Marine Geology, 63 (1985) 173--195 173

Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam -- Printed in The Netherlands

GEOMORPHIC AND STRATIGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OF FIRE ISLAND,

NEW YORK

STEPHEN P. LEATHERMAN
Department of Geography, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742 (U.S.A.)
(Accepted for publication May 17, 1984)

ABSTRACT

Leatherman, S.P., 1985. Geomorphic and stratigraphic analysis of Fire Island, New York.
In: G.F. Oertel and S.P. Leatherman (Editors), Barrier Islands. Mar. Geol., 63 : 173--195.

Barrier islands along the East Coast of the United States are believed to be migrating
landward in response to sea-level rise. Modes and rates of displacement of Fire Island
along the south shore of Long Island, N.Y., were investigated through geomorphic and
stratigraphic analyses.
Inlet processes are principally responsible for bayshore sediment accretion and hence
landward displacement, while overwash has contributed to increasing the island's elevation.
Portions of marsh areas covered by washover deposits were often raised above the tidal
level permitting colonization by barrier-flat vegetation. Photographic analysis showed that
only the 1938 hurricane resulted in bayshore accretion by washover (a small amount at
one locality). Most of the bayside marshes formed on relict flood-tidal delta shoals.
Former inlet sites are characterized by typical geomorphic features, including relict inlet
ridges, indentation of the bay shoreline, wide marsh plains, and relict flood-tidal delta
islands in the bay. Historical records and relict inlet features indicate that as much as 85%
of the area has been affected by inlet activity.
The geomorphic and vegetative data supported by the stratigraphic interpretations
showed that the western section of Fire Island, N.Y., is migrating landward more slowly
than the eastern section of the barrier chain ; this trend is probably due to hurricane tracks
and to an increased sediment supply to the western part. Barrier migration is occurring
continuously over geologic time, but considered on a short-term basis, displacement is
sporadic and related to inlet processes. Over the past 1000 years, Fire Island has experi-
enced shoreface erosion as well as bayshore erosion and submergence.

INTRODUCTION

B a r r i e r i s l a n d s a l o n g t h e A t l a n t i c a n d G u l f C o a s t s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s are
m i g r a t i n g l a n d w a r d o v e r g e o l o g i c t i m e i n r e s p o n s e t o e u s t a t i c sea-level rise.
S i n c e b a r r i e r s are a f f e c t e d b y i n l e t d y n a m i c s , o v e r w a s h p r o c e s s e s , a n d a e o l i a n
t r a n s p o r t t o v a r y i n g d e g r e e s , t h e y e x h i b i t d i f f e r e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o n a geo-
g r a p h i c basis. V a r i a b l e s , s u c h as r a t e o f sea-level rise, t i d a l r a n g e , s t o r m t r a c k s ,
wind and wave regime, and sediment supply, determine the relative magnitude
o f t h e t r a n s p o r t p r o c e s s e s , m a k i n g e a c h b a r r i e r s e t t i n g u n i q u e . T h e s e sedi-
m e n t a r y p r o c e s s e s are i m p o r t a n t i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e e v o l u t i o n o f t h e
different landform and associated vegetative features. This study was directed

0025-3227/85/$03.30 © 1985 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.

174

towards delineating the processes principally responsible for bayshore accre,

tion and landward migration.
Fire Island is a 48 km-long barrier extending from Fire Island Inlet (Dem-
ocrat Point) eastward to Moriches Inlet; it is part of the barrier system which
runs parallel to the south shore of Long Island, New York (Fig.l). These
barriers are known to be migrating westward as sediment eroded from
Montauk Point is carried by longshore currents and deposited at Democrat
Point (Taney, 1961). in 1825, the inlet existed within 150 m of Fire Island
Lighthouse; by 1940, it had migrated approximately 8 km westward to its
present stabilized position. As a result of the westward migratory tendencies
of the barriers, m a n y of the inlets along the chain exhibit an updrift, seaward
off-set. A j e t t y was built at Democrat Point in 1940 in an effort to contain
these westward-migrating sediments; it filled to capacity by 1960. The U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers currently dredges the inlet annually to maintain its
navigability.
Sediments that nourish Fire Island are believed to come primarily from
several sources. The eroding headland section (Montauk Point area) is a major
source of sediment for the barrier islands with offshore, reworked shoreface
and inlet scouring contributing materials as well (Taney, 1961; McCormick
and Toscano, 1981).
Tides in the study area range from 1.3 m at Fire Island Inlet to 1.0 m a t
Moriches Inlet. The tidal range in Great South Bay is generally less than
0.3 m. This bay, which separates Fire Island from the mainland, is 40 km
long and 3.2--8 km wide. With the exception of some shallow flats, it ranges
in depth from 1.2 to 3 m. The prevailing winds are from northwest to south-
west (Fig.l). Winds from the east are less frequent, but are generally stronger

" ~ Long Is/and Sound i-z7

Annual { . ~\: ~ \c j~ . - " Southamplon

• ~d,." 'ooo~ " s,k e / ;? .~-.

Atlantic O c e a t )

i Summe~"
o 5 lo o 5 )o 15 I
km - i
• , [.

....... "~" :" iJ Winter

Fig. I. Location m a p of study area with wind roses (from McCormick and Associates, 1975).
 175

and associated with storms (McCormick and Associates, 1975). Both hurri-
canes and extratropical storms (northeasters) affect the study area. Over 70%
of the deep-water waves approach the shore from the directions ENE through
SSE; these waves are responsible for producing the net westward littoral drift
(U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1977).
Rates and modes of landward migration of Fire Island, New York, were
determined through morphological analysis of charts and historical aerial
photographs as well as stratigraphic correlations of core data. Comparison of
historical maps and photos indicate general barrier changes in shoreline and
geomorphic features, including shoreline recession or progradation, marsh
erosion or bayward growth, and inlet openings and closures. Since washover
deposits are generally not recorded on maps, historical aerial photographs are
invaluable for their determination. Unfortunately, the photographic record is
limited to the past 53 years.
Volumetric calculations of backbarrier facies are necessary to determine
the a m o u n t of sediment transported across the island by overwash and inlet
processes (and thereby evaluate their relative contribution to landward barrier
migration). Stratigraphic correlation of cores taken along strategically chosen
transects (areas of known overwash, former inlets, or presumed stability)
may allow such comparisons to be made.

