for the second aystem, Adding UD and UD; geomelrically we obtain OG, the resultant stress on the plane due to both systems, ‘tho coordinates of Q giving us the shear and normal stress. Note that the magni- tude of OG does not depend upon «. Hence, as the result of the superposition of two sheurs, we obtain a Mohr circle for pure shear, the magnitude of which is sgivon by OG, the planes of maximum shear being inclined to the xz and ye planes by fan angle e«jual half the angle GOD. A diagram, euch as shown in Fig. 13, can bo used also for determining principal siressey if Ube sbress compo nenlsng, oy, ty for any two perpendicular planes (Fig. 12) are known, We begin In such u case with the plotting af the two points D and Dy, representing stress con- ditions on the two coordinate planes (Fig. 16). In this manner the diameter DD; of thecireleis obtained. Construct- ing the circle, the prinvipal stresseso, said oy ure obtained from the intersection of the cirele with the abscissa axis, From the figure we find Oi Frag, 16, (18) =0C + op a ete VES) tee F Ya te a AS The maximum shearing stress is given by the radius of the circle, 40, a = OC —CD= a -4 mom) = Ve an Yb ret a7) Tn this manner all necessary features of the stress distribution at a point ean be obtained if only the three stross components gx Oy; Tay Te THEW 10, Strain at a Point. When the strain components ex, ¢, You At & point are known, the unit clongation for any direction, and the decrease of a right angle—ihe shearing strain—of any orientation al he point can be found. A line element 1) (Wig. 17a) between the points (x,y), (© + da, u + dy) io translated, stretched (or contracted) and rotated into the line element P'Q’ when Uhe deformation veeurs. The dix18 YHEORY OF BLASYICITY placement components of # are #, ave those of Q are du yy 4 oH 0 ® ut aot dy, 94 ae + 5 it P'Q’ in Fig. 17a io now trunsinted so that P’ is brought back to P, his in the position PY of Fig. 17%, und GX, RQ” represent the come ponents of the diplacement of @ relative lo P. "Thus uy, 4 oe 8 ag QR = Feet ay RQ = ale t ay (@) ‘he components af this relative displacement QS, $Q", normal to PQ" and along PQ", cum he found from these as QS = —QR sin @+ RQ" 008 6, AQ" = QR coe 6+ RQ" sin # (6) ignoring, the small angle QPS in comparison with 0. Since the short. Ime QS may Ve identified with un are of o circle will canter P, SQ” xy) Coe Pmt a lay Re lerazyedy) fp a 2 ‘q” ta) a’ « nt ives the otrotch of PQ. ‘The unit elonyetinn of PQ", denoted hy en it SQ’/PQ. Using (b) and («) we have ‘aude, Sulu) y gig g (onde , av o( Sey 4 ame cede | ay dey ds" oy as, = 2 cost au 4 2) ai sat = cet Bt 5 2) an 0 e080 + Fh 0 or es = cg 008 OE Yay Sin # 008 0 + 6 sin? O © svhich giver the unit elongation for uny direction 0, ‘The angle ve through which PQ in rotated bs QS/PQ. Thus from (1) and (a), . ofdude ) ou wy ‘ay die, ou dy vno(’ B+ ia) + 28 ON Ge ae | ayds or cage ‘av au OM gine sews o+(m- 2) sin ot 0 ayaa @