ITM SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE, PLANNING AND DESIGN

RAIPUR, CHHATTISGARH

BATCH 2017-2022

DISSERTATION REPORT-

NATURAL VENTILATION IN RESIDENTIAL BUILDING

HASHMI FATIMA HAIDARI

FIFTH YEAR

B-ARCH

INTERNAL GUIDE: PROF. AR. MUSTUFA AHMED

EXTERNAL GUIDE: AR. NAMRITA GUPTA

ITM SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE, PLANNING AND DESIGN

RAIPUR, CHHATTISGARH

BATCH 2017-2022

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project report on “STUDY OF NATURAL VENTILATION IN

RESIDENTIAL BUILDING” is an original work carried out by Ms. Hashmi Fatima
haidari, as a partial fulfillment of degree of Bachelor of Architecture, in the
academic year of 2021-22 of ITM University, Schoolof Architecture, Planning and
Design.
No part of this project has been presented/ submitted for any other degree
or diploma,fellowship or any other similar title.

Place: Raipur

Date- 09-11-202 (Prof. Ar. Mustufa Ahmed)

 ABSTRACT

The design of the building has a major impact on the operation of natural ventilation for the
comfort of the residents of the building. Most ventilation sizes are smaller in relation to the
heat dissipation of the interior surfaces (floor, ceiling and wall) of the building. In this
research work, mainly the climatic conditions were taken into account. A study was carried
out by directly observing the comfort level of residents in relation to the environmental
parameters: air temperature, skin temperature, radiant temperature, humidity and air velocity.
It was observed that in wet weather most residents preferred a "no change" option for window
opening size and preference an increase in the opening size for better air intake in dry
weather. This was due to several factors such as: B. poor alignment of the building on the
site, poor design, location and window sizes.

KEYWORDS: NATURAL VENTILATION, TERMAL COMFORT, ENVIORNMENT,

AIR FLOW.
 CONTENT LIST
1. CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 AIM OF PROJECT
1.3 SCOPE OF STUDY
1.4 DEFINATION OF TERM USED
1.5 LIMITATIONS
2. CHAPTER TWO : HISTORY AND LITERATURE
2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1.1 VENTILATION
2.2.1 CONCEPTS AND TYPES OF NATURAL VENTILATION
2.2.2 THE DRIVING FORCE OF NATURAL VENTILATION
2.2.3 THEORY & CALCULATION OF VENTILATION TYPES
2.2.4 TYPES OF NATURAL VENTILATION SYSTEMS
2.2.4.1 SINGLE DOOR CORRIDOR
2.2.4.2 CENTRAL CORRIDOR TYPE
2.2.4.3 COURTYARD TYPE
2.2.4.4 WIND TOWER TYPE
2.2.4.5 ATRIUM AND CHIMNEY TYPE
2.2.5 NATURAL VENTILATION PASSIVE TECHNIQUES
2.2.5.1 WINDOW, VENTILATORS, EXTERNAL SUNSHADE
OR OPERTABLE SKYLIGHT
2.2.5.2 VENTILATED DOUBLE-SKIN FACADE
2.2.5.3 SOLAR CHIMNEY
3. CHAPTER THREE : DESIGN AND OPERATION
3.1 DESIGN CONSIDERATION
3.2 DESIGNING FOR NATURAL AND HYDRID VENTILATION
SYSTEM.
3.3 VENT SIZING
3.4 THREE MAJOR DESIGN ELEMENTS OF NATURAL
VENTILATION.
3.4.1 SITE DESIGN
3.4.2 BUILDING DESIGN
 3.4.3 VENT OPENING DESIGN
4. CHAPTER FOUR: THERMAL COMFORT
4.1 IMPORTANCE OF THERMAL CONFORT
4.2 FACTOR DETERMINING THERMAL COMFORT
4.3 OPERATIVE TEMPREATURE
4.4 THERMAL SENSITIVITY OF INDIVIDUALS
4.5 GENDER DIFFERENCES
4.6 MODELS OF THERMAL COMFORT
4.7 BODY THEMOREGULATION
4.8 HEAT TRANSFER BETWEEN BODY AND ENVIORNMENT.
4.9 ENVIORNMENT INDICES
4.10 INDOOR AIR QUALITY (IAQ)
4.10.1 INDOOR CONAMINANS
4.10.2 RADON
4.10.3 GASES FROM LANDFILL AND WASTE SITE
4.10.4 COMBUSITION PRODUCTS
4.10.5 ENVIORNMENT TOBBACCO SMOKE
4.10.6 FORMALDEHYDE
4.10.7 VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
4.10.8 METABOLIC GASES HUMIDITY

5. CHAPTER FIVE: A SYNOPSIS OF INDIAN CLIMATIC ZONES

6. CHAPTER SIX: INDIAN STANDARD CODE FOR NATURAL

VENTILATION IN RESIDENTIAL BUILDING

7.CHAPTET SEVEN: CASE STUDY

7.1 QUEEN’S BUILDING, UK

7.2 KANCHENJUNGA APARTMENT, MUMBAI
7.3 NEWTON SUITES, SINGAPORE
7.4 MOULMEIN RISE, SINGAPORE
8. CONCLUSION

8.1 FUTURE PROSPECTS OF NATURAL VENTILATION & THE

EMERGENCE OF HYBRID STRATEGIES
CHAPTER ONE

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Buildings come in wide amount of shapes and function. They serve several needs of
society-primarily as general living space and as shelter toward un-favorable weather and
to provide privacy, to store belongings and to comfortably live and work. However, many
designers and developers nowadays tend to be more emphasized in building aesthetic and
profit rather than the comfort of occupants based occupants. Ventilation is the intentional
movement of air from outside a building to the inside. Natural ventilation occurs when
the air in a space is changed with outdoor air without the use of mechanical systems, such
as a fan. Most often natural ventilation is assured through operable windows but it can
also be achieved through temperature and pressure differences between spaces. Natural
ventilation systems rely on pressure differences to move fresh air through buildings.
Pressure differences can be caused by wind or the buoyancy effect created by temperature
differences or differences in humidity. In either case, the amount of ventilation will
depend critically on the size and placement of openings in the building.

It is useful to think of a natural ventilation system as a circuit, with equal consideration

given to supply and exhaust. Openings between rooms such as transom windows, louvers,
grills, or open plans are techniques to complete the airflow circuit through a building.
Natural Ventilation systems rely on natural driving forces, such as wind and temperature
difference between a building and its environment, to drive the flow of fresh air through a
building. Both work on the principle of air moving from a high pressure to a low pressure
zone.

Natural ventilation can be an appropriate choice when compared to air conditioning in the
tropic climate of India, particularly as the nights are cool and this can be used to pre-cool
the building. It can save substantial amounts of energy by decreasing or eliminating the
need for mechanical cooling. It may also improve the building‘s indoor air quality.
Buildings with well-designed natural ventilation systems often provide very comfortable
and pleasant environments for the occupants.

Natural ventilation systems are usually integrated into building systems where there is
some mechanical support; these are called mixed mode or hybrid ventilation buildings.
The main benefit of some action or process of making by mechanical systems is that there
is less unpredictability with indoor environment conditions, though it will result in greater
energy use. Almost all historic buildings were ventilated naturally, although many of
these have been compromised by the addition of partition walls and mechanical systems.
With an increased awareness of the cost and environmental impacts of energy use, natural
ventilation has become an increasingly attractive method for reducing energy use and cost
and for providing acceptable indoor environmental quality and maintaining a healthy,
comfortable, and productive indoor climate rather than the more prevailing approach of
using mechanical ventilation. In favorable climates and buildings types, natural
 ventilation can be used as an alternative to air-conditioning plants, saving 10%-30% of
total energy consumption.

1.2 AIM OF PROJECT

To provides an overview of natural ventilation in buildings and its potential benefits and
issues to overcome. It also describes the advanced technologies and natural ventilation
strategies available to maximize the performance of natural ventilation systems.