METHODOLOGY

Historical maps and vertical aerial photographs were used to determine

morphological changes along Fire Island during the last 150 years. Physio-
graphic features evident on the air photos and in the field were used to make
geomorphic interpretations regarding past inlet activity. Landform/vegetation
units were mapped and their development and relationship to barrier island
processes were traced through time (1938--1979).
Cores were taken along seven north--south transects across the island
(Fig.2). The transects were chosen either in areas t h o u g h t to have been stable
for some time: Sunken Forest (S.F.), Water Island (W.I.), and Watch Hill
East (W.H.E.); or in areas historically d o c u m e n t e d as being former inlet sites:
Long Cove (L.C.) and Smith's Inlet (S.I.); or finally in areas known to have
experienced overwash between 1938 and 1962 as determined from post-storm
air photos: Robbin's Rest (R.R.) and Smith Point (S.P.) (Joneja, 1981). The
number of cores taken per transect was dependent upon island width at that
location. To attain greater depth and to avoid coring through the most recent
sediments, cores were taken in low areas in the backbarrier, while in the
dunes they were taken either in deflated areas or in pre-dug holes, usually
about 0.5 m deep. The cores varied in length from 1.4 to 3.0 m, this variability
was due to the nature o f the sediment at the coring site and the coring tech-
nique employed. The cores were taken by two methods: pile-driving
(Leatherman, 1979) and vibracoring (Lanesky et al., 1979). Each transect
was surveyed by transit and rod to determine elevations of the cores with
respect to each other. Benchmarks were not available so it was only possible
to estimate elevations relative to bay still mean water level.
 <~ / ?reatSouthBay " " 8~aPOrtco4~
~~--
Point I-.I. ' ~ T-Davis East e
L,ghthouse ~onotd0s Park

938
954
960
962
J
~elict Intet Ridges ~ -~'

t 2 3 456
__~__ i t i ~ I
kilometers

Fig. 2. Distribution of physiographic features and washovers resulting from four hurricanes along Fire Island, N.Y. (from Leatherman and
Ioneja, 1980; and Johnson, 1982). Coring transect lines are also indicated.
 177

The laboratory analysis of split cores followed standard techniques.

Organic materials recovered at depth were age dated by radiocarbon methods.
Sediment-size analysis by sieving was undertaken to characterize depositional
environments since texture is a function of source and mode of deposition.
Sediments deposited by various aeolian or hydraulic processes exhibit certain
grain-size characteristics which may be expressed as statistical parameters:
mean, standard deviation and skewness. While the source area plays the prin-
cipal role in determining the type and availability of material, the various
transport processes should produce characteristic grain-size distributions
which can be recognized in a statistical sense (Friedman, 1967).
Visher (1969) curves and a discriminant analysis program (Nie et al., 1970)
were used to differentiate sedimentary environments. Grain-size characteristics
established for six " k n o w n " environments (dune, washover, beach, shallow
inlet channel, spit, and tidal flat) were compared to grain-size characteristics
of Fire Island core samples from " u n k n o w n " environments (Joneja, 1981).

GEOMORPHIC ANALYSIS

Barrier physiography

Physiographic features can be used to provide an interpretation of barrier

dynamics. During the landward and lateral migration of barrier islands by
inlet and overwash processes, new morphological features are continually
being created as earlier ones are destroyed. Overwash generally results in a
loss of physiographic features as low areas are filled and high areas are planed
off (Leatherman et al., 1977). Therefore, washover deposits often result in
the formation of wide, gently landward-sloping barrier flats that can be
colonized by terrestrial vegetation, such as grasses and shrubs. Aeolian
reworking of unvegetated washovers prior to plant colonization can aid in
the development of barrier dunes. Inlets have a much more pronounced effect
on barrier physiography, and the presence of inlet-related features provides
good evidence of migration history (Fisher, 1967).
Three apparent geomorphic features in the study area indicate previous
inlet sites: (1) relict inlet ridges; (2) relict inlet channels; and (3) relict flood-
tidal deltas. Inlet ridges are recurved beach/dune ridges that form along the
updrift and/or downdrift sides of an inlet. If the inlet migrates, a sequence of
recurved ridges develop on the updrift side of the inlet while any downdrift
inlet ridges are eroded. However, not all previous inlet sites are associated
with inlet ridges. Recurved ridges never formed at certain (usually ephemeral)
inlet sites, or were covered by washover deposits, or removed by human
disturbance and development.
A large number of arcuate backdunes (associated with inlets) are found
along Fire Island, particularly west of Watch Hill (Fig.3). Recurved ridges
believed to be associated with relict inlets were found at Democrat Point,
just east of the abandoned Fire Island Inlet lighthouse, and from Point
O'Woods to Davis Park (Fig.2). Arcuate dune ridges were also mapped at
178

•x x "•• •L.'- .

Democrat Point

Sunken Forest

Fig.3. Patterns of arcuate backdunes along western Fire Island (from Johnson, 1982).

Watch Hill and Old Inlet (Fig.4), and between Old Inlet and Smith's Inlet
(Johnson, 1982).
Previous inlet locations are also indicated by relict inlet channel and flood-
tidal delta features. These physiographic features are present at Watch Hill,
Long Cove, west o f Bellport Beach to Old Inlet, Smith's Inlet, and Pattersquash
Island to Halletts Inlet (Fig.2).
Historical information on inlet dynamics along the barrier chain indicated
that relict flood tidal deltas (salt marsh islands) were associated with inlets
that remained open for approximately 60 years or longer. Ephemeral inlets,
such as m a n y of those created by the 1938 hurricane, did not result in promi-
nent, long-lasting physiographic features.
Inlets that remained open for a considerable length of time may also leave
discernable sedimentary records on the shoreface and inner shelf. Williams
(1976) mapped areas of fine-grained sediments off the southern coast of
Long Island. J o h n (1977) noted that fine-grained sediments were winnowed
out of the Cape Henlopen spit complex and were deposited in the ebb-tidal
delta. Fine sediments were found offshore of Moriches and Shinnecock Inlets
as well as the Old Inlet and Davis Park/Watch Hill/Long Cove areas, McKinney
and Friedman {1970) made a detailed offshore surficial sediment map for a
section o f Fire Island that showed fine sediments just seaward of the Sunken
Forest area (Fig.2).
Relict inlet features, combined with historical data, were used to determine
the percentage o f Fire Island that had been affected by inlet ac~vity. Based
on known historical inlet sites alone,: approximately 12 km or 2~% of the
study area once contained an inlet. If possible, but not proven, relict inlet
sites (e.g., large marshy areas, e b b tidal deltas) are included in the total, then
inlets may have existed along 85% of Fire Island.
 179

Fig.4. Old Inlet area illustrates the features typically associated with inlet formation. The
northeast--southwest indentation of the bay shoreline is an abandoned inlet channel rem-
nant, while the marsh protruding into the bay and marsh islands developed on the sandy
substrate of the flood tidal delta. The bluntly arcuate-shaped dune is a relict inlet ridge.

