題問

Q:經濟環境改善，平等的教育制度，女性教
育水平上升：
性別、教育和工作 – 教育與工作領域的不平等得以改善？
– 性別分工趨向平等？
– 工作分工
GESC2310 
性別與家庭：全球化視野

推倒工作性別分層的社會力量 教育和工作分層 (stratification)

• (Grusky & Charles 2004:3) • 性別與教育
– 能力分組 (Streaming)
– 廣泛性認同性別平等態度 • 教育分層：大學、專上教育、中學
– 成績
• 社會政策: 家庭友善、反家庭崗位歧視立法 • 性別態度：文、理、商科
– 教育性別比率失衡持續收窄 • 性別與選科
– 教育與工作
• 人力資本
• 性別與工作
– 女性勞動參與比率持續上升 – 經濟全球化
• 後工業經濟：服務業 X 職級
• 勞動市場求與供；職場制度
• 性別分層
– 垂直 vs 水平

1961‐1991按職位劃分的就業人口和變化(千人) 1991‐2001年按職位劃分的就業人口和變化(千人)
職業 1961 1971 1981 1991 ∆1961-71 ∆ 1971-81 ∆ 1981-91 ∆ 1996-
∆ 1991-2001
1991 (%) 1996 (%) 2001 (%) 2001
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) 職業 (%)
(%)
專業人員 60.9 79.9 143.7 237.2 31.3 84.7 65.1 經理及行政人員
249,247 (9.2) 369,323 (12.1) 349,637 (10.7) 40.3 - 5.3
(5.1) (5.2) (6.0) (8.7)
經理及行政人員 36.6 37.5 64.1 139.1 2.6 70.6 117.1 專業人員 99,331 (3.7) 151,591 (5.0) 179,825 (5.5) 81.0 18.6
(3.1) (2.4) (2.7) (5.1) 輔助專業人員
279,909 (10.3) 369,132 (12.1) 498,671 (15.3) 78.2 35.1
文員 69.6 128.6 293.9 504.4 84.7 128.5 71.6
(5.9) (8.3) (12.2) (18.6) 文員
431,651 (15.9) 512,719 (16.8) 529,992 (16.3) 22.8 3.4
銷售人員 162.9 163.8 247.9 313.1 0.5 51.3 26.3 服務工作及
(13.7) (10.6) (10.3) (11.5)
商店銷售人員 359,319 (13.2) 419,721 (13.8) 488,961 (15.0) 36.1 16.5
服務人員 179.7 229.5 374.1 506.9 27.7 63.0 35.5
(15.1) (14.8) (15.6) (18.7) 工藝及有關人員 397,992 (14.7) 373,143 (12.3) 321,000 (9.9) - 19.4 - 14.0
漁民和農民 87.5 59.4 50.6 24.8 -32.1 -14.8 -50.9
(7.4) (3.8) (2.1) (0.9) 機台及機器操作
365,826 (13.5) 259,909 (8.5) 238,666 (7.3) - 34.8 - 8.2
員
機台及機器操作員 580.4 808.2 1,212.5 981.7 39.3 50.0 -19.0 非技術工人
(48.7) (52.3) (50.4) (36.2) 503,832 (18.5) 564,682 (18.6) 635,393 (19.5) 26.1 12.5

非技術工人 13.1 39.7 17.1 7.5 201.1 -56.9 -55.9 合計 27,996 (1.0) 23,478 (0.8) 10,561 (0.3) - 62.3 - 55.0
(不包括外傭) (1.1) (2.6) (0.7) (0.3)
總數 2,715,103 (100.0) 3,043,698 (100.0) 3,252,706 (100.0) 19.8 6.9
1,191.1 1,546.9 2,404.1 2,715.1
合計 29.9 55.4 12.9

Source: Census report, 2001

2001‐2011年按職位劃分的就業人口和變化(千人)
∆ 2001- ∆ 2006-
性別與教育
2001 (%) 2006 (%) 2011(%)
職業 2006 (%) 2011 (%)
經理及行政人員 349,637 (10.7) 361,891 (10.8) 359,717 (10.1) 3.5 -0.6

專業人員 Ratio of girls to boys in primary and secondary education (%)

179,825 (5.5) 205,435 (6.1) 231,371 (6.5) 14.2 12.6

輔助專業人員
498,671 (15.3) 542,309 (16.1) 694,603 (19.6) 8.8 28.1 1990 2000 2005 2010
文員 529,992 (16.3) 567,964 (16.9) 552,199 (15.6) 7.2 -2.8
Australia 100 99 97
China 85 95 (1997) 100 (2004) 103 100 = gender
服務工作及
488,961 (15.0) 550,855 (16.4) 575,392 (16.2) 12.7 4.5 neutral
商店銷售人員 France 103 100 100 100 <100: favor to M
工藝及有關人員 321,000 (9.9) 286,007 (8.5) 261,144 (7.4) -10.9 -8.7 HK 102 (1988) 99 102 >100: favor to F