1.3 SCOPE OF STUDY

The study will cover the warm tropical climate south-western region of of the India. The
climatic conditions (temperature, wind and humidity) of the region would be studied and
rates of wind and humidity with actual intensity of the sun taken into account to be the
factors to consider in designing for adequate opening percentage against the floor area for
maximum operation of natural ventilation within residential buildings.

1.4 DEFINATION OF TERM USED

Ventilation: Movement of air from outside a building to the inside.
Buoyancy: Is the measure of the rate of the effect pressure of wind or air force.
Natural ventilation: This occurs when the air in a space is changed with outdoor air
without the use of mechanical systems, such as a fan.
Air Flow: This is the rate of movement of wind within or outside the building.
Stack Effect: The is the system of natural ventilation which involves the entry of fresh air
through an opening at lower level of positioning and escape of warmer less dense air
through a higher level positioned opening in a building.
Atrium: A courtyard within a building which provides only lighting but not ventilation.
Prevailing Wind: The wind that operates at a particular time which is a function of air
flow at that period.
Metabolism: This is the chemistry of human body to be sensitive to temperature change.
Thermoregulation: Is the function of the body to be able to regulate heat in order to adapt
to the temperature of the environment it finds itself.
CDD: Cooling degree day.
HDD: Heating degree day.

1.5 LIMITATIONS
 It doesn’t contain detailed study related to climate conditions in different regions of
the country.
 It doesn’t contain detail calculation or derivation related using given formulas below.
 It only focuses on residential building I.S code 1997.
CHAPTER TWO

2. LITERATURE REVIEW
In early years, as well as in developing areas, humans did not have the technology to
ventilate their buildings through mechanical and electrical components. Yet, they were
able to sufficiently provide ventilation by designing their buildings in such a way that
would allow for decent ventilation without any electricity or power.

As the name suggests, natural ventilation involves the exchange of air between the inside
and outside of a building through natural methods. This approach often utilizes naturally
available forces, such as wind and pressure. By implementing natural ventilation, plenty
of electricity can be saved with little to no decrease in internal air quality, provided the
building is designed in a suitable manner. Furthermore, without using as much energy,
fewer emissions are released into the atmosphere, helping to prevent further damage to
the environment. In addition to the initially drawn parallels, fundamental differences
between architecture and biology can also be identified. Taking these differences into
consideration can lead to a change in perspective and to an expansion of possibilities for
architects and engineers.

FIG.2.1- Natural Ventilation (Dyer Environmental Controls, 2010).

2.1.1 VENTILATION
Ventilation moves outdoor air into a building or a room, and distributes the air within the
building or room. The general purpose of ventilation in buildings is to provide healthy air
for breathing by both diluting the pollutants originating in the building and removing the
pollutants from it.

Building ventilation has three basic elements:

• Ventilation Rate — the amount of outdoor air that is provided into the space, and the
quality of the outdoor air;

• Airflow Direction — the overall airflow direction in a building, which should be from
clean zones to dirty zones; and

• Air Distribution or Airflow Pattern — the external air should be delivered to each
part of the space in an efficient manner and the airborne pollutants generated in each part
of the space should also be removed in an efficient manner.

There are three methods that may be used to ventilate a building: natural, mechanical and
hybrid (mixed-mode) ventilation.

If well installed and maintained, there are several advantages of a natural ventilation
system, compared with mechanical ventilation systems.

• Natural ventilation can generally provide a high ventilation rate more economically,
due to the use of natural forces and large openings.

• Natural ventilation can be more energy efficient, particularly if heating is not required.

• Well-designed natural ventilation could be used to access higher levels of daylight.

In general, the advantage of natural ventilation is its ability to provide a very high air
change rate at low cost, with a very simple system. Although the air-change rate can vary
significantly, buildings with modern natural ventilation systems (that are designed and
operated properly) can achieve very high air-change rates by natural forces, which can
greatly exceed minimum ventilation requirements.

From a technology point of view, natural ventilation may be classified into simple natural
26 ventilation systems and high tech natural ventilation systems. The latter are computer
controlled, and may be assisted by mechanical ventilation systems (i.e. hybrid or mixed
mode systems). High-tech natural ventilation may have the same limitations as
mechanical ventilation systems; however, it also has the benefits of both mechanical and
natural ventilation systems.

2.2.1 Concepts and Types of Natural Ventilation.

There are a number of drawbacks to a natural ventilation system.
1. Natural ventilation is variable and depends on outside climatic conditions
relative to the indoor environment. The two driving forces that generate the
airflow rate (i.e. wind and temperature difference) vary stochastically.
2. Natural ventilation may be difficult to control, with airflow being
uncomfortably high in some locations and stagnant in others. There is a
possibility of having a low air-change rate during certain un-favorable climate
conditions.
 3. There can be difficulty in controlling the airflow direction due to the absence of
a well-sustained negative pressure; contamination of corridors and adjacent
rooms is therefore a risk.
4. Natural ventilation only works when natural forces are available; when a high
ventilation rate is required, the requirement for the availability of natural forces
is also correspondingly high.
5. Natural ventilation systems often do not work as expected, and normal
operation may be interrupted for numerous reasons, including windows or doors
not open, 27 equipment failure (if it is a high-tech system), utility service
interruption (if it is a high-tech system), poor design, poor maintenance or
incorrect management.
6. Although the maintenance cost of simple natural ventilation systems can be
very low, if a natural ventilation system cannot be installed properly or
maintained due to a shortage of funds, its performance can be compromised,
causing an increase in the risk of the transmission of airborne pathogens.
7. These difficulties can be overcome, for example, by using a better design or
hybrid (mixed-mode) ventilation. Other possible drawbacks, such as noise, air
pollution, insect vectors and security, also need to be considered. Because of
these problems, natural ventilation systems may result in the spread of
infectious diseases through health-care facilities, instead of being an important
tool for infection control.
2.2.2 THE DRIVING FORCE OF NATURAL VENTILATION.
Two forces can move the air inside buildings:
1. Wind pressure
2. Stack pressure (buoyancy)

WIND PRESSURE
When wind collides with a building, different pressures are observed from
different sides of the building. The side that the wind is blowing into would
have a higher air pressure than the opposite side; this would cause the air on
the side with the higher pressure to flow to an area of lower pressure, which
in this case would be the building‘s interior (Wikipedia, 2010). Another
opening on the low pressure side would allow the interior air to circulate
outwards to the side with the lower air pressure.

Using natural air to ventilate a building is not only less expensive, but also
less damaging to the environment thanks to the utilization of equipment that
consumes a much lower amount of energy than mechanical systems. With a
properly designed building, using natural wind could result in ventilation
quality that is just as high as what could be achieved with a system that
consumes more energy.
Fig. 2.2: The wind comes from the left (high pressure), flows through the building,
and flows out into the low pressure area (at the skylight on the other side of the
building). This combines wind-driven and stack-driven ventilation

To improve the flow of air through a building, a wind catcher may be utilized
at the building‘s opening to better direct the incoming air. Wind catchers have
been used to naturally ventilate buildings for the past few centuries, and are
generally quite efficient in improving air circulation throughout the building.
Fig. 2.2, seen above, shows the effect a wind catcher would have; as the wind
blows towards the closed side of the building, it must flow around it, and as it
passes the opening, drags the air from inside the building outwards as well.
This is known as the Coandă effect (Wisegeek, 2010), which is very
commonly seen when the flow of a fluid is distorted as it flows past an object;
the fluid is attracted to the surface of the object. In this manner, fresh air is
constantly supplied throughout the building. It should be noted that many
wind catchers can be controlled to open and close at different sides to suit the
direction of the travelling wind.

Advantages:
1. Relies on natural force (wind).
2. When it works, it works to a very high magnitude.
3. Suitable for most areas in the world, as wind is all over the planet.
4. Relatively inexpensive.
5. Fewer emissions, as less energy is consumed.
Disadvantages:
 1. Uncontrollable factors, such as speed and direction of wind.
2. Can bring polluted air into buildings.
3. Strong winds would result in cooler temperatures that cannot be controlled.