I n l e t - r e l a t e d m o r p h o l o g i c a l f e a t u r e s also result in t h e t o p o g r a p h i c a l condi-

t i o n s p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r f o r e s t d e v e l o p m e n t . In each o f the f o u r l o c a t i o n s on
Fire Island, c l i m a x f o r e s t v e g e t a t i o n is f o u n d o n a n d / o r b e h i n d relict inlet
d u n e ridges ( J o h n s o n , 1982). T h e s e d u n e ridges p r o v i d e t h e relief t o k e e p
t h e v e g e t a t i o n a b o v e the level o f b a y s i d e f l o o d i n g and serve as a p h y s i c a l
barrier b e t w e e n o c e a n i c o v e r w a s h surges and the forest. F o r e d u n e a n d / o r
s e c o n d a r y d u n e lines also p r o t e c t the forests f r o m b u r n i n g salt seaspray.
T h e S u n k e n F o r e s t is especially large a n d well d e v e l o p e d b e c a u s e it is built
o n a w h o l e s e q u e n c e o f relict inlet ridges s i t u a t e d b e h i n d a high s e c o n d a r y
d u n e . R a d i o c a r b o n d a t e s b y Sirkin ( 1 9 7 2 ) f o r the S u n k e n F o r e s t s e d i m e n t s
indicate d e p o s i t i o n a b o u t 250 +- 80 yrs B.P. (B.P. = 1 9 5 0 A.D.). Tree-ring
d a t e s suggest t h a t the c l i m a x f o r e s t ( A m e r i c a n holly, w h i t e sassafras and
s h a d b u s h , d o m i n a n t t r e e species; Art, 1 9 7 6 ) h a s b e e n t h e r e f o r a p p r o x i m a t e l y
1 7 0 years. T h u s , t h e c l i m a x f o r e s t d e v e l o p e d w i t h i n 8 0 - - 1 6 0 y e a r s o f the
postulated deposition of these sediments.
T h e forests at W a t c h Hill and S m i t h ' s I n l e t are m u c h smaller b e c a u s e t h e y
are built o n or b e h i n d individual relict inlet ridges w h i c h are u n p r o t e c t e d b y
180

other secondary dune lines. However, both locations have high foredune
lines, which provide some protection against overwash and salt spray.
The forests at Watch Hill and Smith's Inlet must have formed since the
closing of those inlets. Inlets present in the Watch Hill area probably closed
in the 1830's, and Smith's Inlet closed in 1834 (Leatherman and Joneja,
1980). Climax vegetation was established on the inlet sites within 150 years
after inlet closure.

Overwash sedimentation

Overwash was not recorded on maps in previous centuries, and is only

rarely done so today. Therefore, the distribution of washover deposits can
only be evaluated since the first (1938) good aerial photographs of Fire
Island. Four major storms (1938, 1954, 1960 and 1962) resulted in overwash
at various locations along Fire Island (Fig.2). During the interval of photo-
graphic record overwash was not observed between Water Island and Watch
Hill, nor between Long Cove and Old Inlet. The former stretch of island is
quite narrow (114 m near Water Island), while the latter is comparatively
wide (770 m) with high dunes. Long Cove, site of a former inlet, is the only
area to have experienced overwash during all four of the d o c u m e n t e d storms,
except for the western spit section.
There are presently no active inlets through Fire Island, but a number of
former inlet sites has been reported (Joneja, 1981; Fig.2). These inlet areas
remained susceptible to overwash for decades after closure. Overwash sedi-
mentation increased island elevation, and vegetative recovery was initiated by
barrier flat grasses. Aeolian reworking of the barren washover deposits aided
in closing the foredune breach and precluded most subsequent overwashes.
Shrubs eventually became established with protection from salt spray and
salt-water flooding.
Along Fire Island, overwash sediments rarely reach the bay, and little new
land has been added to the barrier bayshore during the past half century
(0.017 km ~ at one locality resulting from the 1938 hurricane). However, bay
areas may have become shallower where influenced by washover deposition.
Where washover deposits buried existing marshes, the vegetation usually
changed from marsh to barrier-flat vegetation. The backbarrier elevation was
raised above the intertidal range, and barrier flat grasses and shrubs colonized
the washover surface (Johnson, 1982). Therefore, overwash (even during the
1938 hurricane) has not been effective in building the Fire Island barrier
system landward. Instead, it has been a major process in increasing back-
barrier island elevation, often at the expense of salt marshes.

Inferences for barrier migration

Fire Island Inlet to S o u t h a m p t o n constitutes a shoreline segment along

the south shore of Long Island, New York (Fig, l). Geomorphic features
indicate that the eastern part of the barrier chain is more dynamic than the
 181

western section. Examination of inlet locations showed that 28 inlets have

occurred during the past 300 years, of which only five were cut through Fire
Island to Great South Bay (Fig.2). The destructive hurricane of September
21, 1938, opened five inlets into Moriches Bay, two through Westhampton
Beach, one into Quantuck Bay, and four into Shinnecock Bay, and the
H a m p t o n barrier beaches were severely overwashed. Part of this pattern may
be explained by the hurricane's track (and that of most hurricanes since
1815) which has passed over the barrier islands immediately west of Moriches
Inlet. Since a hurricane's strongest onshore winds are to the east of the storm
center, greatest damage should be expected around Westhampton Beach (be-
tween Moriches and Shinnecock Inlets, Fig.l). This climatic factor may con-
tribute to the more dynamic nature of the eastern section of the barrier is-
land chain.
The general trend of the barrier chain is straight and parallel to Long
Island's south shore. However, the section from Fire Island Inlet to the Old
Inlet area (Fig.2) bulges seaward. This seaward bulge corresponds with a lobe
of sediment on the shelf (Fig.5) and may be the remnant of a river delta
formed at the m o u t h of the ancient Huntington Channel (Williams, 1976).
The shelf sediment lobe is speculated to contribute sediment to the bulging
section of Fire Island because of the large increase in longshore sediment
transport westward along the barrier chain.
Panuzio (1969) estimated that 230,000 m 3 yr -1 (300,000 yd 3 yr -~) of
littoral drift pass by Shinnecock Inlet. The a m o u n t increases to 270,000 m 3
yr -1 (350,000 yd 3 yr -1) at Moriches Inlet, which is further to the west (down-
drift) but updrift of the sediment lobe. Downdrift of the "ancient delta" the
a m o u n t of net littoral drift increases dramatically to 460,000 m 3 yr -1
(600,000 yd 3 yr -~) at Fire Island Inlet. The exact transport mechanisms

