IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 57, NO.
2, FEBRUARY 2010
Multiphase Power Converter Drive for Fault-Tolerant
Machine Development in Aerospace Applications
Liliana de Lillo, Lee Empringham, Pat W. Wheeler, Sudarat Khwan-On,
Chris Gerada, Member, IEEE, M. Nazri Othman, and Xiaoyan Huang
Abstract—This paper describes an experimental tool to evaluate
and support the development of fault-tolerant machines designed
for aerospace motor drives. Aerospace applications involve essen-
tially safety-critical systems which should be able to overcome
hardware or software faults and therefore need to be fault tol-
erant. A way of achieving this is to introduce variable degrees
of redundancy into the system by duplicating one or all of the
operations within the system itself. Looking at motor drives,
multiphase machines, such as multiphase brushless dc machines,
are considered to be good candidates in the design of fault-
tolerant aerospace motor drives. This paper introduces a
multiphase two-level inverter using a flexible and reliable field-
programmable gate-array/digital-signal-processor controller for
data acquisition, motor control, and fault monitoring to study the
fault tolerance of such systems.
Index Terms—Control of drive, converter control, digital signal
processor (DSP), multiphase drive, reliability.
I. I NTRODUCTION
T HE LAST 30 years have witnessed an increasing amount
of studies and research into the “all-electric aircraft” and
the “more-electric aircraft” concepts [2], [3] which aim to intro-
duce more energy efficient ways of converting and employing
the power generated by aircraft engines. This would have, and
has had presently where already implemented, an impact on
the design of the overall aircraft at every system level. More
importantly, at the development stage, each aircraft system
design will have to respond to a series of safety analyses which
will assess the reliability of each system. Certainly, changes in
the aerospace industry will not occur without a long process
of research work. This will certify the new systems’ suitability
in an environment where safety and, therefore, reliability are
the major driving factors and where also the most cost effective
solutions would still be the most favorable ones.
Among the main areas which are addressed by the “more-
electric aircraft” concept, the flight control system is a good
example of the implementation of this concept. Electrohydro-
static actuators are implemented in parallel with the traditional
Manuscript received December 1, 2008; revised October 22, 2009. First pub-
lished November 13, 2009; current version published January 13, 2010. This
paper was published in part in the European Power Electronics Association—
Power Electronics and Motion Control Conference, 2008 (EPE-PEMC).
The authors are with the Power Electronics Machines and Control Group,
School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of Nottingham,
NG7 2RD Nottingham, U.K. (e-mail: liliana.delillo@nottingham.ac.uk).
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TIE.2009.2036026
0278-0046/$26.00 © 2010 IEEE
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575
hydraulically powered ones on the new-generation Airbus A380
aircraft. The idea behind the use of an electrohydrostatic or
electromechanical actuator which basically replaces the actua-
tor hydraulic power source with electric power, simplifying the
structure of the power delivery, needs to include a high degree
of reliability to challenge the modern and well-established
aircraft structure.
A significant amount of work has been done, and is ongo-
ing, on ways of achieving the more-electric aircraft concept.
Attention has been given to conventional and nonconventional
topologies of power converters [4]–[7]. From the machine point
of view and particularly the design of fault-tolerant machines,
[8]–[11] are representative of the work done in this field.
Extensive work has been conducted into the subject of fault-
tolerant three-phase ac motor drives for industrial applications
[12]–[16]. A fault-tolerant system should have the ability to
respond to any hardware or software failure, keeping the min-
imum functionality which allows the system to continue to
operate. This is crucial in safety-critical aerospace applications.
In [17], a description of a fault-tolerant drive for safety-
critical applications is given, but limited detail on the practical
and experimental test rig used is provided. More knowledge
needs to be gained on the electric motor drive system require-
ments with regard to the needs of safety-critical applications
such as aerospace applications. In addition, more knowledge
needs to be gained on the performance of the drive system and
its control hardware, estimation, and diagnostic algorithms.
