Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Background

In today‘s hyper competitive world and complex global environment,

developing and maintaining competitive advantage is becoming increasingly
challenging for different organizations. Organizations have realized that one of the
essential ways to succeed is to have a control on the cost of operations through
effective and efficient management of their supply chains. Further, competitive
priorities have forced Indian manufacturing organizations to change dramatically due
to escalating customer expectations, continually increasing competition on a world-
wide scale, cost, time and quality based constraints and mass customization (Mohanty
and Deshmukh, 2012).

There is a growing recognition towards building and nurturing supply chain

competitiveness strategies for improvements in profitability, serviceability, and
reduced costs in the supply chains (Frankelet al., 2015).One way to achieve
competitive advantage is through logistics. Logistics service is a unique subset of
services that span the boundaries between goods suppliers, service providers, and
customers and have become increasingly important for successful supply chain
operations (Stank et al., 2003).

Logistics plays a strategic role in a firm‘s success (Mentzer et al., 1989;

Brensinger and Lambert, 1990; Novack et al., 1994; Bowersox et al., 1995; Bienstock
et al., 1997; Mentzer et al., 2001) by serving as a means to create competitive
advantage in the marketplace (Stock and Lambert, 1992). Logistics services may be
leveraged for building closer relationships with customers (Davis and Mentzer, 2006).
Moreover, given that the relationship of service quality to business performance
outcomes (such as lower costs, customer satisfaction, loyalty, and profitability) has
been well-established (Daugherty et al., 1998; Cronin and Taylor, 1992; Davis and
Mentzer, 2006), delivering superior logistics services has become an ongoing and
critical focus for many firms.

Logistics management is part of the supply chain process that plans,

implements, and controls the effective, efficient flow and storage of goods, services

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and related information from the point of origin to the point of consummation in order
to meet customer requirements (Chopra and Meindl, 2001).

Typically, steel industry requires a very high flow of inbound material (mostly
iron ore and steel) as it is bulky and having very high volume and a relatively low
flow of outbound material flow (as the finished steel is less in quantity and volume).
Thus, a practical investigation with one of the largest manufactures of steel in India
revealed that logistics cost is around 20% of the overall material cost. Primarily, this
is attributed to increased imports and thus the overall cost of logistics has gone
significantly higher. Looking for this high cost various organizations are now striving
to understand various cost elements and the ways of handling it (Sadler, 2007).

During the last 20 years, Indian steel sector has transformed itself from the
conventional low cost steel manufacturing from iron ore to specialized and
multipurpose steels manufacturing from scrap steels. This shift of manufacturing has
led the heavy imports of scrap steel and thus a witnessing cost of inbound logistics
and outbound logistics.

Inbound and outbound logistics are the part of the supply chain which plans,
implements and controls the efficient, effective, forward and backward (reverse) flow
and storage of goods, services and information between the point of origin and the
point of consumption in order to meet customers‘ requirements with lesser transit time
and cost (Zakariah and Pyeman,2013)

The goal of inbound and outbound movements are to move the cargo of both
raw materials and finished goods effectively and efficiently, so as to extend the
desired level of customer service at the least cost. Thus, logistics management in a
steel industry starts with ascertaining timely delivery of material at plant for
production and till the availability of material at customer‘s end. Further, in order to
meet the challenge of international competition, industries are finding that they must
now structure their logistics channels and other aspects in order to deliver their
products to the ultimate customers in the best condition, in the shortest time and with
the least total cost (Suwan and Suwanmanee, 2012).

An attempt (Figure 1.1) is made to study the inbound and outbound logistics
cost in Indian steel manufacturing highlighting select ways of logistics cost control
and optimization.

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Also, a Figure 1.2 presents an attempt to understand selective control mechanism of
inbound and outbound logistic cost in Indian steel sector.

3
 Shipping through a
particular shipping line for
both inbound &outbound Using same port for
Using rail movement
transportation for all handling both inbound
longer routes. and outbound
movements.

Using road movement
transportation for all
smaller routes.
Selective control
Bulk procurement
mechanism for along with subsidiary
Inbound and outbound firms for cheaper cost
logistics cost.

Using medium Using import

distance movements
transportation
through multimodal
modes..
boxes for exports
use to the extent
Using end-to-end logistics possible.
for both inbound as well as
outbound.