機台及機器操作 Japan 101 101 100 100

238,666 (7.3) 208,409 (6.2) 179,064 (5.0) -12.7 -13.9
員 Sweden 102 115 100 99
非技術工人
(不包括外傭)
635,393 (19.5) 633,227 (18.8) 690,908 (19.5) -0.3 9.1 UK 102 101 102 101
合計 10,561 (0.3) 9,639 (0.3) 3,383 (0.1) -8.7 -64.9 US 100 100 100 100
3,252,706 3,547,781
總數
(100.0)
3,365,736 (100.0)
(100.0)
3.5 5.4 Source: World Bank 2012
Source: Census report, 2006, Main Census Report, v.I 2011 http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.ENR.PRSC.FM.ZS?page=4

性別與教育 性別與教育水平
Ratio for female to male tertiary enrollment (%)

HK:
2003: 100
2004: 101 Source: Women and
Men in Hong Kong: Key
Statistics 2012 Edition,
Gender parity index for gross 
enrolment ratio. Tertiary is the 
p.61
ratio of female gross enrolment 
ratio for tertiary to male gross 
enrolment ratio for tertiary. It is 
calculated by dividing the female 
value for the indicator by the 
male value for the indicator. 
100 = gender neutral
<100: favor to M
>100: favor to F

Source: World Bank 2012

http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.ENR.TERT.FM.ZS/countries?page=1&display=default

Proportion of Population with Post‐ Students Enrolled in Programmes Funded by University Grants Committee

by Level of Study and Sex
secondary Education by Sex
30
29.4
28

26
25.5
24.8
24

22
21.4 Source: Women and
20 F Men in Hong Kong: Key
18 17.8
M
Statistics 2012
17.1
16 Edition, p.71
15.1
14
13.3
12
Source: Women and
10
1996 2001 2006 2011 Men in Hong Kong: Key
Statistics 2012
Edition, p.68
Percentage of male and female candidates who obtained a‐c grads in selected subjects  Percentage of male and female candidates who obtained a‐c grades in 10 most popular 
in the hkcee, 2010 subjects at a‐level in the hkale, 2010 

% of male candidates attaining A‐ % of female candidates attaining A‐C 

C grades grades % of male candidates  % of female candidates 
Biology 32.7 30.7 attaining A‐C grades attaining A‐C grades
Chemistry 31.2 29.2 Biology 19.4 19.6
Chinese history 16.8 18.8 Chemistry 26.3 19.4
Economics 22.4 22.8 Chinese history 27.8 21.0
Geography 19.5 20.2 Chinese language & culture 19.1 30.2
Government & public affairs* 16.9 17.4 Economics 30.5 20.7
Mathematics 30.9 25.1 Geography 22.7 22.5
Physics 32.4 27.5 Physics 27.4 16.8
% of male candidates attaining  % of female candidates attaining 5*‐
5*‐4 grades 4  grades
Principles of accounts 25.6 21.5
Chinese language 12.8 23.5 Pure mathematics 27.7 19.5
English language 13.0 21.8 Use of English 10.0 16.4
Source: HK Examinations and Assessment Authority (2010). Examination
Source: HK Examinations and Assessment Authority (2010). Examination
Report HKALE 2010, p.55-59
Report HKcee 2010, p.52-57

Percentage Distribution of Female and Male Population with Women as a percentage of students enrolled in ugc‐funded programmes by broad 

Post‐secondary Education by Field of Education academic programme category, 1996‐2011

1996/97 2001/02 2006/07 2011/12

Medicine, dentistry & health 53.9 60.9 62.5 59.5

Sciences 35.6 38.8 36.4 34.8

Engineering & Technology 14.1 25.0 31.1 33.1

Business & management 59.9 62.4 59.9 55.7

Social sciences 66.5 66.6 65.9 63.3

Source: Women and
Arts & humanities 78.2 76.1 72.5 72.8
Men in Hong Kong: Key
Statistics 2012
Edition, p.73 Education 67.8 75.2 71.2 73.6
Total 50.1 54.4 54.1 53.2

