SEMINARY WORK

Subject: Visual culture of the middle Ages

a course: Visual culture of the Mediterranean in late antiquity and the
middle Ages
The theme: Hellenism and Islam

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 Hellenism and Islam

After Alexander came to power in 336, he created a vast kingdom that expanded the enormous
influence of Greece in the world. The consequence of the rivalry after Alexander's death in 323
BC was divided into 3 separate kingdoms: Ptolemaic, Seleucid and Macedonian - each of which
had powerful cities with diverse societies. In this way, the spread of Hellenistic domination meant
the imposition of the influence of Greek culture on a vast territory. However, they also embraced
the strong traditional cultures of the natives in order to create a rich and diverse society together.
Academies appeared in the cultural centers of the Hellenistic world, which encouraged passionate
discussions on a wide range of topics. Among other things, research on art, literature and
architecture was launched, from which the canons of Greek influence developed. The ancient
Greeks were the first known people to practice analytical thinking, and to face philosophical
questions that are still open today. The dualism of the world and the human place in that world
became a permanent theme of their art. The devastating wars fought for more than seven
centuries have incessantly shaped Greek culture and art. Travel and trade were common, with an
extensive network of roads throughout Asia Minor and the Mediterranean. Exchanges and
conquests brought new influences that Greek artists admired and absorbed, and Greek culture
also influenced the cultures of distant lands. The devastating wars fought for more than seven
centuries have incessantly shaped Greek culture and art. Travel and trade were common, with an
extensive network of roads throughout Asia Minor and the Mediterranean. Exchanges and
conquests brought new influences that Greek artists admired and absorbed, and Greek culture
also influenced the cultures of distant lands. The devastating wars fought for more than seven
centuries have incessantly shaped Greek culture and art. Travel and trade were common, with an
extensive network of roads throughout Asia Minor and the Mediterranean. Exchanges and
conquests brought new influences that Greek artists admired and absorbed, and Greek culture
also influenced the cultures of distant lands.

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 “Hellenistic culture imposed in the territories still conquered by Alexander is only
superficial and limited by the urban population. Rural population remained aware of cultural and
racial differences in relation to the conquerors "says Philip Heath in his work" History of the
Arabs ", from which we conclude that Hellenism in addition to territorial conquest of the East had
an impact in shaping culture and cultural expression of the people in the East. It is obvious that
the high culture of Greek rhetoric, philosophy and law has influenced the centers of big cities,
just as high culture usually appears in society. But the use of Greek as a language, although
damaged by certain local dialects, as well as the adaptation of Greek myths, gods and images for
local purposes, were an integral part of rural paganism throughout the Middle East. The delusion
of Hellenism as an urban phenomenon, it is based on the failure to investigate the ambiguity of
the word "Hellenismos", its designation of "paganism" in general, which is confirmed by the rural
places where it spread and remained in the form of local cults. The Greek Pantheon strengthened
rural paganism, serving as a paradigm and representing a vague and unknown deity, in a
universally recognizable form of Greek mythology.

The Islamic religion, whose number of members undoubtedly did not decline in the 7th
century, does not belong to the pagan religion that does not rely on oral tradition, but belongs to
the religion of the scriptures. In addition to the written doctrine, which is classified as the religion
of the text, this religion, as well as Christianity and Judaism, differs from pagan religions in that
its members believe in one God. Their monotheism differs from the beliefs of ancient peoples in
the Pantheon of Greek 360 gods.

Islam is the youngest religion among the world's major religions, ranking second in the
world in terms of membership (1.3 billion), but majestically number one in terms of speed of
spread. Expansion to the east took place very quickly - from 711, members of this religion
already had it under their rule part of Central Asia, and reached the northern borders of India.

Islam, which in Arabic means "obedience to God's will", is based on faith in one God (Allah, who
represents God in the Arab world) and Muhammad, as the chosen believer, as the last and final
Prophet.

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However, the general agreement of historians seems to be that Muslim troops were able to
achieve such success soon after the Prophet's death, and partly because Hellenization in the
Middle East was essentially superficial. The rapid spread of the new faith led to military
conquests during which, within barely a hundred years, the Arabs managed to occupy already
existing advanced civilizations. One hundred years after the Prophet's death, the Battle of Poitiers
in 732 took place on the southern French borders, stopping the Muslim incursion into Europe.