The work described in this paper aims to contribute with
an experimental tool which will support the development of
fault-tolerant machines to extend the research into electric
motor drives for aerospace applications. This paper introduces
a research platform in the form of a six-phase two-level inverter
and a flexible field-programmable gate-array (FPGA)/digital-
signal-processor (DSP) controller for data acquisition, motor
control, and fault monitoring to study the fault tolerance of such
systems.
The proposed motor test development platform allows the
validation of simulated results and the experimental analysis
of the validity of machine designs which will be developed to
respond to a high standard of reliability.
II. R EQUIREMENTS AND D ESIGN OF M OTOR T EST
D EVELOPMENT P LATFORM
Multiphase machines and drives are seen as a viable option
for fault-tolerant high-reliability applications [18], and as such,
the motor test platform was required to be versatile enough
 576
Fig. 1. Six-phase motor drive system.
Fig. 2. Power converter. Three-phase diode bridge—DC link—six-phase
inverter.
to drive different types of machines, and therefore, different
control methodologies and algorithms would need to be imple-
mented and tested. The following is a list of requirements for
the development platform:
1) multiphase output;
2) configurable to drive different motor types with different
numbers of phases;
3) high-speed controller;
4) high-precision pulsewidth-modulation (PWM)
generation;
5) rapid-code-development design cycle.
Fig. 1 shows a schematic diagram of the six-phase motor
drive system. The schematic block includes the power circuit
and its control and will be described individually in the follow-
ing sections.
A. Power Converter
The converter topology chosen to implement the develop-
ment platform is a three-phase diode bridge—dc link—six-
phase two-level voltage source inverter and is shown in Fig. 2.
The converter has been constructed using 100-A 1200-V
inverter leg modules. The power plane also integrates the gate-
drive circuits, output current measurement, and dc-link mea-
surement transducers.
The connection between the controller and the gate drivers is
provided by several fiber-optic links to increase noise immunity.
Although employed for aerospace applications, the motor test
development platform has been constructed for laboratory test-
ing, and therefore, low-cost electrolytic capacitors are used to
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 57, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 2010
Fig. 3. High-performance DSP–FPGA-based digital control platform.
implement the dc link. The 540-V dc bus is then supplied from
a California Instruments MX45 programmable power supply.
B. Controller
The controller was implemented using a high-speed DSP and
a high-speed FPGA. The Texas Instruments C6713 floating-
point processor and Actel ProAsic3 FPGAs were used.
Fig. 3 shows the stack of boards starting from the bottom
with the TI C6713 DSK. The middle card contains the FPGA
and also includes ten analog input channels.
Each input channel consists of analog conditioning circuitry,
a 14-b A2D converter with a 0.6-μs sample and data-transfer
time, and individually software-configurable trip circuitry. All
A2D channels are sampled simultaneously and data transferred
to the FPGA in parallel to minimize delays. The sampling can
be user-triggered or automatically synchronized with the PWM
interrupt.
Finally, the top card is an interface card which provides
the fiber-optic links for the gate-drive signals, both a rotary
resolver to digital converter and a rotary encoder interface
circuit for higher flexibility and, finally, digital temperature
sensor interface circuitry.
The control tasks are divided between the two main parts
of the controller. The FPGA is used to implement the high-
speed tasks such as the A2D interface, several high-speed
PWM generators, watchdog timer, trip/fault monitor, and
deadtime/commutation control while the high-speed floating-
point DSP performs all of the modulation and motor-control
functions.
 DE LILLO et al.: MULTIPHASE POWER CONVERTER DRIVE FOR FAULT-TOLERANT MACHINE
Fig. 4. (a) Three-phase PWM waveform, timer representation. (b) Three-
phase PWM waveform, space-vector representation.
The FPGA is connected to the DSP via its external memory
interface. This provides a high-speed interface to the functions
implemented within the FPGA. The FPGA peripheral control
registers are mapped to the DSP memory space and are con-
trolled as if they were internal DSP peripherals.
