NAME: VERSANO, IMY JOY A.

4-BSABE-B DATE:09-25-21
SUBJECT: ABE 413

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL ATTRIBUTES OF RICE

Introduction

In the Philippines, rice is grown on small family-based farms with an average size
varying from less than 0.5 to 4.0 ha, hence the ratio is small. The possibility of
increasing planting areas is nearly exhausted. Yield increases have begun to slow as
well. Added to that, the Philippines population is perhaps the fastest growing in the
world. The Philippines has approximately 4.2 million ha of rice lands and produce about
11.2 million Metric Tons of milled rice, sufficient only for 90% of the population. There
are at least five major provinces which produce rice as its major farm crop.

Rice production in the Philippines has been rapidly growing since 1970’s until the
early 1980’s when the country achieved self-sufficiency, having a surplus enabling the
country to export a small amount. Going further, a study of farmers' planting methods
will show that about half of the country's rice lands are still planted with the old rice
varieties that produce only about 2.75 MT/hectare. The Philippines has so-called
"Certified" and "Hybrid" seeds that yield 4.7 and 6.5 MT/hectare, respectively.

The country's supplier of hybrid seeds even claim that the actual average yield of
his seeds is higher (8~10 MT/hectare) and there are even instances of exceptionally
high yields that are reported by some farmers. According to the latest figures released
by the Philippine Bureau of Agricultural Statistics (BAS), the production of unfilled rice
(palay) in the country have risen by 5.13 % to reach 3.94 million MT in the first quarter
of the year on increased irrigation and seed supplies.

Characteristics of Rice

The rice plant can grow to 1–1.8 m (3–6 ft) tall, occasionally more depending on
the variety and soil fertility. It has long, slender leaves 50–100 cm (20–40 in) long
and 2–2.5 cm (3⁄4–1 in) broad. The small wind-pollinated flowers are produced in a
branched arching to pendulous inflorescence 30–50 cm (12–20 in) long. The edible
seed is a grain (caryopsis) 5–12 mm (3⁄16–15⁄32 in) long and 2–3 mm (3⁄32–1⁄8 in)
thick. The physical characteristics of rice consist of milling degree, whiteness, grain
shape, foreign matter, head rice, chalkiness and moisture content, m.c. , while the
chemical characteristics are amylose content, gelatinization temperature and gel
consistency.

Harvesting, Drying and Milling

Unmilled rice, known as "paddy" (Indonesia and Malaysia: padi; Philippines,

palay), is usually harvested when the grains have a moisture content of around 25%. In
most Asian countries, where rice is almost entirely the product
of smallholder agriculture, harvesting is carried out manually, although there is a
growing interest in mechanical harvesting. Harvesting can be carried out by the farmers
themselves but is also frequently done by seasonal labor groups. Harvesting is followed
by threshing, either immediately or within a day or two. Again, much threshing is still
carried out by hand but there is an increasing use of mechanical threshers.
Subsequently, paddy needs to be dried to bring down the moisture content to no more
than 20% for milling.

A familiar sight in several Asian countries is paddy laid out to dry along roads.
However, in most countries the bulk of drying of marketed paddy takes place in mills,
with village-level drying being used for paddy to be consumed by farm families. Mills
either sun dry or use mechanical driers or both. Drying must be carried out quickly to
avoid the formation of molds. Mills range from simple hullers, with a throughput of a
couple of tonnes a day, that simply remove the outer husk, to enormous operations that
can process 4 thousand metric tons (4.4 thousand short tons) a day and produce highly
polished rice. A good mill can achieve a paddy-to-rice conversion rate of up to 72% but
smaller, inefficient mills often struggle to achieve 60%. These smaller mills often do not
buy paddy and sell rice but only service farmers who want to mill their paddy for their
own consumption.

Definition of Terms

 Rice – a swamp grass, which is widely cultivated as a source of food, especially

in Asia.

 Drying – is a mass transfer process consisting of the removal of water or another
solvent by evaporation from a solid, semi-solid or liquid.

 Threshing – separate grain from (a plant), typically with a flail or by the action of
a revolving mechanism.
 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL ATTRIBUTES OF POTATO

Introduction

Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.)., locally known as ‘patatas”, is grown in 130

countries worldwide including the Philippines. It is grown for its tubers, which are rich in
phosphorus and vitamins B1, B2, and C. Reports showed that a potato crop produces
more edible energy and protein per hectare and per unit of time than practically any
other crops (DOST, 2007). The major potato production in the Philippines is
concentrated in high elevations particularly in Benguet and Mountain Province with a
temperature below 21oC. This temperature is suitable for growth and development of
quality potato tubers.