Stack-Driven Ventilation

The stack-effect (Bright Hub, 2010) is based on the fact that warmer air rises
as cooler air falls. This is due to differing densities; when air is heated, it
becomes less dense, allowing it to rise, pushing cooler air downwards.
Creating an upward air stream, this concept is very important in the stack-
driven method of ventilation. In order for this method to work, the climate
must be right, meaning the interior of the building should contain warmer air
than the air outside. With openings at the lower levels and top of the
building, the warm air inside would rise and leave the building through the
openings at the top, while cooler air from outside would flow in through the
openings near the bottom. . A greater temperature difference would make this
system very effective.

This phenomenon in action in conjunction with a wind-driven system; the

cool air enters the building at the lower level of the building as the warmer
air from inside is forced out through the skylight.

Furthermore, pressure is also involved in the stack effect. At the point in

between the warm and cool air is the area of neutral pressure; any point
below this would be at a lower pressure, thus drawing in the air from the
outside. Above the neutral pressure line, the pressure is higher, forcing air
out through openings near the top into lower pressure areas outside.

Advantages:

1. Does not require wind; can work even when the surrounding air is
completely still.
2. Relies on natural force (pressure and temperature differences).
3. More control with regards to where the openings in the building are.
4. Uses almost no energy compared to conventional methods, saving money
and the Environment.

Disadvantage:
1. Cannot control exterior temperature.
2. Can bring polluted air into building.

2.2.3 Theory and Calculations of Ventilation Types

 Although calculations involved in this topic are fairly minimal, the most important
factor is volumetric flow rate of air. This helps to determine how much air is being
circulated throughout the interior of the building, and with proper knowledge of the
variables involved, circulation can be controlled to a minor degree.

Wind-driven Ventilation

Equation 1 below illustrates how to find the air flow rate for the wind driven ventilation
system.

Q wind = K*A*V (1)

where...

Q wind = Volumetric flow rate of air (m3 /h)

K = Coefficient of effectiveness

A = Opening cross sectional area (m2 )

V = Outdoor wind speed (m/h)

The coefficient of effectiveness is largely dependent on the angle at which the wind hits
the building; for angles of 45 degrees, this figure is generally estimated to be around
0.4, while 31 wind hitting the building at a perpendicular angle would result in a value
of around 0.8.

From this equation, it can be concluded that the only controllable factor is the cross
sectional area of the opening. This can be adjusted during different months to optimize
ventilation. For example, in the summer months where cool, fresh air is desired almost
constantly, the area of the opening should be set higher. On the other hand, during the
winter months, when the air in the interior is already cool, the opening area should be
decreased such that only a necessary amount of ventilation for keeping the air clean and
fresh is achieved. Controlling the opening cross sectional area could involve window or
covers.

Similarly to wind-driven ventilation, cross sectional area of the openings is the main
control factor in the stack-driven ventilation system. The height at which the lower
level opening is installed may also be changed by incorporating a sliding cover over a
large opening, but this would not make a very significant difference to the flow rate of
the air unless the opening was made overly large.

2.2.4 Types of Natural Ventilation Systems

Natural ventilation systems are classified by their basic architectural design elements
(corridors, courtyards, wind towers, chimneys, etc.). These building elements define the
routes of airflow, as well as the basic natural ventilation strategy.
There are six basic types of natural ventilation systems:
• Single-Side Corridor
• Central Corridor
• Courtyard
• Wind Tower
• Atrium and Chimney
• Hybrid (Mixed-Mode) Ventilation.

It is possible to combine some of these systems to suit the local climate and particular
building.

2.2.4.1 Single-Side Corridor

In the single-side corridor type of natural ventilation system, the corridor is on one side
of the building. The airflow is a single directional flow either from the room to the
corridor or from the corridor to the room, depending on the wind incident direction.
This single directional flow can help to prevent cross-infection. The design of the
windows is crucial for this type of design: it is better to position the windows in line
with the ward door to create the path for cross-ventilation.

Fig. 2.3: single-side corridor

2.2.4.2 Central Corridor Type

The central corridor type of natural ventilation system is derived from the single-side
corridor type by adding another series of rooms on the other side of the corridor. The
possible airflow path would be from one room to the corridor, and then to the room on
the other side. When the wind is parallel to the windows, adding a wing wall helps to
drive the outdoor air to enter the wards first, and exit from the central corridor. A
central corridor type of floor layout would result in possibly contaminated air moving
from the upstream room to the downstream room.

2.2.4.3 Courtyard Type

Courtyards are traditionally enclosed zones that can help to channel and direct the
overall airflow and thus modify the microclimate around the buildings. Based on the
relative position of rooms and corridor to the courtyard, this type of natural ventilation
system can be divided into the inner corridor and outer corridor subtypes This system
can supply more ventilation than the others, as long as the courtyard is sufficiently
large. The outer corridor type has an advantage over the inner type, because it can avoid
cross-infection via connected corridors by delivering clean outdoor air into the corridor
first.

Fig. 2.4: courtyard type

2.2.4.4 Wind Tower Type

A wind tower type of natural ventilation system can capture the wind at roof level and
direct it down to the rest of the building. Weatherproof louvers are installed to protect
the interior of the building and volume control dampers are used to moderate flow.
Stale air is extracted on the leeward side. The wind tower is normally divided into four
quadrants, which can run the full length of the building and become air intakes or
extractors depending on wind direction.

Fig. 2.5: wind tower type

2.2.4.5 Atrium and Chimney Type

An atrium or chimney can help to increase the natural ventilation potential. An atrium
or chimney type of natural ventilation system can be a side-atrium or chimney type, or
a central atrium or chimney type, depending on the relative position of the rooms, and
the atrium or chimney. Outdoor air is sucked into the rooms through the windows by
the stack (or buoyancy) effect. After diluting the contaminated air in the room, the hot
and polluted air converges in the atrium or chimney and discharges through the top
openings. The applicability of this type of design will mainly rely on the height of the
chimney, the indoor– outdoor temperature difference and its interaction with the
background wind. This approach may be combined with motor-driven dampers and
pressure sensors to control airflows and overcome some of the limitations of natural
ventilation.

Fig. 2.6: Atrium and chimney type

2.2.5 NATURAL VENTILATION PASSIVE TECHNIQUES

2.2.5.1 windows, ventilation, external sunshade or operatable skylights

These are the basic and most commonly used, low cost and low maintenance
systems of natural ventilation. All the principles of wind driven ventilation and
stack ventilation can be applied to these techniques

Table2.1 window setting types

2.2.5.2 ventilated double-skin façade

It is a concept in which the air movement happens in the void between the two
layers of facades. This technique is widely used in commercial building and
skyscrapers.

FIG 2.7 Double skin facade

2.2.5.3 solar chimney

This is one of the construction techniques based on stack ventilation, which

promotes air movement throughout the building by using solar energy in order
to create an exhausting effect.

Stack effect occurs due to a difference in air density resulting from temperature
and moisture difference from interior to exterior. It is mostly used in residential
building and housings.

Fig 2.8 solar chimney type

CHAPTER THREE

3. DESIGN AND OPERATION

3.1 Design Considerations

Because building design is crucial for natural ventilation to be effective, there are many
considerations that must be taken into account when constructing a building that will be
using natural ventilation. A few of these are listed below.

1. Location
2. Building Orientation
3. Dimensions
4. Opening (i.e. windows, doors, chimneys) placement, and ensuring these
openings are not obstructed
5. Wall placement
6. Wind direction
7. Depth under the ground the building is built at thermal capacity.

Ideally, a building utilizing natural ventilation should have openings in lower levels,
as well as near the top. This would allow for the stack effect to take place, and if
designed well, wind-driven and stack-driven ventilation could combine to provide
optimal air circulation. Fig. 3.1 below illustrates this; as the wind reaches the left
side of the building (high pressure side), cool air is pushed through the interior,
shown by the blue arrows. This in turn pushes the warmer interior air out the right
side (low pressure side), denoted by the red arrows. At the same time, as the cool air
enters through the lower levels of the building, the warm air inside is forced
upwards as it is less dense. This air then leaves the building through the openings at
the top of the building, denoted by the orange arrows.