Muslims, as well as Christians and Jews, link the origin of their religious tradition to one true
god. These religions are "Abrahamic", monotheistic, which points to their common roots.
Members of these religions believe in one god and believe that Abraham (Ibrahim or Abraham) is
their common ancestor. He is one of the central figures of Islam and Judaism, and also enjoys
great respect among Christians.

Abraham, in the Qur'an, is important to Muslims because he is also a prophet, like

Muhammad. His name is associated with the Kaaba, the Holy Place of all Muslims (they pray in
the direction of the Kaaba in Mecca, which is believed to be descended from Ibrahim and Ismail,
his son). The Qur'an correctly says that Ibrahim was neither a Jew nor a Christian, but is
mentioned together with Adam, Moses and Jesus as one of the believers. He is important to Islam
not only as a prophet, but also as the father of Ismail, the eldest son. According to Muslim
sources, Ibrahim's message was the same as Muhammad's, but in time it was corrupted by the
Jews. Many stories about Ibrahim in the Islamic tradition come from sources other than the
Qur'an, where some parallels can be seen with the life of Moses. Ibrahim, as the founder of the
Kaaba, occupies a very important place in one of the five pillars of Islam (e.g. the Hajj pilgrimage
to Mecca). The second pillar of Islam is the Salat prayer, which is performed five times a day and
includes parts related to the blessing of Ibrahim. In Islam, followers, as in Judaism and
Christianity, believe that Abraham opposed his father's idols and destroyed them. He thus became
a monotheist and called on his community to believe in one god instead of idols. Hence the belief
in one god, which makes these religions monotheistic, as well as because of the role and
importance that Abraham has in their holy books and beliefs - the so-called. Abrahamic religions.
They believe in one god. Hence the belief in one god, which makes these religions monotheistic,
as well as because of the role and importance that Abraham has in their holy books and beliefs -
the so-called. Abrahamic religions. They believe in one god. Hence the belief in one god, which
makes these religions monotheistic, as well as because of the role and importance that Abraham
has in their holy books and beliefs - the so-called. Abrahamic religions.

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 Muhammad created a state in which the roles of secular ruler and religious leader were
united in one person. After his death in 632, the first disagreements over the determination of a
full-fledged heir began. Dissatisfaction with the gradual domination of the political dimension, in
relation to the religious one, and the struggle over inheritance were the main causes of divisions
in Islam. The Sunni majority believed that Muhammad had not appointed a successor, while the
Shiite minority believed that Muhammad had appointed Ali, his cousin, as the one to succeed
him. According to the Sunni view, the Caliph was to be the political leader of the community,
without pretensions to take the place of the Prophet, while the Shiites believed that the leadership
of the Islamic community should remain in the Prophet's house, and his descendants should be
religious and political leaders, Imams. Communities. The Islamic community was organized as a
caliphate state. The task of each Caliph was to defend and spread the faith and ensure that society
was governed by the law of God. The caliphs considered their mission to be jihad or active
struggle against evil and spreading Muhammad's message of monotheism and justice. At a time
when barbaric Europe was at an extremely low level of development, a new driver of world
development was born, Islamic civilization. With the territorial expansion of the Caliphate,
different peoples were included in it, which led to the synthesis of culture, art and science. At a
time when barbaric Europe was at an extremely low level of development, a new driver of world
development was born, Islamic civilization. With the territorial expansion of the Caliphate,
different peoples were included in it, which led to the synthesis of culture, art and science. At a
time when barbaric Europe was at an extremely low level of development, a new driver of world
development was born, Islamic civilization. With the territorial expansion of the Caliphate,
different peoples were included in it, which led to the synthesis of culture, art and science.

They took their art from already established cultures - especially Byzantine in the west
and Sassanid in the east, as well as Hellenism, which was already rooted in those areas.
Recognizable, original and individual artistic language soon emerged from such permeation. As
the Islamic artist is primarily a believer, it would be wrong to analyze his means of expression
exclusively within the framework of aesthetics. Man is a servant of God, so he must avoid a
perfect depiction of nature, instead only pointing to its fragmentary interpretation. Nevertheless, it
is not uncommon for several perspectives to appear in a miniature, so it seems incorrect,
indicating the incompleteness of the work or the possibility of only a partial presentation.