The growth of potato is greatly affected by temperature, day length, humidity, and
soil conditions. Potatoes are used for a variety of purposes, and not only as a vegetable
for cooking at home. In fact, it is likely that less than 50 percent of potatoes grown
worldwide are consumed fresh. The rest are processed into potato food products and
food ingredients; fed to cattle, pigs, and chickens; processed into starch for industry;
and re-used as seed tubers for growing the next season’s potato crop.The most
commonly grown varieties of table potatoes is Granola while the best processing
varieties are Igorota. These varieties are being produced in CAR and Region 10. In
2013 Tons of GI Granola, virus free resistant variety and Connect was imported from
Holland by a seed company and was distributed to potato growers. They were found
promising and yielded ranging from 30-40 tons per hectare.

Characteristics of Potato

The potato is one of some 150 tuber-bearing species of the

genus Solanum (a tuber is the swollen end of an underground stem).
The compound leaves are spirally arranged; each leaf is 20–30 cm (about 8–12 inches)
long and consists of a terminal leaflet and two to four pairs of leaflets. The white,
lavender, or purple flowers have five fused petals and yellow stamens. The fruit is a
small poisonous berry with numerous seeds.

The stems extend underground into structures called stolons. The ends of the
stolons may enlarge greatly to form a few to more than 20 tubers, of variable shape and
size, usually ranging in weight up to 300 grams (10 ounces) but occasionally to more
than 1.5 kg (3.3 pounds). The skin varies in colour from brownish white to deep purple;
the starchy flesh normally ranges in color from white to yellow, but it too may be purple.
 The tubers bear spirally arranged buds (eyes) in the axils of aborted leaves, of
which scars remain. The buds sprout to form clones of the parent plant, allowing
growers to vegetatively propagate desired characteristics. Indeed, vegetative
reproduction is always used commercially, though the resulting decrease in
genetic diversity has made the popular varieties more vulnerable to pests and diseases.

Definition of Terms

 Potato – a starchy plant tuber, which is one of the most important food crops,
cooked and eaten as a vegetable.

 Tuber – a much thickened underground part of a stem or rhizome, e.g., in the

potato, serving as a food reserve and bearing buds from which new plants arise.

 Stolons – a creeping horizontal plant stem or runner that takes root at points
along its length to form new plants.

 Propagate – Breed specimens of (a plant or animal) by natural processes from

the parent stock.

CATFISH

Introduction

Catfish (Clarias macrocephalus) is indigenous in Philippine waters; thus, Filipinos

are familiar with it as a food fish and a lot consider its taste as excellent. But as with
most indigenous food species that are constantly extracted, our native Philippine
catfish, locally called native or hitong tagalog can no longer be found in abundance.
Today, the imported African catfish (C. gariepinus) is more abundant. Filipinos have
readily accepted it perhaps because of their familiarity with the native catfish. Most
catfish eaters say that the two species taste the same and dealers pass the African
catfish as native to encourage hesitant buyers. Few people know that our native catfish
do not grow as large as the African and that catfish in the markets are seldom native as
these are not grown in commercial quantity. Production of the African catfish, however,
is low and its market remains undeveloped.
The Ponds

Ponds are built over clay-rich soils, where they are filled with pure freshwater
pumped from underground wells. The rectangular-shaped ponds, averaging 10 to 20
acres each, are built above ground by constructing levees. These embankments contain
water that can reach 4 to 6 feet in depth.

Farming

Farming begins with the selection and mating of quality brood stock. A brood fish
will lay from 3,000 to 4,000 eggs per pound of body weight over an average of 12 years.
Fertilized eggs are collected and placed in controlled hatchery tanks. After seven days
at a temperature of 78° F, the eggs hatch. The young, called “sac fry,” live off the food
supplied by the yolk sacs.

When the yolk is used up, the fish begin to swim and are moved to a special
pond where they grow into fingerlings. At 4 to 6 inches in length, they are transferred to
catfish ponds in a ratio of approximately 4,500 per surface acre of water.

Harvesting

Catfish are harvested in seines about 18 months old and averaging 1 to 1.5
pounds. They are loaded into baskets and then placed in aerated tank trucks for live
shipment to processing plants.

Processing

The catfish are kept alive up until the minute they are processed. The entire
processing procedure in completed in less than 30 minutes. The fish are cleaned,
processed, and placed on ice or frozen to temperatures of 40° F below zero. Frozen
farm-raised catfish are individually quick-frozen (IQF), a method which preserves the
taste and quality of the fish.

Catfish is available to the foodservice operator in many forms, both frozen and
fresh. Catfish processors are working constantly on developing new foodservice
products and improving existing product lines to fill the ever-evolving needs of
operators. This fish is extremely versatile, mild flavored and practically indestructible in
the kitchen. Overcooking catfish is difficult to do, which is why it fits so well into so many
types of operations.