A floating-point processor is used to reduce development
times, since problems related to resolution and rounding
when implementing controllers using integer processors are
eliminated.
Measurement signal information from the current and volt-
age sensors, the temperature sensors, and the rotary position re-
solver are employed not only to perform the control of the drive
but also to provide the information necessary to generate, when-
ever necessary, the fault signals which can disable the converter.
C. Rapid Code Development
The DSP is programmed in C using the code-composer
integrated design environment. It is a fully integrated develop-
ment and debugging suite. Since the FPGA peripheral registers
are memory mapped to the DSP memory space, they can be
configured, interrogated, or debugged from within the same
design environment.
The FPGA design has been carefully refined to aid code
development. Different types of PWM generator have been
implemented and can be used depending on the requirements
of the application.
Fig. 4(a) and (b) shows the same arbitrary three-phase PWM
waveform. The first is represented using on-times (tαX ) and
off-times (tβX ) for each PWM output phase. The waveform
shown in Fig. 4(b) is made up of the PWM vectors and the
times (t1−8 ) for each vector.
A traditional timer/compare type of PWM generator can be
used when the modulation algorithm is based on the carrier-
based sinusoidal PWM [Fig. 4(a)] scheme, and a space-vector
PWM generator is used when the modulation strategy is based
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577
Fig. 5. Block diagram of the space-vector PWM generator.
on the space-vector representation [Fig. 4(b)] [19]. Fig. 5 shows
a functional diagram of the space-vector PWM generator.
Once the DSP has completed the necessary calculations for
that period, the PWM vectors for the next period are loaded into
the first-in–first-out (FIFO) memory of the space-vector PWM
generator. Each PWM vector consists of a 16-bit time value
and a 16-bit PWM value. At the beginning of the next PWM
period, the first of the previously loaded vectors is clocked out
of the FIFO memory. This vector is then held for the correct
time corresponding to its time value. The end of the individual
vector time is signaled to the controller, which then clocks the
next vector through. In this way, any arbitrary waveform can be
produced up to a maximum of 16 signals.
This solution using different topologies of PWM generator
offers increased control flexibility and reduced code develop-
ment time. For example, if using a space-vector modulation
algorithm with a typical timer-based PWM unit (as is the case
in many commercially available microprocessors), the PWM
space vectors would not need to be converted into on-times
and off-times at the end of the PWM interrupt. The vectors and
times can be sent directly to the vector PWM generator. This
saves on code space and time and hence increases the potential
interrupt resolution.
For the experimental work presented in this paper, a regular
sampled symmetric PWM scheme was considered, and the
on-times (tαX ) and off-times (tβX ) shown in Fig. 4(a) are
calculated as follows:
 
Tc Tc
tαx = (1 + M d) tαx = − tβx .
4 2
III. T ESTING
A. Power-Converter-Drive Initial Testing
For tests purposes, the proposed power converter drives a
three-phase permanent-magnet synchronous machine (PMSM)
which is loaded with a 40-kW induction machine both mounted
on a high-speed rig (capable of maximum 20 000 r/min), as
shown in Fig. 6.
The PMSM has been designed and manufactured by the
PEMC Group of the University of Nottingham, giving par-
ticular attention to fault-tolerant features which are desired
particularly in aerospace applications.
The PMSM [20] is a low-speed concentrated-wound 20-pole
machine, designed with high self and low mutual phase induc-
tances in order to be able to sustain fault currents introduced
by an open- or short-circuit fault in one of the three motor
phases. The machine is rated at 115-V rms per phase and has a
maximum current rating of 24.4 A.
 578
Fig. 6. Inverter initial tests. Six output phase currents.
Fig. 7. Drive test results when driven at 800 rad/s and 45 N · m.
The machine has been commissioned with initial tests, whose
most significant results are shown in the figures as follows
where the maximum rated conditions of the three-phase PMSM
have been tested. The d–q current-vector control and speed
control of the machine have been implemented.