Parabolic [I Dunes
Arcuate [ i Backdunes
I Parallel _~ ] Backdunes
[ Patchy Shrubs ~ Narrow Strip of Shrubs
,, Sandy Bayshore I ~ Marshy Bayshore
! Island Seaward Bulge _ 1 _ Straight Island Chain

Sediment

9 0 i t ~. o 5
k~

Fig.5. East--west changes in barrier island features (from Johnson, 1982).

182

responsible for moving the sediment landward and into the littoral system
are not known, but these large deltaic shoals are speculated to be the source
of nearshore sediment (McCormick and Toscano, 1981).
The seaward bulge is associated with east--west differences in barrier
island features (Fig.5; Johnson, 1982). Large expanses of bayside marsh are
found east of Watch Hill, where the barrier islands parallel the mainland and
bay fetch is small. West of Watch Hill the island's seaward bulge increases the
already large fetch (exceeding 20 km in some directions), thus either restrict-
ing bayside marsh formation and/or eroding former marshes. There has been
no historically documented inlet activity between Davis Park and Fire Island
Lighthouse, indicating that any prehistoric marshes have had ample time to
erode and no new inlet-related marshes have had the opportunity to form.
West of Watch Hill (Fig.2), shrubs grow in large patches and clumps. East
of Watch Hill, the shrubs are restricted to a narrow, relatively continuous
zone between the foredunes and the marshes (Fig.6; Johnson, 1982). This
line of shrubs along the island exhibits a "zig-zag" pattern, apparently follow-
ing the edges of relict washover. Shrub growth is dependent upon a ground
surface elevated above the tidal range, and the shrubline roughly follows the
3--4 ft c o n t o u r line.
Backdune patterns are also different east and west of the Davis Park/Watch
Hill area (Fig.2). West of Davis Park the topography is dominated by either
parallel or arcuate backdunes. From the Sunken Forest to Davis Park, large
parallel dune ridges are major physiographic features, whereas well developed
sequences of arcuate backdunes are present only at Democrat Point and in
the Sunken Forest area. These arcuate dunes formed patterns similar to
those created by a migrating inlet {Johnson, 1982). Further evidence for the
stability o f the western part of the south shore barriers is Fire Island's Sunken
Forest, a true maritime forest, which could only have developed under

Fig.6. Aerial photograph shows the shrub pattern in the Long Cove Area, 1973.
 183

conditions of prolonged protection from the environmental stresses of salt

spray and salt-water flooding.

STRATIGRAPHIC INTERPRETATION

Introduction

A principal means of defining depositional facies and interpretating sedi-

mentary layers as superimposed through time and space is stratigraphic
correlation. This technique has been widely used by geologists in the oil
industry to differentiate environments of deposition through geologic time
on the basis of deep drilling and coring. Kraft (1971) has applied these prin-
ciples to the study of modern (Holocene) sediments along the U.S. Atlantic
Coast. General lithologies (e.g., barrier sands vs. backbarrier fine-grained sedi-
ments) from the transgressive Delaware barriers were delineated from auger
data.
The purpose of this investigation was to determine the relative importance
of the three processes (inlet, overwash and aeolian) in sediment transport
and thereby evaluate their relative contribution to landward barrier migration.
Since predominantly sand-size particles are deposited by all three processes
and the deposits can be directly superimposed, differentiation between these
sandy facies can sometimes be quite difficult when detailed resolution is
required.
The sedimentary record revealed by cores was interpreted from visual des-
criptions, sediment-size analysis, and various dating techniques. Table I
indicates the criteria utilized to distinguish overwash, inlet and aeolian
deposits. Since no single characteristic was able to provide unquestionable
identification of a strata, a matrix of available evidence gave credence to a
particular interpretation. Complex sedimentary sequences, comprising a
variety of sediment colors and textures, displaying multiple internal struc-
tures (mainly horizontal layering), and often containing heavy minerals (of
which garnet was a major component), were generally interpreted as overwash
and/or aeolian sequences. By comparison, the inlet deposits were more
uniform in character although some complexity certainly existed.
Along the south shore of Long Island, the normal evolution for an inlet
after formation results in bi-directional displacement, both northward (land-
ward) and westward (downdrift). Inlet migration in two directions gives rise
to a suite of sedimentary deposits involving a variety of different inlet-related
environments: bay b o t t o m , deep to shallow inlet channel, flood-tidal deltas,
spit platform, and spit (Kumar and Sanders, 1974). Only the surficial inlet
deposits were encountered in this study due to core length limitations.
Overwash processes result in uni-directional movement of beach and shore-
face sediments (Leatherman et al., 1977). Variations in sedimentary struc-
tures and textures occurring within a washover deposit are related to two
factors: backbarrier topography and storm intensity. Initially, bayward
steeply dipping layers are deposited as delta foreset beds into ponded water
TABLE I