Farm-Raised Catfish is available in any of these general forms:

 Whole Dressed (fresh)

 Steaks (cross-section cuts from larger dressed fish, fresh or frozen)

 Fillets (boned sides of the fish, cut lengthwise away from the backbone, fresh or
frozen)

 Regular and shank fillets (regular fillets have the belly section attached, shank
fillets have the belly section removed, fresh or frozen)

 Nuggets (boneless pieces cut from the belly section of the fillet, fresh or frozen)

 Strips and fingers (smaller pieces of fish cut from fillets, fresh or frozen)

Definition of Terms

 Catfish – any of an order (Siluriform) of chiefly freshwater stout-bodied scaleless

bony fishes having long tactile barbel

 Levees – an embankment built to prevent the overflow of a river.

 Seines – a fishing net which hangs vertically in the water with floats at the top
and weights at the bottom edge, the ends being drawn together to encircle the
fish.

 Yolk Sac – s a small, membranous structure situated outside of the embryo with
a variety of functions during embryonic development. It attaches ventrally to the
developing embryo via the yolk stalk. The yolk stalk is a term that may be used
interchangeably with the vitelline duct or omphalomesenteric duct.
 PIG

Introduction

The Philippines is the world’s tenth-largest consumer, eighth-top producer,

and seventh-largest importer of pork. Pinoys love to pig-out, gobbling up about 35
kilograms of meat yearly, including an average of 15 kilograms of pork. It’s no surprise
that the local swine industry is one of its most lucrative trades, worth PHP200 billion or
USD5 billion and contributing 18.28 percent to the country’s agricultural output in 2015,
ranking second only to rice and staying way ahead of poultry.

The life cycle of a pig from conception, to birth, through growth and then
slaughter can take up to 310 days. Pigs breed at all times of the year, regardless of the
season. However, pigs can be affected by seasonal infertility in the warmer months.
Once a sow has been mated, the production cycle commences. It is completed
when those piglets reach ‘sale weight’. This marks the completion of the
growing/finishing phase and the pigs are sold.

Pig slaughter is a procedure for obtaining pig meat (pork). It is a common occurrence in
both conventional and intensive pig farming. Pigs are butchered at various stages of
development. Piglets are 1.5 to 3 months old; fattening pigs, suitable for pork and
bacon, are 4 months to one year old; and finally, older pigs, such as sows (female pigs)
and boars, are 1.5 to 3 months old (uncastrated male pigs). The thickness of bacon
determines whether the meat obtained from piglets is more meaty or fattier. A month
before slaughter, male hogs are castrated.

The production of pigs can be divided into six life stages:

 Breeding/mating

 Gilts (female pigs that have not previously farrowed or given birth) are
usually introduced to boars around 25–28 weeks old. The boar will often have
daily exposure to young gilts to ensure they begin their reproductive cycling, with
the gilts typically reaching puberty 10–30 days after commencing boar contact.
Hormones can be used to stimulate puberty in gilts but are rarely used. Boar
exposure is the preferred and most effective means of bringing a gilt onto heat.
Gilts will then usually be mated at their second cycle (when they go on heat for
the second time) or around 30–34 weeks. Sows, or female pigs who have
already farrowed, will have boar exposure to determine if they are on heat.
 Female pigs will either be mated with a boar naturally or will be artificially
inseminated. The objective is to ensure the breeding females will have a long
and productive life in the breeding herd, which means responsible animal welfare
and treatment.

 Gestating or dry sows

After the sows and gilts are mated, they are moved into the dry sow or
gestation area of the breeder sheds or paddocks. They will remain there during
most of their pregnancy (approximately 116 days).

 Farrowing or birth

About a week before giving birth, they are moved into the farrowing or
birthing sheds or paddocks.

 Lactation

Sows remain in the farrowing area, nursing their piglets for about 3–5
weeks until the piglets are weaned.

 Weaning

After weaning, the sows are returned to the breeding area. The piglets are
moved to weaner accommodation. The pigs can only be moved into the weaner
facilities once the pens or sheds have been emptied of pigs by the producers
moving these pigs to the next suitable area or to sale. Generally, the sheds are
cleaned, sterilized and rested for 24 hours, before the next group of pigs arrive.

 Growing/finishing

Depending on the farm, the growing pigs may be moved to other grower
accommodation either on the same farm or a different facility. This is where the
pig will live until it reaches ‘sale’ weight.

Definition of Terms

 Pig – an omnivorous domesticated hoofed mammal with sparse bristly hair and a flat
snout for rooting in the soil, kept for its meat.

 Sow – a female adult pig.

 Boar – an uncastrated domestic male pig.