Figure 1.2: Select control mechanisms for logistics cost in Indian steel sector

Realizing the importance of logistics in Indian steel sector and non-availability

of a systematic study defining the various elements of inbound and outbound
logistics, this study has made an attempt to understand the steel sector in India along
with various elements of logistics. Further, the attempts are extended to understand
the drivers for logistics cost and the barriers to logistics process in the steel sector.
The next section systematically highlights the steel supply chain followed by growth
and relevant statistics of Indian steel sector. Motivation for the research and research
objectives are covered next. Lastly, the brief description of research process is
covered.

1.2 Steel sector at a glance

Steel is one of the most common materials in the world. It is mainly used for
housing, transport, food and water supply, energy production, tools and healthcare.
Nearly everything around us is either made of steel or manufactured by equipment
made of steel. Steel is inextricably linked to economic growth and prosperity.Steel is
a truly innovative material necessary for society to survive and advance. It is
adaptable enough to meet existing and future challenges and has evolved to meet the
challenges of high speed railway, high rise buildings, the revolution in automobile
design, renewable energy and deep sea marine applications(www.worldsteel.com).

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 The steel industry is the second biggest industry in the world after oil and gas
with an estimated global turnover of 900 billion USD. Despite continued turbulence
around the world in 2014, it has been another record year for the steel industry. Crude
steel production totalled 1,665 million tonnes (MT), an increase of 1% compared to
2013. 2014, also saw the emergence of a new phase in steel markets. Forthe past
decade, the steel industry was dominated by events in China. The evidence is that the
steel industry is now entering a period of pause before undoubtedly picking up again
when markets other than China drive new demand(Havenga and Simpson, 2014).

Today, China represents around 48% of the global market for steel. This will
decline in years to come. The impact of urbanisation will have a key role to play in
the future. It is estimated that a little more than 1 billion people will move to towns
and cities between now and 2030. This major flow will create substantial new demand
for steel to be used in infrastructure developments such as water, energy and mass
transit systems as well as major construction and housing programmes (Lin et al.,
2013).

Table 1.1 presents the completion of the top 10 countries of world steel
production (according to ranking in 2014). The biggest steel producing country was
China, which accounted for 21.7% of world steel production in 2014.

Table 1.1: Key country–wise world steel production

Rank Country 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Total(MT)
(2014)

1 China 494.9 500.3 573.6 626.7 683.3 724.7 779 822.69 5451.14

2 Japan 120.2 118.7 87.5 109.6 107.6 107.2 110.6 110.66 1262.16

3 United States 98.1 91.4 58.2 80.6 86.2 88.6 87 88.17 1086.17

4 India 53.5 57.8 62.8 68.3 72.2 77.3 81.2 86.53 617.29

5 South Korea 51.5 53.6 48.6 58.5 68.5 69.3 66 71.54 562.54

6 Russia 72.4 68.5 60 66.9 68.7 70.6 69.4 71.46 607.06

7 Germany 48.6 45.8 32.7 43.8 44.3 42.7 42.6 42.94 526.19

8 Turkey 25.8 26.8 25.3 29 34.1 35.9 34.7 34.03 272.90

9 Brazil 33.8 33.7 26.5 32.8 35.2 34.7 34.2 33.91 332.14

10 Ukraine 42.8 37.3 29.9 33.6 35.3 32.9 32.8 27.17 410.54
(Source: World steel production report:www.worldsteel.com)

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 Further, Figure 1.3, presents the year wise cumulative steel production, it can
be visualized in that steel production cumulatively has shown a significant rise from
about 2200 MnT in year 1970‘s to 3700 MnT in the year 2014.

Year Wise Growth Chart (MT)

4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
MT
1500
1000
500
0
1990 2000 2010 2012 2014

Figure 1.3: Production growth rate in the world

(Source: www.worldsteel.com)

1.2.1 Indian steel sector at a glance

India is the world‘s Fourth-largest producer of crude steel (up from eighth in
2003) and is expected to become the second-largest producer by 2016, (Ahmadet al.,
2015). The growth in the Indian steel sector has been driven by domestic availability
of raw materials such as iron ore and cost-effective labor. Consequently, the steel
sector has been a major contributor to India‘s manufacturing output.