Fig 3.1 Optimal air circulation

Fig. 3.1: Effective building design can combine wind and stack driven ventilations.

3.2 Designing for natural and hybrid ventilation systems

When developing the design concept for a naturally ventilated building for infection
control, three basic steps are involved.

1. Specify the desired airflow pattern from the inlet openings, through the rooms and
other building spaces such as corridors, to the outlet openings. This is associated with
the form (single corridor, central corridor, courtyard, etc.) and organization (relative
location of the nursing station, offices, storage, etc.) of the building, which in turn
depends on its intended use and site conditions, such as prevailing winds.

2. Identify the main available driving forces that enable the desired airflow pattern to
be achieved. The effective strategies for infection control tend to be mostly wind
driven, although the stack-driven strategy may also work if designed properly. A
combined wind-driven and stack-driven flow needs to be considered where necessary
and feasible. In some cases, hybrid (mixed-mode) ventilation may be used and these
natural forces can be supplemented by fans. In a good design, the available dominating
driving forces are in synergy with the intended flow pattern.

3. Size and locate the openings so that the required ventilation rates can be delivered
under all operating regimes. This is, in itself, a three-step process. First, the ventilation
rates need to be determined based on the infection control. Second, the openings need
to be sized and located to deliver these airflow rates under design 36 conditions. Third,
a control system needs to be designed to maintain the required flow rates under varying
weather and occupancy conditions.

A general procedure for natural ventilation design includes several components.

• Architectural design — architects and engineers must initially set the global geometric
configuration of the system (e.g. siting of the building and landscape configuration,
overall building form, and approximate positions of fresh air inlets and air exhausts),
considering both dominant and prevailing wind conditions, as well as unusual
conditions by time of day and season.

• System layout and component selection — the designer will then lay out the airflow
paths from inlet to outlet that will achieve the desired airflow objective (e.g. for the
purpose of infection control and thermal comfort) and then select the types of airflow
components (e.g. windows, doors, vents, solar chimneys) that will provide the desired
control of airflow.

• Opening (door, window, vent etc) size — the designer will then size the components
selected considering the ventilation requirements and relevant climatic conditions. Both
the indoor and outdoor design conditions (and design criteria) need to be considered.
• Design control strategy — the designer must then develop a strategy for controlling
ventilation flow to the design objectives when the operating conditions vary. At this
stage, both hardware and software for control may need to be chosen to implement the
control strategy if a high-tech natural ventilation strategy is used.

• Detailed design drawing — finally, the designer must develop detailed drawings so
that the systems can be built.

3.3 Vent Sizing

Vent sizing refers to the process of estimating the area of openings to achieve the
required ventilation flow rates based on certain geometry, climate and other data of the
building design. The sizing of openings is also a function of the opening distribution,
which is a part of the ventilation strategy. There are two methods for estimating the size
of the vents required.

• Direct methods are derived for simple buildings where the ventilation flow rate is a
simple function of the governing parameters

• Indirect methods use network models to try different opening size combinations and
identify the best one. One promising design method is the loop pressure equation based
method suggested by Axley (1998).

After the necessary ventilation flow rates in each zone of a building are estimated,
these methods can be used to design the main flow paths and size ventilation openings
to satisfy ventilation requirements in each zone. When designing large buildings,
designers might also need to know different design options, how natural ventilation
compares with mechanical systems, etc.

When a building is designed and operated with a configuration of openings and flow
paths, the ventilation flow rate will mostly be determined by the available natural
driving forces. At the design stage, it is important to harness the prevailing winds and to
enhance and control stack (or buoyancy) forces in the building. This can be done by
carefully positioning and sizing the openings, and by innovative use of devices to
increase natural forces, such as wind towers and solar chimneys.

3.4 Three Major Design Elements of Natural Ventilation

Designing natural ventilation requires more than just estimating vent and window sizes
— it also requires innovative design and significant attention to detail. Priolo (1998)
presented a comprehensive design guideline for natural ventilation. There are three (3)
layers of the design process related to natural ventilation design:
• Site Design — building location, layout, building orientation, landscaping;

• Building Design — type of building, building function, building form, envelope,

natural ventilation strategy, internal distribution of spaces and functions, thermal mass,
heating, ventilation and air-conditioning if it exists; and

• Vent Opening Design — position of openings, types of openings, sizing of openings,

control strategy.

3.4.1 Site Design

Site design involves integrating the buildings with the surrounding topography and
buildings. For some situations, minor changes to the local site may be allowed, within
the limits of environment and wildlife protection. For natural ventilation, it is best to
use the natural airflow patterns of the site to increase the potential of natural ventilation.

When several buildings are being built on one site, make sure each of the buildings is
exposed to South-West winds, but not to North-East winds in hot climates.

Building form and orientation should result in an increase in the negative pressures in
the wakes of airflows. Vegetation also affects air movement around the buildings
through wind sheltering, wind deflection, funneling and air acceleration. Air quality
and conditions are also changed when travelling beneath canopies of vegetation (e.g.
trees).

3.4.2 Building design

For simple buildings, aspects ratios and the use of overhangs, wind walls and recessed
spaces. For large and complex buildings, use computational fluid dynamics (Fluent,
2003) to investigate various design options for improving the natural ventilation
potentials, and to avoid cold draughts. Take care to ensure pedestrian comfort at the
outdoor ground level.

Internal space distribution is also important. For example, relatively ―dirty‖ spaces
should be located on the leeward side to avoid back flow of polluted air and odors into
other spaces. Large windows for other living spaces in the windward side, such as the
rooms, can create a funnel effect to induce more incoming air. Interior partitions and
furniture should not block the airflow.

For infection control, a single-row ward layout works better than a double-row layout
with a central corridor in terms of natural ventilation and daylight. Large, open spaces
should always have large windows in opposite walls. With the central corridor layout,
natural ventilation may be improved by combining cross-ventilation with stack (or
buoyancy) ventilation through corridor vents or through shafts in multistory buildings.
For multistory buildings, stairwells and other shafts can work as exhaust ventilation
systems to avoid warm air entering the upper-level apartments or offices. The outlet
openings of the shafts should be located on the leeward side of the building, above the
top floor level, with the inlet openings on the windward side of the building.

As the penetration depth of wind-driven natural ventilation is limited, the width of the
building is limited. However, the use of wind towers may permit deeper buildings.

3.4.3 Vent opening design

In any design, the smallest opening area (the bottleneck) controls natural ventilation
flow rate. Inlet and outlet openings should have as near equal dimensions as possible to
maximize the airflow rate. The position of openings needs to be considered with care,
because of the possible conflict between cross and stack (or buoyancy) ventilation,
human cooling or thermal mass cooling, etc.

Proper selection and design of openings such as windows, screens, louvers , solar
chimneys, passive stacks, is also important. Proper sizing may be done using the vent
sizing methods discussed earlier.

There are some other aspects to consider.

• Furniture and internal portioning — ventilation openings should not be blocked, and
furniture layout and internal partitioning must not restrict the intended flow path and
opening access.

• Ward depth — unlike mechanical ventilation, naturally ventilated buildings need to

be narrow. The natural air currents may penetrate deeply into a building. The rules of
thumb for the ward depth are available from CIBSE.

• Shading — blinds, overhangs and projections (including deep window reveals) may
be used. Self-shading by the building itself and remote shading (e.g., by another
building or trees) may also work if properly considered. Retractable external blinds are
desirable

. • Daylight and glare control — windows may be provided with a screen to avoid the
direct sunlight. The shape and the position of the window openings are also important.
The color and the finishes of the surfaces must also be chosen properly for a
comfortable level of lighting and glare control.
 • Heating and cold drafts — during slightly cold weather, localized heating may be
used to provide some thermal comfort. However, care should be taken if a greater
indoor and outdoor air temperature difference is caused, because this can, in turn,
increase the driving force. Natural ventilation may not be possible for ventilation
control during very cold weather.

• Cooling — during hot and humid weather, local spot cooling or personalized cooling
systems may be used (e.g. by using ceiling fans or desk fans).