Fig. 7 shows the d–q motor currents, the motor-phase cur-
rents, and the motor voltage demands as a result of the motor
vector control when a 45-N · m load is applied by the high-
speed loading rig and a speed of 800 rad/s (electrical) is
demanded by the multiphase drive. Fig. 8 shows the same set
of results when a 40-N · m torque load is applied and a speed
of 1200 rad/s is demanded. Extensive testing has been required
to have a complete knowledge of the machine’s behavior un-
der different speed and load conditions. This has allowed the
validation of the simulation results from the electromagnetic
analysis of the PMSM performance and parameters, by using
the finite-element (FE) method.
Fig. 9 shows a comparison of the three motor-phase currents
obtained from the FE analysis and the experiments run to
commission the machine, as an example of validation between
the simulated and the experimental results.
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 57, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 2010
B. Test Results on the Independently Driven
Three-Phase PMSM
The next test with the multiphase power converter was per-
formed on the three-phase PMSM where each machine phase
is driven by two of the converter output phases, as shown in
Fig. 10.
This configuration exhibits an increased degree of redun-
dancy at a power-converter level and increases potential reli-
ability during either motor or converter failures.
Fig. 11 shows results from the tests run on the drive config-
uration shown in Fig. 10 using the same test setup shown in
Fig. 6. A torque load of 35 N · m was applied to the three-phase
PMSM with the high-speed loading rig, and a speed of 400 rad/s
electrical was demanded by the power converter control. An iq
current of 20 A (peak) was developed in order to oppose the
applied load torque and keep a constant speed.
The demanded motor-phase voltages, also shown in Fig. 11,
are the demand voltages for three of the six inverter output
phases Va_ref , Vb_ref , and Vc_ref , the remaining three, Vd_ref ,
Ve_ref , and Vf _ref (as shown in the circuit diagram in Fig. 10)
are given a zero reference for the initial testing.
 DE LILLO et al.: MULTIPHASE POWER CONVERTER DRIVE FOR FAULT-TOLERANT MACHINE
Fig. 8. Drive test results when driven at 1200 rad/s and 40 N · m.
Fig. 9. Validation of FE simulation results with experimental results from a
1200 rad/s and 40 N · m test. Motor-Phase Current.
Fig. 10. Six-phase inverter driving individually each motor phase of
the PMSM.
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579
Once the reference voltages are determined, a carrier-based
modulation strategy has been implemented to generate the on-
times and off-times for the IGBTs of the six output phase
inverter at a PWM frequency of 5 kHz.
The drive configuration shown in Fig. 10 has the disad-
vantage of not automatically eliminating the third-harmonic
current, such elimination is normal in a star- or delta-connected
machine. The implications of this are that unless a specific con-
trol of the individual machine phases is implemented, increased
iron losses will be developed in the machine, which would
increase the internal machine temperature. This effect would
be worse for higher current levels.
C. Test Results From Failure in Gating of Both IGBTs of
One Output Phase of the Multiphase Power Converter
The flexible hardware arrangement of the multiphase power
converter drive (as well as the software adaptability to different
specifications of the converter control) has allowed a different
circuit configuration, as shown in Fig. 12, to be implemented
to study the behavior of the drive system when a fault occurs
in one of the output phase of the converter. For these tests,
the three-phase PMSM is star connected, and the neutral point
is always connected to the fourth output phase of the power
converter.
The drive system shown in Fig. 12 has been simulated in
SABER by including the machine motor control and the torque
load of 5 N · m which has been applied with the high-speed rig
in the experimental tests. Figs. 13–15 also show validation of
the simulation and experimental results.
To emulate a failure in the gating of the IGBTs of one output
leg, phase A was disabled from the converter control, causing
 580 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 57, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 2010

Fig. 11. Results from tests on the drive configuration shown in Fig. 10—(from the top) id and iq currents, motor-phase currents, and phase-voltage demands.

Fig. 12. Four-phase two-level voltage source inverter (VSI) fault-tolerant

drive system.