The Indian steel industry is very modern with state-of-the-art steel mills. It has
always strived for continuous modernization and up-gradation of older plants and
higher energy efficiency levels.

Steel production capacity of the country expanded from about 75 Million Tons
Per Annum (MTPA) in 2009-10 to about 90.5 Million Tons (MT) in 2014-15. India
produced 7.4 MT of steel in the month of June 2015 reporting the third highest
production level globally, which was 0.8 per cent higher than the country's steel
production in the same month last year 2014 (Ahmad et al., 2015).

The steel sector in India contributes nearly two per cent of the country‘s gross
domestic product (GDP) and employs over 600,000 people. The per capita

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consumption of total finished steel in the country has risen from 51 Kg in 2009-10 to
about 59 Kg in 2014-15 (Sagar, 2015). India's steel consumption for FY 2015-16 is
estimated to increase by 7 per cent, higher than 2 per cent growth last year, due to
improving economic activity, as per Ministry of Steel & Mining 2014-15
(www.steelmin.gov.in).

Trade and other government policies have significant bearing on competition

issues. Matters of subsidies, non-tariff barriers to trade, discriminatory customs duty
(on exports and imports) etc. May bring in significant distortions in the domestic
market and in the process alter the competitive positioning of individual players in the
market. The specific role of the state in creating market distortion and thereby the
competitive conditions in the market are a well-known issue in this country
(www.steelmin.gov.in).

The total steel production in the country was 87.67 million tons in 2013-14 as
compared to 14.23 Mt in 1991-92.The high share of the other steel products in total
finished steel production is largely due to the substantial availability of raw materials
like sponge iron as well as due to the expansion of capacities and emergence of new
units in these segments. Figure:1.4 represents the steel production in the country on
million tons (www.steelmin.gov.in).

Steel Prduction (millions metric tons)

100.00
90.00
80.00
70.00
60.00
50.00
Steel
40.00 Production
30.00 (MT)
20.00
10.00
0.00
1990 2000 2010 2012 2014

Figure 1.4: Total steel production in India

(Source: www.steelmin.gov.in)

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 Demand for steel is increasing day by day. The overall steel consumption has
been increased substantially during the recent years. It is also visualized that not only
the production steel increased but also consumption followed the trend. Figure 1.5
presents the consumption of steel in the country. It is clear from the graph that
consumption trends are also very fast growing.

Real Consumption in Mn tonnes

80
70
60
50
40
Real
30 Consumption
20 in Mn tonnes

10
0
1992-1993 1997-1998 2002-2003 2007-2008 2013-2014

Figure 1.5: Steel consumption in India

(Source: www.steelmin.gov.in)

It may be noted here that India is seen as a steel surplus country and thus there is
tremendous potential for exports in case the organizations have capability to produce
at competitive price.

Steel is used in every important industry: energy, construction, automotive and

transportation, infrastructure, packaging and machinery. It is also the main material
used in delivering renewable energy such as thermal, solar and tidal power. The
housing and construction sector is the largest consumer of steel today, using around
50% of steel produced. By 2050, steel use is projected to increase to be 1.5 times
higher than present levels in order to meet the needs of a growing population (Ahmad
et al., 2015).

Nearly 17% of steel produced worldwide is used to meet society‘s transport

needs. It is also related to the essential infrastructure: roads, bridges, ports, stations
and airports. Some major applications are:

 For cars and light trucks

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 An average car contains 960 kg of steel and iron. 34% are in the body
structure, panels, doors and trunk closures for high-strength and energy absorption in
case of a crash. 23% are in the drive train, consisting of cast iron for the engine block
and machinable carbon steel for the wear resistant gears. 12% are in the suspension,
using rolled high-strength steel strip. The remainder is found in the wheels, tiers, fuel
tank, steering and breaking systems (www.worldsteel.com).

 For ships and shipping containers

The steel of the ship hull is rolled mild steel. These strong and dimensionally
consistent plates are welded together. Shipping containers are also made of steel.

 For trains and rail cars

Steel makes up 20-25% by mass of high speed trains. The main steel
components of these trains are bogies (structure underneath the trains, including
wheels, axels, bearings and motors). Freight or goods wagons are made almost
entirely of steel.

 For aero planes

Steel is required for the landing gear.