• Noise and acoustics — external noise may be avoided by locating the windows and
other ventilation openings away from the primary noise courses. Absorbent
partitioning, ceiling banners, etc., may also be used to absorb noise.

• Fire safety — designing a building with openings that connect rooms may conflict
with fire-safety and smoke-control requirements. Ventilation openings may need to be
closed during a fine. Fortunately, naturally ventilated buildings can be designed to be in
line with the compartmentalization requirements for smoke control. The fire escape
route needs special attention, because natural ventilation design also has an impact on
smoke flow pattern.

• Security — security risks may be created with opening windows, particularly on

ground floors.
CHAPTER FOUR

THERMAL COMFORT
The general purpose of ventilation system is to provide acceptable microclimate in the
space being ventilated. In this context, microclimate refers to thermal environment as
well as air quality. These two factors must be considered in the design of ventilation
system for a room or a building as they are fundamental to the comfort and well being
of the human occupants. The natural way of ventilating buildings is still the best
method that can curb the problem of Sick Building Syndrome that is associated with the
artificial way of ventilation. Therefore, the designers and operators of ventilation
system should be familiar with comfort requirements and the quality of air necessary to
achieve acceptable indoor climate. These require knowledge of the heat balance
between the human body and the internal environment, the factors that influence
thermal comfort and discomfort as well as the indoor pollution concentrations that can
be tolerated by the occupants.

4.1 Importance of Thermal Comfort

Thermal comfort is very important to many work-related factors. It can affect the
distraction levels of the workers, and in turn affect their performance and productivity
of their work. Also, thermal discomfort has been known to lead to Sick Building
Syndrome symptoms. The US EPA BASE study found that higher indoor temperatures,
even within the recommended thermal comfort range, increased worker symptoms. The
occurrence of symptoms increased much more with raised indoor temperatures in the
winter than in the summer due to the larger difference created between indoor and
outdoor temperatures.

4.2 Factors determining thermal comfort

Factors determining thermal comfort include:

 Personal factors (health, psychology, sociology & situational factors)

 Air temperature

 Mean radiant temperature

 Air movement/velocity

 Relative humidity

 Insulative clothing

 Activity levels.
4.3 Operative temperature
The ideal standard for thermal comfort can be defined by the operative temperature.
This is the average of the air dry-bulb temperature and of the mean radiant temperature
at the given place in a room. In addition, there should be low air velocities and no
'drafts,' little variation in the radiant temperatures from different directions in the room,
and humidity within a comfortable range. The operative temperature intervals varied by
the type of indoor location. They also vary by the time of year. ASHRAE has listings
for suggested temperatures and air flow rates in different types of buildings and
different environmental circumstances. For example, a single office in a building has an
occupancy ration per square meter of 0.1. In the summer the suggested temperature is
between 23.5 and 25.5 degrees Celsius, and airflow velocity of 0.18 m/s. In the winter,
the recommended temperature is between 21.0 and 23.0 degrees Celsius with an airflow
velocity of 0.15 m/s

4.4 Thermal sensitivity of individuals

The thermal sensitivity of an individual is quantified by the descriptor FS, which takes
on higher values for individuals with lower tolerance to non-ideal thermal conditions.
This group includes pregnant women, the disabled, as well as individuals whose age is
below 14 or above 60, which is considered the adult range. Existing literature provides
consistent evidence that sensitivity to hot and cold surfaces declines with age and that
there is also a gradual reduction in the effectiveness of the body in thermoregulation
after the age of 60. This is mainly due to a more sluggish response of the counteraction
mechanisms in the body that are used to maintain the core temperature of the body at
ideal values. Situational factors include the health, psychological, sociological and
vocational activities of the persons.

4.5 Gender differences

While thermal comfort preferences between genders seem to be small, there are some
differences. Females are much more likely to be sensitive to thermal conditions.
Females are also more likely to be uncomfortable with the room temperature, and will
find the 43 temperature too hot or too cold before many men would. Many times,
females will prefer higher temperatures. But while females were more sensitive to
temperatures, males tend to be more sensitive to relative humidity levels.

4.6 Models of thermal comfort

When discussing thermal comfort, there are two different models that can be used.
These are the static model and the adaptive model. The adaptive model states that there
is an optimal temperature for a given indoor environment depending on the outdoor air
temperature. It takes into account that humans can adapt and tolerate different
temperatures during different times of the year. The optimal temperature for a given
time is determined by looking at the mean outdoor temperatures of each month of the
year. Also, field studies are performed in these areas to see what the majority of people
 would prefer as their set-point temperature indoors at different times of the year. On the
other side, the static model states that the indoor temperature should not change as the
seasons do. Rather, there should be one set temperature year-round. This is taking a
more passive stand that humans do not have to adapt to different temperatures since it
will always be constant. More advanced research on thermal comfort considers the heat
balance of the human body and calculates sensation and comfort for local body part.

4.7 Body Thermoregulation

The primary function of thermoregulation is to maintain the body core, which contains
the vital organs, within the rather narrow range of temperature which is essential for
their proper functioning. The temperature control centre is the hypothalamus, part of
the brain which is linked to thermo receptors in the brain, the skin and other parts of the
body such as the muscles. The hypothalamus receives nerve pulses from the
temperature sensors and coordinates information to different body organs to maintain a
constant body core temperature. The thermo receptors are particularly sensitive to
changes in temperature and temperature change rates as small as +0.001Ks-1 and -
0.004Ks-1 can be detected. Temperature regulation is carried out by controlling
metabolic heat production rate, sweat, control of blood flow, sweating, muscle
contraction and shivering in extreme cold situations. Under normal conditions the body
core temperature, etc, is approximately 370C and this is maintained at a constant value
despite changes in the ambient temperature.

While the body core temperature remains constant over a wide range of ambient
temperatures, the skin temperature changes in response to changes in the environment
and is usually different for different parts of the body. However, the variation in skin
temperature over the body is reduced when the body is in a state of thermal equilibrium
and comfortable.

4.8 Heat Transfer between Body and Environment

The heat balance equation for the human body is obtained by equating the rate of heat
production in the body by metabolism and performance of external work to the heat
loss from the body to the environment by the processes of evaporation, respiration,
radiation, convection and conduction from the surface of clothing.

Thus:

S = M + W + R + C + K + E – RES

Where: S = Heat storage in body, W

M = Metabolic Rate, W

R = Heat Exchange by Radiation, W

C = Heat Exchange by Convection, W

K = Heat Exchange by Conduction, W

E = Evaporative Heat Loss, W

RES = Heat Loss by Respiration, W

A positive value of S indicates a rising body temperature, tb, a negative value suggests
a falling tb, and when S equals zero, the body is in thermal equilibrium.

i. Metabolism (M): When measuring metabolism rates, many factors have to

be taken into account. Each person has a different metabolism rate, and these
rates can fluctuate when a person is performing certain activities, or under
certain environmental conditions. Even people who are in the same room can
feel significant temperature differences due to their metabolic rates, which
makes it very hard to find an optimal temperature for everyone in a given
location.

Table 4.1 Metabolic Rates of different activities.

ii. Work (W): If work is produced by the body the metabolism increases to
provide extra energy to perform the work. Because the thermal efficiency
(W/M) of a human is poor, i.e. less than 20%, for every watt of work energy
produced, an increase in metabolism of 5W will be needed. Most of the work
produced by a person is positive; however, in some cases negative work can
exist such as a person walking down a steep hill, in which case some of the
potential energy will be converted to heat in the muscles to keep a constant
walking speed.
iii. Radiation (R): The heat exchange by radiation occurs between the surface
of the body (clothing and skin) and the surrounding surfaces such as internal
room surfaces and heat sources or sinks.
iv. Convection (C): The heat transfer between a body a body and the
surrounding air is primarily by convection which can be either free (natural)
caused by buoyancy or forced (mechanical) caused by a relative movement
between the body and air.
Evaporative Heat Loss (E): Heat loss by evaporation is partly due to
diffusion of water vapor through the skin tissues, Ed, and partly due to
evaporation of sweat from the skin surface, Esw. In both cases heat is absorbed
from the skin and this process controls the rise in body temperature. The water
diffusion is a continuous process which occurs even in cool environment but
the sweat evaporation only occurs in a hot environment and when the body
activity is higher than normal. The diffusion heat loss depends on the difference
between the saturated vapour pressure and at skin temperature, Pss, and the
vapour pressure of the surrounding air, Pa. Olesen gives the following equation
for Ed:
Ed = 3.05 X 10-3 (Pss – Pa) Wm-2
v. Respiration Heat Loss (RES): Inspired air is both warmed and humidified by
its passage through the respiratory system. The sensible and latent heat losses
are proportional to the volume flow rate of air to the lungs which in turn is
proportional to the metabolic rate.