Fig. 13. Four-phase two-level VSI fault-tolerant drive system: Ias when the Fig. 14. Ib and Ic when the IGBTs are disabled. Experimental and simulated
IGBTs are disabled. Experimental and simulated results shown. results shown.

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 DE LILLO et al.: MULTIPHASE POWER CONVERTER DRIVE FOR FAULT-TOLERANT MACHINE
Fig. 15. Vector diagram of possible current directions when phase A is open
circuit.
a significant drop in the current in this motor phase, as shown
in Fig. 13. While the output phase is disabled, the current Ia is
not completely zero as it would be if an open-phase failure was
caused in the machine. This is due to the back-EMF voltage
developed across the motor phase involved in the fault and
the antiparallel diodes of the disabled IGBTs which provide
a path for the current back to either the positive or negative
dc-link connection, depending on what the neutral point voltage
is driven to.
Unless the motor control strategy is modified in order to
compensate for the effect of the sudden loss of current capa-
bility in one of the motor phases such as in an open-phase
fault caused by gate-drive or controller failure [13], [15], the
two remaining currents Ib and Ic will increase to develop more
torque to compensate for the loss of a phase as expected but will
be unbalanced while the IGBTs are inoperative (Fig. 14).
Clearly, if Ia is near zero and phases Ib and Ic are as shown,
the imbalance will be conducted through the star connection of
the motor.
The failure of the IGBT gating was emulated by the converter
control, by disabling the digital signals which provide the
appropriate modulation of the devices in output phase A. After
100 ms, phase A is enabled again, and the normal converter
operating conditions are restored. It can be seen that a converter
fault of this nature does not stop the operation of the motor
drive, and with a correctly rated and cooled motor, continuous
operation could be maintained.
D. Test Results From Motor-Phase Open-Circuit
Failure and Detection
The circuit is arranged as per Fig. 12 but the neutral point
of the motor is initially undriven. Bidirectional switches con-
structed from common-emitter IGBT-diode pairs are connected
in series with the motor windings to generate open-circuit fault
situations. When a motor phase has failed open circuit, current
is only able to flow in the remaining two phases in an equal but
opposite direction. The vector diagram in Fig. 15 shows this.
If phase A fails to open circuit, the motor current can only
flow either into phase B and out of phase C or vice versa. A
positive Ib and a negative Ic will result in an output current
vector in the direction of Iout1 , and conversely, a negative Ib
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581
Fig. 16. Stator current angle when phase A is open circuit.
and a positive Ic will result in a current vector in the direction
of Iout2 . The resultant motor-current vectors are always ±90◦
from the failed motor phase. This information, together with
the normal rotation of the motor, can be used to determine
which phase has failed. If the rotor is moving but the stator
current vector is fixed, a failure has occurred. Fig. 16 shows the
operation of the motor drive system when an open-circuit fault
is emulated on one of the motor phases.
After the fault occurs, phase A current drops to zero, and
phases B and C become equal and opposite to each other.
The torque- and flux-producing currents will become disturbed,
since the motor is effectively behaving as a single-phase PMSM
in this mode. It can be seen that the current-vector angle
changes to one of the two possible directions after the failure.
Code within the control platform continuously checks this angle
and detects that phase A has suffered a fault. This can be seen
as the final graph in Fig. 16.
IV. C ONCLUSION
This paper has introduced a motor test and development
platform which will contribute to integrate the knowledge on
the requirements of the design of electric motor drives which
could be implemented in aerospace applications in regard to
the “more-electric aircraft” concept.
The test platform will therefore support the development of
fault-tolerant machines through experimental testing as well as
to validate simulation results of the power converter side. Its
FPGA/DSP-based controller offers a great deal of flexibility,
and the system design and commissioning has been described.
Results showing the system driving an experimental PMSM
in both individually driven and star-connected four-phase mode
 582 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 57, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 2010
have been presented. The operation of the drive system under
gate-drive fault conditions has been discussed, and both simu-
lation and experimental results have been shown.