Identification of barrier depositional sequences, Fire Island, New York

Characteristic Overwash Inlet (upper unit) Aeolian

Color (not always Light brown, whitish, often with Light grey, often continuous Sugar white, orange-golden, some
diagnostic) heavy-mineral layers; sometimes color tone throughout sequence heavy minerals
heavy-mineral bands
Appearance Many distinct horizontal laminae Faint parallel-bedding to massive " B l o t c h y " to "swirled" with
in most cases (no bedding apparent) ;biotur- bedding to no apparent bedding
bation occurs where deposited with dune
grasses (often with woody frag-
ments)
Sand size Range of sizes -- fine to coarse Flood tidal delta generally fine- No shells or pebbles; generally
sand with some hydraulic lags; grained; occurrence of granules fine-grained sand with little
pebbles possible; shell fragments or pebbles; shell fragments; inter- textural change through sequence
occur bedded clays and silts;fining- except for occurrence of aeolian
upward sequence lag deposit
Dips of beds Horizontal to slightly bayward, Little detectable bedding, horiz., A n y direction- primarily NW--
except for fan t e r m i n u s - delta north or south dip possible SE due to prevailing wind direc-
foresets are steeply landward tions- small-scale cross-beds
dipping m a y be evident in core
Presence of organics Woody-grassy materials may be Occurrence of sponges, shells; few Woody--grassy layers tend to be
present in some layers plant materials; generally clean found throughout some sections
sandy sequence with gradual deposition
Nature of deposi- Episodic Continuous Intermittently continuous
tional process
 185

at the accreting edge of the fan terminus, which levels off as the washover
elevation increases. The sand size becomes coarser as the storm nears its peak,
then fines again as storm surge decreases (Leatherman and Williams, 1977).
Aeolian reworking can result in a truncated sequence, and successive storms
can result in vertically stacked washover deposits. Sequences of medium to
fairly thick, clean, and generally homogeneous sand units were therefore
interpreted as being indicative of overwash events. During spit growth, wash-
over deposits capped by aeolian material, comprise the bulk of the subaerial
sedimentary unit.
Sedimentary sequences from three transects have been chosen for discus-
sion: Robbin's Rest, Long Cove, and Watch Hill East (Fig.2). These transects
illustrate the range of historical activity (areas of former inlets, known over-
wash, or presumed stability) and geomorphic characteristics (narrow, duned
section to wide, marshy plain). Salt marsh peat was encountered along each
of these coring transects, permitting age dating by the radiocarbon method.

R o b b i n ' s R e s t transect

The Robbin's Rest (R.R.) transect was chosen in an area known to have
experienced overwash in 1938 and 1962 (Fig.2). The island is narrow at this
location with primary and secondary dunes having approximately 3.6 and
2.4 m of relief, respectively.
The four Robbin's Rest cores indicate a basal unit of inlet sediments
(Fig.7), although there are no known historic inlets. Assuming Taney's ( 1961)
rate of westward migration for Fire Island Inlet (64 m yr-1), Fire Island Inlet
should have existed in the Robbin's Rest area around 1770. A 1798 map by
Wheeler shows that Fire Island Inlet was complex at that time with a "Slew",
"Middle Channel", " S o u t h Channel" and " S o u t h Breakers", but Fire Island
Inlet cannot be located precisely from this map (Joneja, 1981).
Two radiocarbon dates were obtained for sediments found in core R.R.2:
an organic-rich marsh deposit at 0.9 m from ground surface was dated at less
than 200 yrs B.P. and an olive-black mud containing shell fragments at a
depth of 2.55 m from ground surface was dated at 1100 + 80 yrs B.P. This
basal unit is a lagoonal deposit, and a layer of medium sand containing heavy
minerals separates the two deposits. Neither of the organic-rich deposits has
a stratigraphic equivalent in cores R.R.1 or R.R.3, indicating much spatial
variation at this well-resolved scale.
Sand-size analysis was undertaken to aid in the determination of sedimen-
tary environments. The results show that the lower core samples belong to
environments related to the presence of an inlet: beach, spit, tidal flat, and
shallow inlet channel (Joneja, 1981). Stratigraphic sequences in several cores
from Robbin's Rest suggest that it was the site of one or several former inlets
before the occurrence of more recent ( ~ 2 0 0 yrs B.P.) overwash events.
 ._BBeach ,, . , O
/ ~Foredune
. ..~
Robbin s Rest F.
~
,..~eo,,an
/,, \ Over.ash
, \ fx, I Lagoona,
/ " : " \ / "~ Secondary ~ inlet
,.
/ • " .: ' \ / \ Dune i Peat
,' -- \ I ~ i Marsh
J
. . . . + • r ", ,I I ~ Bays de Beach
." : ....., -~. I ......

~l~lre
.......... : ............... :::!:i!i~?ili~i!i~!!ill
i i i i i!iiiiiii!iiiii!i i i i !i1!iliiiii!iiiiiiiiiliii~!!i!iiiiiilli !i i ! i ! i!i!i!i!~ ~!~ii Burma
.............. ~ii~)~i!)!)!i!
ii~il)i)ii)i~iO!i!ii/!)~!i
~~i))i!)iii!)iiii!i!iYiY
i~i~! Rd
. . . . . . . . . . .
i:;Si~;?;:~..~ ======================================================== Coje C0re
t0 20 30 40 50 ,::. ~'n'::.~" '~n' ' ~ 'o~ ~: : : ~ " ~ 4
..::~ ~-~: ,o~, . - : ~ v - ' ~ # & : : : : : : i ~ . : ~ ! . : . : .
Dlst~.nSe a(oqg t h ~ r s ) . . .t . .......
. 240

C "4 ! ~oo. 80

~ig.7. Stratigraphic cross-section at Robbin's Rest indicates that the barrier platform is comprised of inlet sediments overlain by overwash
[eposits tapering off landward and capped along the seaward edge with two well-developed barrier dunes.
 187