4.9 Environmental Indices

There are four (4) environmental parameters that affect ventilation – air temperature,
ta, mean radiant temperature, tr, air velocity, v, and water vapour pressure in the air, Pa
– and three (3) personal parameters as explained above – metabolism, M, work, W, and
thermal insulation of clothing, Icl. The heat storage, S, has not been included in the
personal parameters as heat balance between the body and the environment is a
requirement for thermal insulation.

Current environmental indices may be divided into three (3) categories: direct;
rational; empirical

. - Direct indices are based on the measurement of a simple instrument that responds to
the environmental variables in a similar manner to a human. An example is a globe
thermometer, which responds to changes in air temperature, air velocity and radiant
temperature.

- Rational indices are based upon models of human responses to the thermal
environment taking into consideration thermoregulation and heat exchange between
the body and the environment. These models can be used to can be used to predict
human responses to certain environmental conditions. The operative temperature, to, is
a rational index which combines the heat exchange between the body and the
 environment by radiation and convection which forms the basis of ASHRAE Standard
55-1981.

- Empirical environmental indices are developed by subjecting a large population

sample of known activity and clothing, who are in thermal equilibrium with the
environment, to a range of environmental conditions and recording their thermal
sensation. The data are then analyzed to assess the effect of each variable and from this
an environmental index is established.

4.10 INDOOR AIR QUALITY (IAQ)

The occupants in a space have two requirements of the air in that space. First, the health
risk of breathing the air should be negligible. Secondly, the air should be perceived
fresh and pleasant rather than stale, stuffy and irritating. There are large individual
differences in human requirements. Some persons spend a large part of their time in the
same indoor environment, others do not. Some persons are very sensitive and have high
requirements of the air they are breathing. Other persons are rather insensitive and have
lower requirements of the air. The quality of the indoor air may be expressed as the
extent to which human requirements are met. The air quality is high if few people are
few dissatisfied and there is a negligible health risk. Indoor air quality in a building is
not constant. It is influenced by changes in building operation, occupant activity and
outdoor climate. Indoor air quality may be controlled by a combination of source
control and ventilation. In these Guidelines the ventilation required for controlling the
health risk from specific air pollutants will be discussed separately from the ventilation
required to obtain a desired perceived air quality. It is recommended to use the highest
of these values for design.

4.10.1 Indoor Contaminants

Before a ventilation rate ca be specified to dilute or extract indoor contaminants it is

necessary to identify those contaminants and their sources within the building as well as
to establish acceptable concentrations in indoor air. Since more than 8000 chemical
species have been identified in the indoor environment

4.10.1.1 Radon

Radon is a radioactive gas which occurs in the indoor air. It increases the risk of lung
cancer. Risk estimates for radon are given in "Air Quality Guidelines for Europe" (2)
published by the World Health Organization (WHO). The major source of indoor radon
is usually soil gas under the building. Radon occurs in high concentrations in soil gas
with large variations due to local geology. Soil gas with radon may enter a building by
infiltration through cracks and other openings in floors and walls separating the
building from the soil. The best way of controlling the indoor radon level is to control
the source. This can be done by sealing the building against the entry of soil gas or,
where possible, by venting the air in sub floor spaces to the atmosphere. Where no sub
floor space exists, radon sumps under the floor may be used. As radon entry from the
soil is generally pressure driven, care must be taken, when increased ventilation of the
building is used as a remedial technique, that an under pressure of the building air does
not arise which may cause an increase in the infiltration of radon-laden soil gas.

4.10.1.2 Gases from Landfill and Waste Sites

In special situations, e.g., areas of waste disposal, a broad range of potentially toxic
chemicals may be present and case-by-case evaluation of a possible health risk may be
necessary. Landfill gas is produced by the action of micro-organisms on organic waste
material deposited in landfill sites. The gas principally consists of methane and carbon
dioxide but other gases such as hydrogen and hydrogen sulphide may be present. Over
a hundred trace volatile organic compounds have also been detected in landfill gas
including: aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, alcohols, esters, ethers and organ
Sulphur compounds. However, these compounds make up less than one per cent of the
total gas mixture and in general represent more of an odour nuisance rather than a toxic
hazard. The major hazard that landfill gas represents is that of explosions: methane is
flammable when mixed with air in the concentration range 5 to 15%. There have been
numerous incidents where an explosive mixture of landfill gas has been ignited in a
building damaging the structure and injuring the occupants. There is also a risk of
asphyxiation from landfill gas. Buildings constructed on or near sites where there are
high levels of these hazardous gases need to be sealed to prevent gas ingress and a
means to disperse the gases provided, for example a ventilated sub-floor void.

4.10.1.3 Combustion Products

Carbon monoxide (CO) is generated by incomplete combustion. Every year carbon

monoxide from malfunctioning gas, coal and kerosene heaters, from wood stoves, and
from infiltration of combustion gases from garages, etc. kills hundreds of persons in
Europe. Nitrogen dioxide (NO is another toxic gas generated by combustion of fossil
fuels at high temperatures. Major indoor sources are appliances for cooking with gas
and unvented domestic water heaters. The proper way of controlling indoor combustion
products is to avoid or reduce the pollution sources. Unvented combustion appliances
for heating of spaces should be avoided, unvented combustion appliances for heating of
domestic hot water should be used only if ventilation provisions and safety devices of
the appliance permit a safe operation. Under pressure caused by ventilation systems
should not interfere with the proper functioning of open flues. Leakages from garages
etc. to occupied spaces should be sealed. It is recommended that gas appliances for
cooking be provided with a proper hood for local exhaust of the combustion products.
4.10.1.4 Environmental Tobacco Smoke

Environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) comprises several thousand chemicals. The most
commonly occurring and rapidly experienced health effects of ETS are irritation of the
mucous membranes of the eyes, nose and throat. Children of smokers suffer more often
than others from respiratory diseases. ETS resulting in about 2 ppm CO, leads to
irritation and discomfort among 20% of those exposed. It is suspected that ETS may
increase the risk of lung cancer. Elimination of any health risk caused by ETS requires
that smoking does not take place in the space.

4.10.1.5 Formaldehyde

Formaldehyde is the simplest aldehyde. It is a colorless, very reactive gas with a

pungent smell. It has many uses, but the main area of application is the fabrication of
synthetic resins. Therefore, formaldehyde may occur in indoor air as an emission from
particle boards containing adhesives based on urea-formaldehyde resins or from urea-
formaldehyde foam insulation. The formaldehyde concentration in the air caused by
chipboards depends on the quality of the chipboards, and on the temperature, the
relative humidity and the air exchange rate. Possible adverse health effects due to
formaldehyde exposure in indoor environments depend on the concentration and the
duration of the exposure. Formaldehyde may cause irritation of the eyes and respiratory
system. In experiments with rats, high (6 and 14 ppm) and long-lasting exposure led to
tambours of the nasal epithelium. It is likely that the massive, irrigative effect of such
high concentrations is a necessary condition for the occurrence of the tumors. As
humans are not exposed to such high concentrations over prolonged periods of time, the
risk of developing a tumor is negligible.