It can be seen that, under certain fault conditions, drive
functionality/availability can be maintained. The experimental
system will be developed further to emulate more failure modes
of both motor and converter and develop suitable strategy to
maintain system integrity.
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Liliana de Lillo received the M.Eng. degree in
electronic engineering from the Politecnico di Bari,
Bari, Italy, in 2001 and the Ph.D. degree in electri-
cal engineering from the University of Nottingham,
Nottingham, U.K., in 2006.
She is currently a Research Fellow with the Power
Electronics, Machines, and Control Group, School of
Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of
Nottingham, with interests in direct ac–ac converters,
fault-tolerant systems, more-electric aircraft applica-
tions, and ac drives.
Lee Empringham received the B.Eng. degree
(with honors) in electrical and electronic engineer-
ing and the Ph.D. degree from the University of
Nottingham, Nottingham, U.K., in 1996 and 2000,
respectively.
He then joined the Power Electronics, Machines,
and Control Group, School of Electrical and Elec-
tronic Engineering, University of Nottingham, to
work on matrix converter commutation techniques,
and since then, he has been a Research Fellow sup-
porting different ongoing matrix converter projects.
His research interests include direct ac–ac power conversion, variable-speed
ac motor drives using different circuit topologies, and more-electric/electric
aircraft applications.
Pat W. Wheeler received the B.Eng. degree (with
honors) and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineer-
ing for his work on matrix converters from the Uni-
versity of Bristol, Bristol, U.K, in 1990 and 1994.
In 1993, he moved to the University of
Nottingham, Nottingham, U.K., where he worked as
a Research Assistant with the School of Electrical
and Electronic Engineering and, in 1996, became a
Lecturer with the Power Electronics, Machines, and
Control Group, where since January 2008, he has
been a Full Professor. He has published over 200
papers in leading international conferences and journals. His research interests
are in power conversion and more-electric aircraft technology.
Sudarat Khwan-On received the B.Eng. and M.Eng.
degrees in electrical engineering from Suranaree
University of Technology, Nakhon Ratchasima,
Thailand, in 2002 and 2005, respectively. She
is currently working toward the Ph.D. degree in
electrical and electronic engineering in the Power
Electronics, Machines, and Control Group, School of
Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of
Nottingham, Nottingham, U.K.
She is supported by Royal Thai Government.
Her research interests include power converters, ac
machine drives, and intelligent control techniques.
Chris Gerada (M’05) received the B.Eng. and
M.Sc. degrees in electrical and electronic engineer-
ing from the University of Malta, Valetta, Malta, in
2000 and 2002, respectively, and the Ph.D. degree
from the University of Nottingham, Nottingham,
U.K., in 2005.
He is currently a Lecturer with the Power Elec-
tronics, Machines, and Control Group, School of
Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University
of Nottingham, where he is working on electrical
machines and drives. His current research interests
include aircraft actuation and numerical modeling and design of electrical
machines.
 DE LILLO et al.: MULTIPHASE POWER CONVERTER DRIVE FOR FAULT-TOLERANT MACHINE
M. Nazri Othman received the B.Sc degree in
electrical engineering from Memphis State Univer-
sity, Memphis, TN, in 1990 and the M.Sc. degree
in electrical engineering from the University of
Nottingham, Nottingham, U.K., in 2005, where he
is currently working toward the Ph.D. degree in the
Power Electronics, Machines, and Control Group,
School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering.
He is involved in the design of permanent-magnet
motors for aerospace applications.
thorized licensed use limited to: NUST School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science (SEECS). Downloaded on February 06,2022 at 08:46:43 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions app
583
Xiaoyan Huang received the Ph.D. degree in elec-
trical machines and drives from the University of
Nottingham, Nottingham, U.K., in 2008.
She is currently a Research Fellow with the Power
Electronics, Machines, and Control Group, School
of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University
of Nottingham. Her research interests include the
design of permanent-magnet machines and drives for
aerospace applications, and the design of the zero-
fault-level generator system for urban networks.