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Particularly significant is the contribution of the Persians, whose culture, art, literature and
philosophy were at a high stage of civilizational development. Collection and translation of Greek
manuscripts was organized.

Because the Qur'an, the Muslim holy book, was written in Arabic, and its name means "the word
of God," the importance of the Arabic script was great in both art and literature. The first printed
Koran appeared only in 1787 in St. Petersburg. Religion, in the everyday life of Muslims, has
such a big role that it is more often expressed in writing than in art, because it is forbidden in
public expression - which the true iconography of the Muslim world is highly decorative
calligraphy. Different types of letters have evolved over the centuries.

As for calligraphy, the fundamental importance attached to Arabic (the language of the Qur'an) is
recognized in the careful study and development of various types of scripts - from italics to Kufic
- and calligraphy used in the first manuscripts of the Qur'an.

Hellenism played an irrevocable role in helping the Arabs discover the meaning of their own
national identity.

Arab paganism, which connected different tribes, with the widespread use of the Arabic language,
visibly facilitated mutual communication. One of the most widespread and authentic forms of
Muslim art is calligraphic Arabic script. One of the characteristics of Islamic art is the absence of
sculpture and figurative art in general. Arabic advanced in the areas in which it was represented
even before Muhammad, while Greek took over the role of the language of Muslim bureaucrats,
where the standard language was used before it.

Papairus, a found document from the small town of Nessan in the Negev desert, is a major
indicator of Greek representation in Umayyad art. A document found in this area from 685 is one
of the last preserved documents of the Greek letter from Nessan. Some other written documents
were found, specifically reconstructed as entagia, and represent bilingual letters in Greek and
Arabic. However, no document that has been preserved is exclusively in Arabic, except for
certain parts that are exclusively recorded in Arabic script. Such exceptions are personal names.
Accounting procedures and terminology are mostly preserved in Greek.

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 The Qur'an itself informs us that Muhammad had a negative attitude towards idols, from
which it follows that the use of the figure, a pictorial representation of religious ideas, was the
greatest sacrilege. The art that was created in the inspiration of Islam is basically decorative art.
The Islamic religion in art has no reason to represent human figures, because Muslims believe
that God is one and without helpers. The intertwined decorative patterns of early Islamic art are
an obvious response to the Prophet's prohibitions. It is a deliberate rejection of the Greek past in
the form of monotheistic principles. With a strong reaction against the Hellenized
anthropomorphism of the Arab pagans, Muslims express their aspiration towards the ideals that
represent the works of the Prophet, and not his personality. And in that way, the Hellenic heritage
was gradually adopted.

Among the earliest architectural achievements of Muslim conquerors who settled in