4.10.1.6 Volatile Organic Compounds

Volatile organic compounds (VOC), other than formaldehyde, are emitted by humans
(see metabolic gases below), by many natural materials and most importantly by a large
number of man-made building materials, furnishing and equipment used in buildings.
The VOC are defined by WHO as having melting points below room temperature and
boiling points ranging from 50 to 260°C. Other more detailed classifications are in use.
The VOC detectable in a single building may consist of hundreds of different organic
compounds, which makes analysis, risk assessment (including combined effects) and
guideline setting for these compounds an exceptionally difficult task.

People perceive the VOC by their olfactory and chemical senses. Little adaptation
occurs during a VOC exposure. Human response to VOC in indoor air has been
classified as acutely perceived deterioration of the environment, acute or subacute
inflammation-like reactions in skin or mucous membrane, or subacute and weak stress-
like reactions.
 Two practical approaches for indoor air quality guidelines for VOC (excluding
formaldehyde and carcinogenic VOC) have been proposed, one for total VOC (TVOC),
the other based on gas chromatographic separation and quantification. The former
approach is generalized from the toxicological responses published in indoor air
pollution literature. The following exposure-range classification relative to the TVOC
level as measured by flame ionization detector calibrated against toluene is suggested:
comfort range ( 25000pg/m3).

In the latter approach (lo), the analyzed compounds are ranked according to their
concentrations and divided into the following classes (class target guideline for ten first
in each class in parenthesis): alkanes (1 00pg/m3), aromatics (50pg/m3), terpenes
(30pg/m3), halocarbons (30pg/m3), esters (20pg/m3), carbonyls (excluding
formaldehyde) (20pg/m3), and "other" (50pg/m3). The classes are then added to get the
TVOC value. The proposed target guideline value for the TVOC is 300pg/m3, and no
individual compound should exceed 50% of its class target or 10% of the TVOC target
guideline value. These target guideline values are not based on toxicological
considerations, but on existing levels and on a professional judgment about the
achievable levels.

4.10.1.7 Metabolic Gases

The metabolic processes of the occupants in a space require oxygen and produce carbon
dioxide, moisture, aldehydes, esters and alcohols. To avoid adverse health effects, an
acceptable long-term exposure range for CO, in the residential indoor air of c6.3 g/m3
(~3500 ppm) has been recommended. The ventilation rate required to maintain this safe
level is very low. This means that carbon dioxide per se will very seldom pose a health
problem in real buildings. Other metabolic gases (bio-effluents) never reach harmful
concentrations in practice but have an unpleasant odour which requires much more
ventilation than the carbon dioxide production. This is discussed in detail in the section
on perceived air quality.

4.10.1.8 Humidity
The humidity in the indoor air may directly or indirectly have an impact on the
occupants. High air humidity, condensation or ingress of moisture stimulates the
growth of molds and other fungi etc., which may cause allergy and malodors. Increased
humidity may also enhance the emission of chemicals like formaldehyde from
materials. A low humidity may cause a sensation of dryness and irritation of skin and
mucous membranes of some occupants. Normally few problems occur when the
relative humidity is between 30 and 70%, assuming that no condensation takes place.
However, a high relative humidity stimulates the growth of house dust mites which
may pose a serious allergy risk especially in bedrooms. It is, therefore, particularly
important to avoid high humidity in bedrooms. Where water occurs, e.g., at cooling
coils or humidifiers in ventilation systems, there is a risk of growth of fungi and other
micro-organisms. To avoid this careful design, cleaning and maintenance are essential.
The micro-organisms of most concern in indoor air are bacteria, viruses and fungi.
Many bacteria and viruses originate from humans and they can cause infectious
diseases. Other sources are poorly maintained humidifiers causing humidifier fever and
water systems which may spread legionella. Some micro-organisms may produce
metabolites which can be toxic or irritating. Abnormal levels of fungal spores originate
from moist surfaces and building materials and they may induce allergic and
hypersensitive reactions. Micro-organisms can be controlled by controlling surface
moisture levels and bio-effluents. No health effects based on permissible levels can be
given. A detailed discussion on microorganisms and proper ways of evaluating and
controlling them in the indoor environment is given in the European Concerted Action
Report "Strategies for Sampling Biological Particles in Indoor Environments".
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.1 A SYNOPSIS OF INDIAN CLIMATIC ZONES

The weather of an area represents the state of the atmospheric environment over a brief period.
Integrated weather condition over 30 years is generally referred to as climate or more
accurately, as macro-climate. An analysis of the climate of a particular region can help in
assessing the seasons or periods during which a person may experience comfortable or
uncomfortable conditions. It further helps in identifying the climatic elements, as well as their
severity, that cause discomfort.

In India had carried out detailed studies and reported that India can be divided into six climatic
zones, namely, hot and dry, warm and humid, moderate, cold and cloudy, cold and sunny, and
composite. The criteria of classification are described in Table 1.

In India, had carried out detailed studies and reported that India can be divided into six climatic
zones, namely, hot and dry, warm and humid, moderate, cold and cloudy, cold and sunny, and
composite. The criteria of classification are described in Table.5.1.

Table 5.1: Bansal & Minke climate zone criteria

 Fig 5.1: NBC climatic region (Bureau of Indian Standard, 2016)

Relative humidity of 60 Indian cities. The weather data including dry-bulb temperature used
for CDD and HDD; and hourly relative humidity has been derived from weather data
developed by the Indian Society of Heating Refrigerating and Air-conditioning Engineers
(ISHRAE).

Figure 5.2 presents the CDD and HDD distribution of 60 Indian cities. From the figure, it is
clear that the majority of Indian locations are under 500 HDD and more than 2000 CDD which
indicates that India is a cooling dominated country.

Fig 5.2: Distribution of cooling and heating degree days for 60 cities of India
Figure 5.3 plots CDD with respect to an annual mean relative humidity for different locations
in India. The plot shows that the majority of the locations have more than 60% mean relative
humidity. Even for locations where lowest CDD is less than 1,000, the mean relative
humidity exceeds 70%.

Fig 5.3: Distribution of cooling degree day and annual mean relative humidity of 60 cities of India

Fig. 5.4 shows the results of hierarchical clustering of 60 cities into 8 groups. These 8 groups
are considered as different climate zones. Table 5.2 shows cities with different locations.
Three cities- Imphal, Shillong and Srinagar are from distinct clusters and are identified as the
only city for their respective climate zone.

Fig 5.4: Clustering of 60 cities in 8 groups for CDD, HDD and annual mean relative humidity
 Table 5.2: Cities clustered in different groups using Hierarchical clustering

Cities CZ Cities CZ
Bhubaneshwar 1 Hisar 3
Chennai 1 Hyderabad 3
Bhagalpur 1 Allahabad 3
Mangalore 1 Gorakhpur 3
Vishakhapatnam 1 Gwalior 3
Kolkata 1 Indore 3
Mumbai 1 Jabalpur 3
Nellore 1 Jagdalpur 3
Panjim 1 Jamnagar 3
Ratnagiri 1 Patna 3
Thiruvananthapuram 1 Pune 3
Tiruchirappalli 1 Raipur 3
Veraval 1 Ramagundam 3
Ahmedabad 2 Ranchi 3
Akola 2 Raxaul 3
Barmer 2 Surat 3
Bikaner 2 Lucknow 3
Kota 2 Nagpur 3
Jaipur 2 New Delhi 3
Jaisalmer 2 Varanasi 3
Jodhpur 2 Dibrugarh 4
Kurnool 2 Guwahati 4
Rajkot 2 Jorhat 4
Solapur Tezpur 4
Aurangabad 3 Amritsar 5
Belgaum 3 Dehradun 5
Bengaluru 3 Saharanpur 5
Bhopal 3 Imphal 6
Bhuj 3 Shillong 7
Chitradurga 3 Srinagar 8
* CZ: Climate Zone
Table 5.3presents a categorization of climatic indices (CDD, HDD and RH) based on
clustering. The climate zone 1 and 2 have a hotter climate as the range of CDD are from 3000
to 4200. However, the variation is due to mean relative humidity. The climate zone 1 has
higher mean relative humidity compared to climate zone 2. The climate zone 4 and 5 have
similar CDD ranges, while, the HDD and relative humidity shows variation. The climate zone
3 has overlapping in CDD and HDD values with other climate zones, but the relative
humidity has a different range. The climate zones 6,7, and 8 have distinct values of CDD and
HDD with respect to other climate zones.