 For infrastructure

Transport networks: steel is used in bridges, tunnels, rail track, and in

constructing buildings such as fueling stations, train stations, ports and airports. About
60% of steel use in infrastructure is re- barred and the rest are used for the
development of rail tracks.

1.2.2 Location of steel manufacturing units in the country

Indian steel industry is in an advantageous condition on account of low cost

manufacturing and access to technology. Also, with the increase in in-house
consumption of steel, various manufacturers have set up their manufacturing plants
across different places. Typically steel industry requires very high flow of inbound
material (mostly iron ore and steel) as it is bulky and having very high volume and a
relatively low flow of out bound material flow (as the finished steel is less in quantity
and volume). Thus, steel plants are located at different places which are logistically
suitable to them.

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 An attempt is made to study the location of steel manufacturing units in India.
Figure -1.6 presents the location of major steel manufacturing units in the country.

Figure 1.6: Location of major steel manufacturing units in India

(Source: www.steel.gov.in; browsed on 16 January, 2016)

1.3 Indian manufacturing sector at a glance

The Manufacturing sector‘s contribution to the GDP has stagnated at 16%, and
India‘s share in world manufacturing is only 1.8% raising need to focus more in this
area (Sagar et al., 2014). These statistics clearly indicate that while manufacturing has
not been the engine of growth for the Indian economy, it now needs to grow at a much
faster rate. Key statistics and insights (Ministry of Steel, Steel association of India
and CII Annual report, 2015) on Indian manufacturing sector are as followings:

It is set to contribute 25 percent to the GDP by 2025 compared to the current

share of nearly 15 percent and employing about 12.0 per cent of India‘s labor force.
Manufacturing Sector has been matching the strong pace in overall GDP growth over
the past few years. It has high contribution in Indian GDP growth. Industrialized
countries are likely to grow at about 3.5 per cent per year in nominal US Dollar terms
between 2010 and 2025, while developing and emerging economies are projected to
grow at around 8.0 per cent. The advanced economies‘ share in global GDP is

10
projected to fall from 65.0 per cent in 2011 to 51.0 per cent by 2025, while the share
of emerging economies is projected to increase from 35.0 per cent to about 49.0 per
cent over the same period. The sectoral growth rates broadly consistent with the 9.0
per cent and 9.5 per cent alternatives are presented in Table 1.2

Table 1.2: Sector wise growth rates - previous plans and target for twelfth plan
IX Xth XIth XIIth
Plan Plan Plan Plan
Average 9% 9.5%
Agriculture, Forestry & Fishing 2.5 2.3 3.2 4 4.2
Mining & Quarrying 4 6 4.7 8 8.5
Manufacturing 3.3 9.3 7.7 9.8 11.5
Elect. Gas & Water Supply 4.8 6.8 6.4 8 .5 9.0
Construction 7.1 11.8 7.8 10 11
Trade, Hotels & Restaurant 7.5 9.6 7 11 11.2
Transport, Storage & Communication 8.9 13.8 12.5 11 11.2
Financing, Insurance, Real Estate & 8 9.9 10.7 10 10.5
Business services
Community, Social & Personal Services 7.7 5.3 9.4 8 8
Total GDP 5.5 7.8 8.2 9 9.5
Industry 4.3 9.4 7.4 9.6 10.9
Services 7.9 9.3 10 10 10

(Source: www.planningcomission.gov.in: Planning commission Indian, 12th Plan)

The 9.0 per cent target requires a significant acceleration in growth in

agriculture; in electricity, gas and water supply; and manufacturing.

a) The Indian Steel Manufacturing sector employed 6 million people in 2014.

By 2020, it is estimated, based on current economic projections, that this
sector will employ a further 15–18 million (CII, Annual Report, 2014).

a) Indian steel manufacturing sector also contributes 2 percent to the nation‘s

GDP (www.steelmin.gov.in).

1.4 Importance of logistics in Indian steel industry

Logistics is a critical factor for supply chain benchmarking, because it brings a

necessary level of objective regarding performance evaluation. Benchmarking
internally or against external operations can be profitable and increase revenue.
However, in the operation of logistic cost, firms are unable to collect accurate cost

11
information and allocate the related costs of logistics activities to specific cost objects,
because traditional accounting system and records cannot obtain necessary
information about components of logistics costs.