Long Cove transect

Historical reports and characteristic geomorphic features (salt marsh islands

and northeast--southwest bayshore indentation) indicate that Long Cove is
the site of at least one former inlet. Cores taken along this transect corro-
borate this evidence; they contain stratigraphic sequences believed to have
been deposited by overwash processes interlayered with salt marsh peats
which in turn overlie basal lagoonal clays and sandy inlet deposits (Fig.8).
Although the Long Cove area has experienced overwash during all four of
the major storms of photographic record, two contiguous dune ridges
presently separate a wide expanse of low backbarrier flats and marsh from
the ocean beach. These dunes were not sufficiently developed to prevent
overwash along the seaward p o r t i o n of the Long Cove transect until recent
times. Dunes are presently large and quite high, approaching 8 m above MSL.
F o u r radiocarbon dates were obtained for the Long Cove transect. A peat
layer from core L.C.1 at 2.65 m from ground surface was dated at 410 +
90 yrs B.P. The salt marsh material indicates that possible later inlets (1770
and 1827) were not located precisely along the coring transect, if indeed
t h e y actually existed. A single peat bed at 1.00 m dept h in core 2 was radio-
carbon dated at 180 + 60 yrs B.P. ; this salt marsh was bot h established on a
washover deposit and then buried by a subsequent event.
Core L.C.3 contained a 1.13 m deep peat dated at 350 + 70 yrs B.P., and a
1.95 m deep lagoonal deposit dated at 1350 + 90 yrs B.P. At this site on Fire
Island, 0.8 m o f sediment was deposited between approximately 1350 and
350 yrs B.P., a period of about 1000 years, while 1.06 m of sediment accu-
mulated over the past 350 years. This occurrence demonstrates the sporadic
nature o f barrier island sedimentation.
The sedimentary sequence in core 3 clearly shows two peat deposits inter-
layered with washover sands, which rest on a lagoonal base. Therefore, it
appears th at a major overwash event resulted in direct sedimentation into the
bay (previous inlet channel), which formed the substrate for marsh coloniza-
tion. This is one of the few cases where peats do not lie directly on inlet
deposits. The barrier is very narrow at this location due to the position of
the relict inlet channel, which is being in-filled with washover sands and salt
marsh deposits with barrier transgression and sea-level rise.
It was n o t possible to assign any given units to specific events k n o w n from
the historic record. However, the c o m p l e x i t y of the stratigraphic sequences
overlying the peat layers attests to the dynamic nature of the past 420 years.
No typical inlet sequence was found to confirm the occurrence of the hypo-
thetical 1770 or 1827 inlet ( L e a t h e r m a n and Joneja, 1980), and it is clear
t h at no inlet existed at the transect location during this time period.
K n o w n overwash events were not defined by distinctive sedimentary units.
These sandy materials are likely to have been in part lost to erosion by wind
deflation, particularly in an area such as Long Cove where overwash was
f r e q u e n t enough to preclude long periods of stability.
 ~O
.ong Cove )0
~ Aeolian

~ Overwash

~econdary .agoonal
5~ Primary Dune nlet
::~
I"~ D U~ ~eat

.::.!:.::~

ore
8
lore

):-~:~i,.-...~..~2 ,: gore
•.....,,......................, ~ . ~ , ~ : = , : Burma Rd
:.:.:.:,:.:-:,:.:.:*:-:*:-:-:,
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: !:~:i:!:!::~:!:i:i:i:~:?:i:[:i:i:i:!:[:?:i:?;i:i:[:!:!:!:i:i:!:i:i:!~::~i~: Core
iiii!i!ii!iii!iii!ii!!~i!i!i!! i~iii!i~i~iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii!!iiii~!iii!]ili~ili~iii~ili~i~ii Core
i , |
'::::::::'::':':':':': ~..... ".................. ~ ~ : .~-'.~cr- - 80 190 200t

14 : 4?0 ~90 x ~ C14= 500 t 60

Distance along transect (meters) c ~ : ~80 ~60 - ' ~ :~4:350 ~ ?0

~ C 1 4 = 1350~ 90

7ig.8. T h e L o n g Cove stratigraphic s e q u e n c e i n d i c a t e s t h a t overwash has welded t h e barrier core to a previous m a r s h island (relict inlet
]ood tidal delta) a p p r o x i m a t e l y 200 yrs B.P. More r e c e n t l y , extensive salt m a r s h e s have b e c o m e e s t a b l i s h e d on t h e o v e r w a s h s u b s t r a t e
md c o n t i n u e d to b u i l t u p w a r d w i t h sea-level rise. Also, very high relief d u n e s have d e v e l o p e d at this low p o i n t ( t h r o a t area) o f an old inlet,
)ossibly with t h e e n c o u r a g e m e n t of s n o w fencing.
 189

Watch Hill East

The Watch Hill East (W.H.E.) transect is located in a very wide part of
Fire Island (approximately 770 m) and characterized by a high primary dune
ridge, c o m m o n l y 9 m above MSL (Fig.9). This region has not experienced
overwash during the period of photographic record (Fig.2). The geomorphic
features of the island in this area do not exhibit characteristics indicative of
f o r m e r inlet activity. The stratigraphic section clearly shows a basal inlet
deposit. Massive washover deposits have been emplaced on this inlet basal
unit, and a salt marsh has more recently developed along the intertidal bay-
ward barrier fringe.
Two organic layers were radiometrically analysed. In core W.H.E.4 a peat
at 1.10 m depth was dated at 410 + 60 yrs B.P. In core W.H.E.6, a dark m ud
believed to be a lagoonal deposit at 1.5 m dept h was deposited 1140 + 70 yrs
B.P. The age o f the peat is similar to t hat obtained for the peat layers in the
Long Cove transects. However, the layer was n o t e n c o u n t e r e d in any other
W.H.E. cores and may t her e f or e merely represent an isolated marsh developed
in a f o r mer low-lying area. Similarly, the age obtained for the lagoonal
deposit in this transect (1140 + 70 yrs B.P.) is almost the same as that of the
lagoonal deposit e n c o u n t e r e d in core R.R.2 from the Robbin's Rest transect
{1180 + 80 yrs B.P.) at a greater depth, but also in a m ore shoreward (south-
ward) position. Both of these units are slightly younger than the lagoonal
deposit f r o m core L.C.3 (1350 ± 90 yrs B.P.) at a dept h of 1.95 m.
A coarse sand unit can be followed through the lower sections of cores
W.H.E.2 to mid-section of core W.H.E.4 (Fig.9), and this material is believed
to have been deposited by overwash processes. The sequence of horizontally
stratified sands is characteristic of a typical overwash deposit (Fig.10). One
o t h e r overwash event is recognized in cores W.H.E.1 and W.H.E.2 (at 2 and
0.75 m depth, respectively), where shell fragments were found in medium
brown sand units. This washover deposit did n o t ext end far enough to reach
t h e area where core W.H.E.3 was taken.
Heavy minerals were conspicuously absent, and there was also surprisingly
little organic m a t t e r present (when com pa red to other transects). This is an
u n e x p e c t e d finding for an area which appeared to have been p r o t e c t e d by
high dunes and stable (at least during the period of photographic record).