Palestine and Syria, it was a series of buildings known as "desert traps". These were fortified
military camps, palaces, hunting pavilions, citadels and workshops, which were deployed in the
vast area now occupied by the desert that stretches through Syria, Jordan and Palestine. From the
end of the Umayyad period, around 750, the new buildings show the way in which the late
antique models of Byzantine buildings were adapted to the changing needs and requirements of
Islamic society. A striking example is the pavilion with a bathroom in the palace of Kus al Amra
(724-743) in the Jordanian desert. The building has 3 domes, arched halls, wide and spacious,
although the outside looks compact. The interior consists of a large reception room with an apse
in which the caliph sat, and on each side there was an alcove (a compartment intended for
sleeping which does not receive direct light, but from other rooms, through glass doors and
windows, i.e., a recess in the room with the bed). The decorations on the walls are paintings made
in tempera (fresco technique was unknown at the time), and they show the ruler's coronation
(along with 6 great ancient princes), hunting scenes, bathing in baths, acrobats and dancers. It is a
Byzantine provincial style with some Coptic features. The bathroom is entered through a small
room covered with a dome, decorated with pictures of the night sky. The importance of this
pavilion is in the variety and rarity of its decoration, because, once the art theory is codified,
Islamic wall paintings will become extremely rare. But from other rooms, through glass doors
and windows, i.e., recess in the room with the bed). The decorations on the walls are paintings
made in tempera (fresco technique was unknown at the time), and they show the ruler's
coronation (along with 6 great ancient princes), hunting scenes, bathing in baths, acrobats and
dancers. It is a Byzantine provincial style with some Coptic features. The bathroom is entered
through a small room covered with a dome, decorated with pictures of the night sky. The
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importance of this pavilion is in the variety and rarity of its decoration, because, once the art
theory is codified, Islamic wall paintings will become extremely rare. But from other rooms,
through glass doors and windows, i.e., recess in the room with the bed). The decorations on the
walls are paintings made in tempera (fresco technique was unknown at the time), and they show
the ruler's coronation (along with 6 great ancient princes), hunting scenes, bathing in baths,
acrobats and dancers. It is a Byzantine provincial style with some Coptic features. The bathroom
is entered through a small room covered with a dome, decorated with pictures of the night sky.
The importance of this pavilion is in the variety and rarity of its decoration, because, once the art
theory is codified, Islamic wall paintings will become extremely rare. And they show the
coronation of the ruler (along with 6 great ancient princes), hunting scenes, bathing in baths,
acrobats and dancers. It is a Byzantine provincial style with some Coptic features. The bathroom
is entered through a small room covered with a dome, decorated with pictures of the night sky.
The importance of this pavilion is in the variety and rarity of its decoration, because, once the art
theory is codified, Islamic wall paintings will become extremely rare. And they show the
coronation of the ruler (along with 6 great ancient princes), hunting scenes, bathing in baths,
acrobats and dancers. It is a Byzantine provincial style with some Coptic features. The bathroom
is entered through a small room covered with a dome, decorated with pictures of the night sky.
The importance of this pavilion is in the variety and rarity of its decoration, because, once the art
theory is codified, Islamic wall paintings will become extremely rare.

Representative paintings are painted in cheerful colors but with abandoned sensuality. Over the
centuries or since the Prophet's death, Muslim leaders, who are presented here as princes, have
apparently indulged in the pleasures of seeing illustrations of naked women, wild and tame
animals, and scenes from Greek mythology. The Hellenistic inspiration for the decoration on the
walls of the al-Amra castle is emphasized with the help of written Greek names on some of the
depicted figures.

The images of the desert castle do not even show traces of indecency, but they are certainly
contrary to Islamic principles, but they are in line with the cultural heritage of the region.

What we can see in Amra is local Hellenism. Dionysius who appears on the walls of Amra is an
Arabic variant of Dionysius in the form of Abate, Dionysius brought by Noon's to Arabia, as well
as Dionysius with the Sephoris mosaic. Amra is neither an example of Muslim tolerance nor of
secret or forbidden pleasures. She is simply an example of her own Muslim world.

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 Oleg Grabar, the most subtle interpreter of Amra's paintings, confirmed and explained the
local character of his motives in a study of hunting scenes. Grabar could not find a parallel in
combining the composition and form of paintings from Amra and the extensive repertoire with
hunting scenes from the ancient world. There is nothing similar in Plazza Amra and
Constantinople or in places from Spain to Syria, but each of the scenes can be easily explained in
terms of the Norman culture of the region itself.

Early Arabic poetry provides some of the parallels about the performances of wild cattle. The true
character of Amra's paintings, in which the Greek visual language was tasked with recalling the
Arab way of life, could not be better described.

In addition to these preserved murals in Amra, excavations north of Marib have successfully
resulted in another in a series of similarities between Islamic art and Hellenistic heritage. The city
of Fav, which lies in the center of the famous kingdom of Kinda, is known to us based on
literature. Much has survived in this undoubtedly Arab city from the Hellenistic-Roman period.
The wall paintings from Fava produced one of the most sought-after paintings of the Roman-
Byzantine East, which came to the fore in modern times. The paintings construct a model
depicting a prominent local citizen, crowned by young men standing on either side of him. His
head is crowned with grapes that cover a good part of his face. The face, unusually oval in shape,
is expressed by large eyes and a curved mustache. His name is written on the margin in the
Musnad script. When the name is deciphered we get the label Zaki, which in this case may
represent the person being crowned. These performances in a society in which anthropomorphism
is of fundamental importance, dramatically show the degree of Greek influence.
Anthropomorphism is taken from the Greek tradition, but the facts and figures are extremely
local. Grape bouquets undoubtedly represent another Greek influence that is reflected through the
ubiquitous and widely accepted god Dionysus. The whole idea of respect is of local importance.
In this way, with attributes that are obviously divine and with figures in priestly uniforms, they
are no less an Arab transformation of the Greek institution of public charity, with all the
accompanying honors of a lavish benefactor of his city. Here in the center of the Arabian
Peninsula, Hellenism served as an inspiration to remember local prosperity and culture.