Logistics is critical part of a supply chain in steel manufacturing, In the

relationship between suppliers and customers, logistic cost knowledge is essential.
The overall profitability of a firm depends not only upon whether the sales prices can
recover product costs, but upon also whether this gross margin is enough to cover the
cost-of-serving the customer (Shapiro, 1987). The cost of serving the customer
includes order-related costs, plus specific logistic, selling and administrative
expenses. By knowing the cost-to-serve, companies can safeguard profitability, even
in a very competitive environment (Foster, 1996).

Logistics cost within and across-firms are further underscored in most out-
sourcing cases. For most companies, the costs are beyond their legal boundaries.
Activities that used to be performed in-house are now out-sourced to service
providers. For the majority of organizations, if logistics costs are beyond the business
boundaries, a bigger opportunities for cost improvement will also be found in that
wider supply chain.

The inbound and outbound, logistics are an important key to become a

successful of a company. The subject of logistics is very dynamic and various
pressures externally influence it. Figure 1.7 presents an attempt to understand logistics
systems under the influence of such pressures.

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 Figure 1.7: Typical environmental pressure influencing logistics system

The foremost goal of both inbound and outbound logistics is to satisfy

customers‘ demands with effective cost. Previously, companies have tried to reduce
costs by looking for cheaper supply while customer service level might be reduced.
(Rushton et al., 2005) gave an equation to express that

―Inbound and outbound Logistics = Supply + Materials management +

Distribution”.

Visualizing a critical literature gap and strong need from professionals to

develop a holistic solution towards optimization of logistics cost in Indian steel
industry, the present research made and attempt to study Inbound and Outbound of
logistics cost in current scenario of Indian steel industry. This research is focused
exclusively on logistics cost in Indian steel sectors, their inter-relationships, impact on
organization performance and applicability of suitable strategy.

Typically, in the Indian context where studies in this area are negligible. There
is a need of study on logistics and related cost in the content of any organization of
Indian steel industries.

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1.4 Need and motivation of the study

In today‘s highly competitive and global marketplace the pressure on

organizations to find new ways to create and deliver value to customers grows ever
stronger. The increasing need of industry to compete with its products in a global
market, across cost, quality and service dimensions, has driven the need to develop
logistic systems more efficient than those traditionally employed. Therefore, in the
last two decades, logistics has moved from an operational function to the corporate
function level. There has been a growing recognition that it is through an effective
logistics management that the goal of cost reduction and service enhancement can be
achieved.

Logistics is one of the main functions of any organization. Typically, for steel
industries logistics acts as a key differentiator in performance as it is activity for the
major cost element. Exorbitant logistic cost (14% of the total value of goods) in India
is primarily responsible for making goods uncompetitive and may further erode the
competitiveness in the international market unless corrective measures are not taken
(www.steel.gov.in).

It is visualized that logistics functions for steel manufacturing organizations

are very complex in nature. On one side, it has to deal with import operation, which
demands for very high inbound cost, simultaneously keeping the regulations of both
countries. Under such condition, logistic cost for steel sector is influenced by series of
factor including government regulations market, international policy, social, political
conditions, market uncertainty etc issues. Figure 1.8 presents an approach to illustrate
the impact on these pressures on inbound and outbound logistics in Indian steel sector.

14
 Figure 1.8: Brief description of key motivations for this research

Government
regula tions

Globa l Ma rkets

Competitive
Pressures

Colla bora tion a nd

Pa rtnership

Integra ted
process

New Technology Need and

Motivation for
the study of

15
inbound and
Complica ted Ta x outbound
Structure logistics in
Indian Steel
Sector
Ea sily a ccessible
informa tion

Disruptions a nd
Vulnera bility

Interna tiona l Rules

a nd Regula tions

Evolution on current
Practices

La ck of
infra structure

Socio-Politica l
issues
 Finally, summarizing the findings from the review of literature and in depth
field research, the motivation on study of inbound and outbound logistics can be
attributed to

 Limited literature reported on inbound and outbound cost especially on steel

sector.
 Logistics is backbone in steel sector in Indian context. However, logistics
common framework is missing in industries. Indian steel industry can gain
competitiveness with focus on logistics cost.
 Logistics cost is a prime driver for gaining international competitiveness for
steel sector.
 Practitioners also are in need of a methodology to understand the subject of
inbound and outbound logistics and attempts to control logistics cost.