Source: University Grant Committee, various years

Persons aged 25 and below who were studying outside hk by place of study 
and sex, 2002 教育與性別平等
• 女性整體教育程度上升
Male (%) Female (%) Total (N)
• 教育能力分組 (education streaming)
Canada 63 37 19,600
– 中學：
Australia 42 58 16,400 • 男生：理科；女性：文、理、商科
UK 55 45 16,100 • 兩性在理科的成績收窄
US 51 49 13,200 – 專上教育：
Chinese Mainland 73 27 3,000 • 女生入學率較高
Other places 60 40 5,800 • 男生：理科；女性：文、理、商科
Total 55 45 74,100
• 對工作的影響？

Source: Census & Statistics Department (2005),

Survey on “Hong Kong students studying outside HK”
in 2002.
 Female labor force participation rate (excluding fdh) by education attainment, 
勞動市場中的性別結構 2001‐2011

80.0
75.3 
Labor participation rate, female
73.9  73.3 
70.0 70.8  69.8 

(% of female population ages 15+) 60.0 60.2 

64.0 

58.2 
75 55.5 

72 50.0
71 Primary F
70 44.4  44.0  44.0 
69 Lower secondary F
68 Australia 40.0
Upper secondary F
China
65 Post‐secondary (non‐degree) F
France 30.0 30.2  30.9 
62 28.0  Post‐secondary (degree) F
HK
60
59 59 59 Japan 20.0
58 58 58
57 57 Singapore
56 56
55 55 55 Sweden
54 54 10.0
53 53
52 52 UK
51 51
50 50 50 50 US 0.0
49
48 48 2001 2006 2011
47
46
45
1990 2000 2005 2010
Source: Women and Men in Hong Kong: Key Statistics 2012
Source: World Bank 2012: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.TLF.CACT.FE.ZS/countries?page=6 Edition, p.102

male labor force participation rate by education attainment, 1986‐2011 性別工作區格 (sex segregation at work)

• 水平和垂直區格
90.0

85.0

80.0
– 體力勞動工人 (manual worker) VS 非體力勞動工
75.0

70.0
人 (non‐manual worker)
65.0

60.0
Men
55.0

50.0
WOMEN MEN
45.0
Women
40.0
2001 2006 2011
Primary M 57.9 51.8 45.9
Lower secondary M 81.1 76.2 71.6
Upper secondary M 77.8 75.9 72.5
Post‐secondary (non‐degree) M 82.0 76.0 70.8 Types of Non-manual Manual
Post‐secondary (degree) M 81.4 81.0 80.6 work work work
Source: Women and Men in Hong Kong: Key Statistics 2012
Edition, p.102

勞動市場的性別結構：垂直性別區
勞動市場的性別結構：水平性別區隔
HORIZONTAL SEX SEGREGATION BY INDUSTRY 隔
sex segregation by occupation
Working Population X Occupations 1993‐10 (,000 persons)
Percentage distribution of employed persons engaged in
Occupation 1993 2003 2010 ∆1993‐03 ∆ 2003‐10
individual industries by sex, 2011 (%) (%)

Industry Female (%) Male (%) Managers and administrators 251.7 271.0 337.4 7.7 24.5

(9.0) (8.5) (9.7)
Manufacturing 32.4 67.6 Professionals 116.1 203.0 226.0 74.8 11.3
(4.1) (6.4) (6.5)
312.8 583.8 675.0
Construction 8.5 91.5 Associate professionals
(11.2) (18.3) (19.3)
86.6 15.6

522.0 527.8 563.5

M/X trade & wholesale 49.4 50.6 Clerks
(18.6) (18.3) (16.1)
1.1 6.8

Service workers and shop  397.8 481.3 557.8

Retail, accommodation & food services 54.7 45.3 sales workers (14.2) (15.1) (16.0)
21.0 15.9

Transportation, storage, postal & courier,  23.5 76.5 Craft and related workers 354.1 270.5 249.3 ‐23.6 ‐7.8

info. & communication (13.0) (8.5) (7.1)
Plant and machine operators  365.1 233.2 201.2 ‐36.1 ‐13.7
Financing, insurance, real estate,  47.6 52.4 and assemblers (13.0) (7.3) (5.8)

professional & business services
Elementary occupations 464.9 613 679.0 31.9 10.8
(16.6) (19.2) (19.4)
Public admin., social & personal services 69.1 30.9
Others 15.5 6.9 3.3 ‐55.5 ‐52.2
(0.6) (0.2) (0.1)

Source: Women and Men in Hong Kong: Key Statistics 2012 Total 2 800.1 3 207.3 3 492.5