DISCUSSION

Three mechanisms are responsible for landward barrier migration -- aeolian

transport, overwash processes, and inlet dynamics. Aeolian transport is n o t a
major f acto r in landward migration of Fire Island, New York because the
prevailing winds blow offshore. However, aeolian transport aids in barrier
accretion through dune construction.
Overwash plays an i m p o r t a n t role in building the barriers upward, but this
process has c o n t r i b u t e d little to actual landward migration. Most of the wash-
over deposits m apped from the f our individual storm events, including the
 ~ x ~ °redune Watch Hill East ~ A=~a~
O
6 Secondary Dune [ ] o..... h
Inlet
Peat

4 I

:':"~:-:-:"A~-:.:.:.:-:~ ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: .~ r
1:¸ . Core

~ : : : : : ~ 4 5 Core
0 - 20
i!Ii:::!2ooi:i:i:i:i:i:2 ~ 0 i : ! : i : i : ! 2 ~ ...........................

Fig.9. Stratigraphic cross-section at Watch Hill East is quite similar to that e n c o u n t e r e d at R o b b i n ' s Rest (see Fig. 7). The basal inlet deposits
are overlain by overwash sands and capped with dunes along the seaward edge. Salt marsh peat d e p o s i t s are quite thin and are probably
less than 2 0 0 years old.
 191

Fig.10. The 2 m core No. 4 taken at Watch Hill East graphically illustrates the pattern of
deposition. The basal unit is inlet sediments upon which a salt marsh developed over 400
years ago, which was killed and buried by an overwash event. Note the horizontal stratifi-
cation characteristic of overwash sands. The surface unit is a salt marsh which has more
recently colonized the washover surface.

1 9 3 8 hurricane, did n o t reach the bay. A t only o n e locality was new land
( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0.017 k m 2) a d d e d o n t o the barrier bayside ( J o h n s o n , 1982}.
Where marshes were buried by w a s h o v e r deposits, raising the g r o u n d elevation
a b o v e the tidal range, barrier-flat v e g e t a t i o n {shrubs and d u n e grasses} recolon-
ized t h e area. T h e result was a net l a n d w a r d m o v e m e n t o f the barrier-flat
v e g e t a t i o n , while t h e b a y s h o r e r e m a i n e d stable or eroded.
I n l e t d y n a m i c s are largely responsible for l a n d w a r d m i g r a t i o n along this
barrier chain. A s t u d y o f historical maps, charts and p h o t o s s h o w e d t h a t the
barriers are w i d e n e d at inlet sites (Joneja, 1981). G e o m o r p h i c evidence also
shows t h a t the m a r s h islands in the b a y and m o s t o f the b a y s h o r e marshes
f o r m e d a b o v e flood-tidal d e l t a sediments.
A p p r o x i m a t e l y 85% o f Fire Island can be associated with inlet activity.
This estimate includes b o t h areas k n o w n t o have been inlet sites historically
192

(e.g., Old and Smith's lnlets), and those inferred to have been former inlet
sites on the basis of core analysis and geomorphic features. Based on physio-
graphic features and historical evidence, Fisher (1967) showed that over 35%
of the Outer Banks of North Carolina had been affected by inlets. These U.S.
southeast microtidal barrier islands have been subject to much overwash
activity in recent times, which tends to obliterate relict geomorphic features,
so that the total percentage of barrier affected would be found to be much
higher if stratigraphic analyses were undertaken.
It was initially envisioned that specific events recorded in sedimentary
sequences could be distinguished, and barrier migration rates could be deter-
mined by obtaining dates for selected sedimentary units. Lack of sufficient
datable material in the cores limited the application of this strategy. How-
ever, radiocarbon dates did provide critical information on migrational rates
where encountered (Robbin's Rest, Long Cove and Watch Hill East; Fig.2).
Lagoonal deposits were dated at greater than 1000 yrs B.P. at relatively
shallow depths (1.5--2.5 m below ground surface); these data indicate a slow
rate of migration for at least these sections of Fire Island. This was particularly
well illustrated by Watch Hill East Core No. 6, taken on the island's bayshore.
A bay-bottom mud encountered at 1.5 m depth was dated at 1140-+ 70 yrs
B.P. The depth of Great South Bay ranges from 1.2 to 3 m, therefore, essen-
tially no landward island migration had taken place in this section of Fire
Island over the past 1000 years.
If Fire Island is indeed migrating landward relatively slowly, the effects of
sea-level rise (erosion and submergence) should be readily observable. Quan-
titative measurement of historical shoreline change (1830s--1979) confirms
that both shorelines (ocean and bay) are characterized by a recessional trend
(Leatherman, 1983). Wave activity in Great South Bay is causing marsh
scarping, followed by submergence of the gently sloping barrier flats. At the
Sunken Forest (Fig.2), tree stumps observed 10 m offshore in the bay provide
evidence for drowning of the forest by submergence of the backbarrier
environment. The 200 year old age of some trees reported by Sirkin (1972)
indicates that the Sunken Forest area must have been stable and protected
for at least that length of time.
A rough time line could be drawn through stratigraphically equivalent
peats in the Long Cove transect (Cores 2, 3 and 4; Fig.8). Radiometric analy-
sis of peat deposits showed a general older to younger trend from bay to
ocean, which could be interpreted as a submergence sequence. If the barrier
were experiencing little or no landward migration, then sea-level rise would
result in rapid submergence of backbarrier flats. Therefore, the salt marsh
would be displaced seaward, accounting f o r younger peat dates being found
toward the barrier center. Jarrett (1982), using C&GS maps, documented
and quantified this occurrence along the Outer Banks of North Carolina. The
stratigraphic information indicated that over at least the past 1000 years,
western Fire Island has not experienced landward barrier migration in a con-
tinuous fashion. Displacement has been a sporadic and site-specific phenom-
enon.
 193

Physiographic features and associated vegetative communities clearly

indicate east--west differences in barrier behavior along this chain. The barrier
sections are being affected differently due to sediment sources and bay
characteristics. It appears that as the deltaic inner-shelf shoals began supply-
ing additional sediment to the littoral drift system, the island section west of
Old Inlet/Smith's Inlet started to migrate more slowly than the barriers fur-
ther to the east. Hurricanes also tend to cross over the eastern barriers (espe-
cially around Moriches Bay) so that they are subject to much more severe
storm damage. As a result, more inlets (which are chiefly responsible for
landward migration) have historically formed across the eastern half of this
barrier section. Therefore, the eastern barriers have migrated landward more
rapidly than western Fire Island.