1.5 Objectives of study

Based on the literature review and insights gained from discussion with
academicians, professionals and practitioners, the major research objectives are
conceptualized as:

Following are the subset of main research objectives

1. Study on inbound and outbound logistics in Indian steel manufacturing context

to identify the relevant issues.

2. Identify the elements of logistics cost for Indian steel manufacturing

industries.

3. To understand and optimize inbound and outbound logistics value chain.

4. Identify the key barriers for both inbound and outbound logistics and develop
model for understanding hierarchy.

5. To understand the logistics cost from practitioners perspective and to identify

measures of logistics cost reduction.

1.6 Scope of the study

This research is restricted to study of Inbound and out bound logistics in

Indian Steel industry. The study is restricted to cover logistics of major steel plants
only (plants with turnover of less than 5000 crores Indian currency are not covered).

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 The scope is further restricted to study of various inbound and outbound
logistics cost elements and other issues on logistics such as unavailability of logistics
support partner, material handling are not considered in the scope of the present work

The study is restricted for value chain analysis of logistics process entire steel
value chain is beyond the scope of the present research.

The study for inbound logistics cost is covered from the material loading at
shipper‘s warehouse until the material reaches at buyer‘s warehouse or plant site. All
inbound logistics cost during these process are taken care on this study.

Similarly, for outbound logistics is covered starting from material packing,

lashing, choking and stuffing from plant warehouse until material reaches at overseas
customer‘s warehouse.

Operational logistics cost is not considered for the present study, this is
considered very less as compared to inbound and outbound logistics cost.

1.7 Brief chapterization scheme

Figure 1.9: Presents the chapterization scheme adopted for present research work

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 Introduction
Chapter 1

Literature Review
Chapter 2

Research Methodology
Chapter 3

An Assessment on Logistics Cost

Chapter 4

Modeling the Barriers Influencing of

Inbound and Outbound Logitics Cost Chapter 5

Case Study Analysis for Company A and

Company B Chapter 6

Analysis of Case for Inbound and Outbound

Logistics Chapter 7

Summary and Conclusions Chapter 8

Figure 1.9: Chapterization scheme adopted for the present research work

The thesis is divided into following sections (chapters)

Chapter 2

This chapter covers the review of literature. Literature relating to the study of
inbound and outbound logistics discussed. The literature on supply chain and
logistics, logistics cost, inbound logistics and outbound logistics and other studies in
logistics management in Indian context are discussed in detail. Literature on various

18
tools and techniques used in supply chain is also discussed and highlighted in this
chapter. Finally, gaps in literature are identified and the research objectives are being
proved.

Chapter 3

This chapter covers the research methodology adopted for present research.
This chapter defines the methodology in terms of the research design, method of data
collection and the analysis of the data along with brief about the case based approach
is carried in this chapter. The chapter covers the justification of various tools and
techniques.

Chapter 4

This chapter presents the analysis of cost elements on the context of Indian
steel industry. Statistical tools like regression analysis and chi-square test are used to
arrive at the research finding.

Chapter 5

This chapter presents the application of ISM (The interpretive Structural

Modeling) approach which is applied to the logistics barriers and the logistics cost.
The chapter presents the analysis and the hierarchical model for logistics barriers.

Chapter 6

In this chapter, both inbound and outbound logistics process for company A
and B are discussed. Case methodology is used to understand the logistics
performance for both company A and B. Value Stream Mapping is done based upon
the current practices with a vision to improve the logistics performances.

Chapter 7

This chapter discusses the major findings from the case study analysis of A
and B Steel Companies in India by mapping value chain and identifying VA and
NVA activities, further, warehousing model and its application in the evaluation and
comparisons in reduction of logistics cost.

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Chapter 8

In this chapter, thesis summary and key findings are presented thoroughly
.Industrial, research implications are highlighted, and salient contributions are
presented. Finally limitations of the study and future directions are provided.

1.8 Summary

This chapter presented the need of the research along with detail background
of inbound and outbound logistics, its relevance in manufacturing of steel products,
need for the study in steel sector, key objectives, scope of this study and workflow of
entire thesis. The study undertaken is an attempt towards the identification of
important key challenges in inbound and outbound logistics in the context of Indian
steel sector.

The subsequent chapter presents the literature review and lays the theoretical
background for the study.

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