Edition, p.109 Source: Women and Men in Hong Kong: Key Statistics 2012 Edition, p.110
 Percentage of Employed Women by occupation (1993-2010) Percentage of Employed Women by industry and occupation (1993-2010)
Occupation 1993 2003 2010 ∆1993‐03 ∆ 2003‐10
Finance,  Finance,  Community,  Community, 
(%) (%) insurance, real  insurance, real  social & personal  social & personal 
Managers and  16.0 26.1 30.7 estate & b‐ estate & b‐service,  services, 1993 services, 2007
10.1 4.6 service, 1993 2007
administrators
Professionals 32.5 34.5 37.1 2.0 2.6 Occupation Female’s share  Female’s share (%) Female’s share  Female’s share 
(%) (%) (%)
Associate professionals 40.4 40.9 44.5 0.5 3.5 Managers and administrators 24.4 37.6 26.7 50.2
Clerks 68.0 74.8 72.6 6.8 ‐2.2 Professionals 26.8 32.6 43.8 48.4
Service workers and  35.2 48.0 52.8 12.8 4.8 Associate professionals 34.6 41.1 62.7 58.0
shop sales workers
Clerks 67.6 73.4 73.0 77.8
Craft and related  4.7 ‐0.8 ‐0.6
workers
3.9 3.3
Service workers and shop sales  50.0 53.3 29.8 52.0
Plant and machine  26.6 12.4 5.5 ‐14.2 ‐6.8 workers
operators and 
assemblers
Craft and related workers 0 2.6 1.1 4.6
Elementary occupations 48.3 62.0 64.8 13.7 2.7 Plant and machine operators and  0 0 7.0 8.5
assemblers
Others 23.7 33.8 24.2 10.1 ‐9.5
Elementary occupations 13 27.2 72.2 87.0
Source: HK Annual digest 2004, p. 23-24 & 2011, p.25 Source: Women and Men in Hong Kong: Key Statistics 2012 Edition, p.151-2

Sex ratio (M:F) by industry and occupation (1993-2010)

Occupation Finance,  Finance,  Community,  Community,  垂直性別區隔：

insurance, real 
estate & b‐
insurance, real  social & personal  social & personal 
estate & b‐service,  services, 1993 services, 2007
性別與收入比例
service, 1993 2007
Managers and administrators (15‐29)
0.33 0.60 0.36 1.01
Professionals 0.37 0.48 0.78 0.94
Associate professionals 0.53 0.70 1.68 1.52
Clerks 2.08 2.77 2.70 3.51
(30‐44)
Service workers and shop sales  1 1.14 0.43 1.08
workers

Craft and related workers ‐ 0.03 0.01 0.05

Plant and machine operators and  ‐ ‐ 0.08 0.09
assemblers
(45‐64) Lee, Li & Zhang
Elementary occupations 0.15 0.37 2.60 6.67 (2009:92)

Source: Women and Men in Hong Kong: Key Statistics 2012 Edition, p.151-2

垂直性別區隔：性別與收入比例 垂直性別區隔：性別與收入比例

Lee, Li & Zhang Lee, Li & Zhang

(2009:95) (2009:94)
 水平性別區隔：性別與收入比例 性別區格 (sex segregation) – 工作
Median monthly employment earnings of employed persons in selected industry of • 水平和垂直區格
main employment and sex, 2011 (Basic on HSIC version 2.0) – 體力勞動工人 (manual worker) VS 非體力勞動工人 (non‐manual 
Sex 2008 2011 worker)
Manufacturing F 7,000 8,100 • 文化和制度造成
M 13,000 14,000
Financing, insurance, real 
estate, professional and 
F 12,000 12,000 • 性別本質論 Gender essentialism (Charles & Grusky 2004:15): 
business services the traits that are regarded as distinctively male or female
M 13,500 15,000 – Personal service, nurturance & interpersonal interaction
Public administration F 12,000 13,000
• 男性優等論 Male primacy
M 17,000 18,000
– Good at dealing with “things” than persons, and in strenuous or 
Education F 17,000 18,500 physical labor
M 24,000 23,000

Source: Women and Men in Hong Kong: Key Statistics 2012 Edition, p.226-7

Mechanisms underlying horizontal & vertical segregation 
( CHARLES & GRUNSKY 2004: 16) 小結
Type of segregation
• Q: 女性教育水平上升，教育與工作領域的不平等得以改善？
Mechanisms Horizontal Vertical
– Glass ceiling
Cultural mechanisms
– 代際差別
1. Employer discrimination X X
– 教育程度差別
2. Institutional discrimination X X
– 婚姻狀況
3. Internalization
– Time lag
a. Preferences X
b. Self‐evaluation X X
• 延伸問題
4. Expected sanctions X X
– 對兩性關係的影響
5. Labor force commitment X
• 選擇配偶
我剛剛放完產假返工,我好似係一個棄將
• 家庭分工
Other mechanisms
1. Statistical discrimination X X
2. Networks X X