CONCLUSIONS

This geomorphic and stratigraphic analysis of Fire Island, New York, has
led to the following conclusions:
(1) There are marked east--west differences in physiographic and vegetative
features along this barrier chain. These differences appear to be related to
relative barrier stability and hence to the rate of landward barrier migration.
(2) Overwash events along Fire Island seldom result in sediment transport
as far as the island's bayshore. Thus, washover deposits appear to contribute
primarily to island migration by increasing the barrier's elevation in associa-
tion with dune-building processes.
(3) Inlet processes are principally responsible for providing sediment to
Fire Island's bayshore, causing a widening of the island at former inlet loca-
tions and thereby promoting landward barrier migration. Historical records
and relict inlet features indicate that as much as 85% of the area has been
affected by inlet activity.
(4) Western Fire Island has experienced shoreface erosion and bayshore
erosion and submergence over the past 1000 years. Landward migration of
the island during this period appears to have been a very slow and sporadic
phenomenon, occurring in a q u a n t u m fashion at inlet sites.
(5) The eastern section of the barrier chain appears to have been more
dynamic -rid to have experienced a more rapid rate of migration than western
Fire Island, resulting in a seaward bulge of the stretch of island between
Democrat Point and Long Cove.
(6) The trend of long-term landward barrier migration, c o m m o n to other
U.S. East Coast barriers due to eustatic sea-level rise, is applicable to Long
Island's south shore barriers.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research was supported by contract from the National Park Service,
Boston, Mass. Much of the data presented here was derived from two unpub-
lished masters theses in geology by Ms. Danielle Joneja and Ms. Cheryl
194

Johnson, University of Massachusetts-Amherst, under the direction of the

a u t h o r . C r i t i c a l r e v i e w s o f t h i s m a n u s c r i p t b y D r . J a m e s A l l e n a n d Dr. G e o r g e
F. O e r t e l a r e g r a t e f u l l y a c k n o w l e d g e d .

REFERENCES

Art, H.W., 1976. Ecological studies of the Sunken Forest, Fire Island National Seashore,
New York. National Park Service Scientific Monograph No. 7, 237 pp.
Fisher, J.J., 1967. Development pattern of relict beach ridges, Outer Banks barrier chain.
North Carolina. Ph.D. Diss., University of North Carolina, 250 pp.
Friedman, G.M., 1967. Dynamic processes and statistical parameters compared for size-
frequency distributions of beach and river sands. J. Sediment. Petrol., 37: 327--354.
Jarrett, J.T., 1982. Changes in Hatteras Island, North Carolina, since the mid-19th century.
Shore Beach, 50: 4--10.
John, C.J., 1977. Internal sedimentary structures, vertical stratigraphic sequences, and
grain size parameter variations in a transgressive coastal barrier complex: the Atlantic
Coast of Delaware. Ph.D. Diss., University of Delaware, Newark, Del., 287 pp.
Johnson, C.E., 1982. Historic and geomorphic evidence of barrier dynamics and the origin
of the Sunken Forest, south shore of Long Island, New York. M.S. Thesis, University
of Massachusetts, Amherst, Mass., 190 pp.
Joneja, D.C., 1981. Sedimentary dynamics of Fire Island, New York. M.S. Thesis, Univer-
sity of Massachusetts, Amherst, Mass., 174 pp.
Kraft, J.C., 1971. Sedimentary facies patterns and geologic history of a Holocene marine
transgression. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 82: 2131--2158.
Kumar, N. and Sanders, J.E., 1974. Inlet sequence: a vertical succession of sedimentary
structures and textures created by the lateral migration of tidal inlets. Sedimentology,
21: 491--532.
Lanesky, D.E., Logan, B.W., Brown, R.G. and Hine, A.C., 1979. A new approach to
portable vibracoring under water and on land. J. Sediment. Petrol., 49: 654--657.
Leatherman, S.P., 1979. Barrier Dynamics: Nauset Spit, Massachusetts. In: S.P. Leatherman
(Editor), Environmental Geologic Guide to Cape Cod National Seashore. SEPM-ES
publ., pp.155--169.
Leatherman, S.P., 1983. Barrier dynamics and landward migration with Holocene sea-level
rise. Nature, 301: 415--417.
Leatherman, S.P. and Joneja, D.C., 1980. Geomorphic analysis of south shore barriers,
Long Island, New York, phase I. National Park Service Cooperative Research Unit,
University of Massachusetts at Amherst, Amherst, Mass., 163 pp.
Leatherman, S.P. and Williams, A.T., 1977. Lateral textural grading in overwash sedi-
ments. Earth Surface Proc., 2: 333--341.
Leatherman, S.P., Williams, A.T. and Fisher, J.S., 1977. Overwash sedimentation asso-
ciated with a large-scale northeaster. Mar. Geol., 24: 109--121.
McCormick, C.L. and Toscano, M.A., 1981. Origin of the barrier island system of Long
Island, N.Y. Northeast. Geol., 3: 230--234.
McCormick, J. and Associates, Inc., 1975. Environmental inventory of the Fire Island
National Seashore and the William Floyd Estate, Suffolk County, New York. National
Park Service, Denver Service Center, Denver, Colo., 461 pp.
McKinney, T.F. and Friedman, G.M., 1970. Continental shelf sediments of Long Island,
New York. J. Sediment. Petrol., 40: 213--248.
Nie, N., Hull, C.H., Jennings, J.G., Steinbrenner, K. and Bent, D.E., 1970. Statistical
Package for the Social Sciences. McGraw-Hill, New York, N.Y., 2nd ed., 467 pp.
Panuzio, F.L., 1969. The Atlantic Coast of Long Island. Proc. 1 l t h Conference on Coastal
Engineering, ASCE, pp. 1222--1241.
Sirkin, L.A., 1972. Origin and history of maple bog in the Sunken Forest, Fire Island,
New York. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, 99: 131--135.
 195

Taney, N.E., 1961. Geomorphology of the south shore of Long Island, New York. Tech.
Mem. No. 128, Beach Erosion Board, Corps of Engineers, 50 pp.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1977. Final environmental impact statement for Fire
Island Inlet to Montauk Point, New York, Beach Erosion Control and Hurricane
Protection Project. New York District, various numbered pages.
Visher, G.S., 1969. Grain size distributions and depositional processes. J. Sediment.
Petrol., 39: 1074--1106.
Williams, S.J., 1976. Geomorphology, shallow subbottom structure, and sediments of the
Atlantic inner continental shelf off Long Island, New York. Tech. Pap. No. 76-2, U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center, 123 pp.