Equally stunning is the appearance of the Greek-Egyptian god Hippocrates with a double
crown on his head. His presence in Favo may be reflected in the trading activity in the city, and it

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may also provoke a secretive subculture of late antiquity, best known to us based on Hermes'
discussions. However, the correct interpretation of these figures puts the city of Fav at the center
of Hellenistic paganism. However, the fundamental Semitic character is preserved everywhere in
the city, their graffiti are as eloquent as the inscriptions. In Faw are the forerunners of the
growing Arab paganism in the period of three centuries of Amr ibn Louis.

They consisted of the anthropomorphic polytheism of the Fava pagans, but it was not Hellenism
in the sense of using the Greek language or assimilating all Greek deities.

The use of mosaics as decorations has not been around for a long time in the Muslim world. It is
also known that Muslims used floor mosaics, and covered the walls with painted marble or
ceramic tiles. The decorative technique of glass tile mosaics was used to decorate the holiest and
most important Islamic buildings.

The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem (687-691), the Umayyad Grand Mosque in Damascus (705-
715) and the Grand Mosque in Cordoba, Spain (785-987) are the best examples of the use of
mosaics. What can be noticed is the fact that the used decoration often returns to the classical
style, and even more to the Byzantine motifs, which indicates the possibility that Christian artists
participated in their creation. After the restoration of the Great Mosque in Damascus, the mosaic
that adorns its porch has retained the high quality it once had, recognizing detailed architectural
elements that alternate with plant and tree motifs. Garden motifs are also represented, with
bridges and ponds. This rich frame, composed of glittering images lined up on a golden
background, is interpreted as a Muslim conception of paradise, which promises the salvation of
the soul,

The discovery of the church in Um er-Resas in Jordan, a couple of years ago, was far beyond
everything expected. The mosaic inscription, written in Greek, is clearly dated to 785. These
found evidence testify that the church did not belong to the Umayyad Caliphate, but to the time of
the Abbasids, who came to power in 750 and ruled Baghdad. And that time is much further from
the early days of Islam. We should also mention the exceptional series of illustrations that
accompany the text.

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The mosaics feature carefully designed illustrations of major cities in the Middle East. The
schematic representations are reminiscent of the famous mosaic map in Madaba, of a much
earlier date. However, these mosaics do not represent complete maps, but only schematic
representations with their identifications, which are also in Greek.

There is a form of mosaic on Um er-Resas that represents the most representative Greek
traditions several centuries old. These works date from 680 to the end of the 8th century, from the
Arab provinces - when the province of Arabia did not yet exist. The mosaic in Um er-Resas best
shows that Hellenism in this part of the Jordan was deeply rooted and expressed local tradition.
That was part of the foundation. Were it not for that influence, those roots of Hellenism would
certainly not have survived centuries of Islamic rule. The representation of cities includes their
Greek names, which combined complete identification with Hellenism. This helped, both in the
late 8th century and in earlier centuries, to provide a sense of community among the inhabitants
of the eastern cities. Cities have been identified, not so much by representing churches as priestly
centers,

The East, conditionally speaking, was not satisfied with Hellenistic identification only in
the field of art and culture. With the territorial expansion and the rise of the fashion of Greek
academies, the Arabs became acquainted with the philosophy of famous greats such as Aristotle
and Plato, with the medical writings of Hippocrates and the works of Greek mathematicians and
astronomers. In this way, Islamic civilization helped pre-Renaissance Europe to re-discover the
great works of Greek scientists and philosophers.

The Papyrus from Nesan, the castle in Amr, the floor mosaic in Um er-Resas, all these
works indicate a significant continuity of Hellenism from both its cultural and pagan aspects. This
in no way rejects the serious changes made by the Prophet and the conquests of the early Islamic
army. Quite the opposite: it is proof of the domestic character of Hellenism in that part of the new
Islamic world, and proof that at least some of the roots of Islam were upgraded to local
Hellenism.

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