Table 5.3: Climate zone classification for India

Climate CDD Min CDD Max HDD Min HDD Max RH Min RH Max
Zones
1 3231 4154 0 8 68 81
2 3046 4153 0 240 43 57
3 2181 3638 0 248 54 76
4 1861 2325 43 182 81 83
5 1861 2369 182 484 67 73
6 1328 - 427 - 78 -
7 128 - 1518 - 84 -
8 688 - 2018 - 70 -

Figure 6: Observed monthly climatology of mean-temperature 1991-2020 India

Fig 5.7: Observed average annual temperature of India 1901-2020

Fig 5.8: Wind Zone Map of India

CHAPTER SIX

INDIAN STANDARDS CODE FOR RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS

6.1 MINIMUM STANDARDS FOR VENTILATION

6.1.1 Standards for Permanent Ventilation –

the amount of fresh air required to maintain the carbon dioxide concentration of air within
safe limits and to provide sufficient oxygen content in the air for respiration is very small, the
minimum standards of ventilation are based on control of body odour or the removal of
products of combustion depending on the requirements of each case.

Where no contaminants are to be removed from air, amount of fresh air required for dilution
of inside air to prevent vitiation by body odours, depends on the air space avai!able per
person and the degree of physical activity; the amount of air decreases as the air space per
person increases, and it may vary from 20 ms to 30 ma per person per hour.

Air movement is necessary in hot and humid weather for body cooling. A certain minimum
desirable wind speed is needed for achieving thermal comfort at different temperatures and
relative humidities. Such wind speeds are given in Table 6.1. Where somewhat warmer
conditions can be tolerated without perceptible discomfort, minimum wind speeds fur just
acceptable warm conditions given in Table 6.2 may be followed. For obtaining values of
indoor wind speed above 2.0 m/s mechanical means of ventilation may have to be adopted.

6.2 Recommended Values for Air Changes

6.2.1 Living Rooms and Bed Rooms - In case of living rooms and bed rooms, a minimum of
three air changes per hour should be provided.

TABLE 6.1 DESIRABLE WIND SPEEDS (m/s)

 TABLE 6.2 MINIMUM WIND SPEEDS (m/s ) FOR JUST ACCEPTABLE WARM CONDITIONS

6.3 GENERAL RULES AND DESIGN GUIDELINES

 Inlet openings in the buildings should be well distributed and should be located on the
windward side at a low level, and outlet openings should be located on the leeward
side. Inlet and outlet openings at high levels may only clear the top air at that level
without producing air movement at the level of occupancy.
 Maximum air movement at a particular plane is achieved by keeping the sill height of
the opening at 85 percent of the height of the plane. The following levels of
occupancy are recommended:

a) For sitting on chair = 0.75 m

b) For sitting on bed = 0.60 m, and

c) For sitting on floor = 0.40 m.

 Inlet openings should not as far as possible be obstructed by adjoining buildings,

trees, sign boards or other obstructions or by partitions inside in the path of air flow.
The distance of such obstructions from the openings should conform to local building
byelaws.
 Greatest flow per unit area of opening is obtained by using inlet and outlet openings
of nearly equal areas at the same level.
o For a total area of openings ( inlet and outlet) of 20 to 30 percent of floor area, the
average indoor wind velocity is around 30 percent of outdoor velocity. Further
increase in window size increases the available velocity but not in the same
proportion. In fact, even under most favorable conditions the maximum average
indoor wind velocity does not exceed 40 percent of the outdoor velocity.
  Where the direction of wind is quite constant and dependable, the size of the inlet
should be kept within 30 to 50 percent of the total area of openings and the building
should be oriented perpendicular to the incident wind. Where direction of the wind is
quite variable the openings may be arranged so that as far as possible there is
approximately equal area on all sides. Thus no matter what the wind direction be,
there would be some openings directly exposed to wind pressure and others to air
suction and effective air movement through building would be assured.
 Windows of living rooms should open directly to an open space. In places where
building sites are restricted, open space may have to be created in the building by
providing adequate courtyards.
 In the case of a room with only one wall exposed to outside, provision of two
windows on that wall is preferred to that of a single window.
 Windows located diagonally opposite to each other with the windward window near
the upstream corner (as shown in cases 2 and 7 in Table 4 ) give better performance
than other window arrangements for most of the buildings orientations.
 Provision of vertical louvers increases the room air motion, provided that the vertical
projection does not obstruct the incident wind.
 Verandah open on three sides is to be preferred since it causes an increase in the
room air motion for most of the orientations of the building with respect to the
incident wind.

6.4 RATE OF AIR FLOW

Considering the simple case of an isolated enclosure in which an opening is provided in each
of two opposite walls, the rate of air flow through an opening, due to wind blowing on to the
wall containing the opening, is given by the expression.

Q- KAV

Where,

Q - the rate of air flow in ma/h,

X = coefficient of effectiveness

A = area of smaller opening

V = wind speed in m/h.

The coefficient of effectiveness K depends upon the direction of the wind relative to the
opening, and on the ratio between the areas of the two openings. It is maximum when the
wind blows directly on to the opening and it increases with the relative size of the larger
opening.
Figure 6.1 gives the values of X for various ratios of the areas of the two openings, for wGx.ls
perpendicular to the opening and at 45” to it.

Fig 6.1 values of coefficient of effectiveness ‘ k ’ for flow through two openings
CHAPTER SEVEN
CASE STUDIES
7.1 QUEEN’S BUILDING DE MONTFORT UNIVERSITY, UK

 Location: Leicester, England

 Latitude/Longitude: 52°37'N/1˚08'W 207' elevation
HDD, CDD; annual precipitation:
 Building type: Educational/ Laboratory
 Square footage/ stories: 10,000m2 (100,000 sq.ft.)/2–4 stories
 Completion date: 13 August 1993
 Client: de Montfort University
Design team:
 Architects: Short Ford Associates— Alan Short & Brian Ford
 Engineers: Max Fordham Associates— Max Fordham & Randall Thomas

Fig 7.1 Queen’s building exterior view

7.1.1 Key Design Strategies
Daylighting: The central concourse has large roof lights which allow for deep sun penetration.
Offices, studios, auditoria, computer labs, and classrooms are sidelighted by small windows
with deep reveals on the east and west to control the amount of thermal gain, but still let in
fresh air and daylighting.

Thermal Mass: The building was built of brick creating a large amount of thermal mass which
helps to stabilize the temperature fluxes.

Natural Ventilation: Chimneys were constructed to create a stack effect which would allow
the building to ventilate the hot, stale air and bring in fresh, cool air. Cross-ventilation was
used whenever the floor plans allowed for it.

7.1.2 Design Intent and Validation

The floor plan of this building was dictated by the architect’s goal of designing a naturally
ventilated building. The labs have a narrow floor plan and operable windows to allow for
cross-ventilation. The main floor has a wider floor plan which cannot rely on windows for
cross-ventilation, so eight, large venting chimneys were constructed to exhaust warm stale air
created by the people and computers. These chimneys rely on the stack effect to operate
properly. “When the temperature difference in the air between the top and bottom of the flue
is greater that of the air outside, warm air vents out.” This effect draws in cooler air through
the vents lower in the building cooling down the building. The architect’s first designed
fewer chimneys, but later increased the number so that now two spaces need to share one. To
ensure that all the chimneys were built, Short and Ford designed them to be structural so
budgetary concerns could not determine their importance and cut them out of the construction
process.

7.1.3 Occupancy Survey

“Overall, the perception of thermal comfort and air quality is similar to national benchmarks,
and overall air quality in winter is considered to be significantly better than benchmark ...
Combination of thermal mass and natural ventilation was effective at maintaining a
comfortable environment for most of the building during the summer of 1994.”

The people surveyed generally felt there was too much daylight in most of the building, and
there were some areas they felt were gloomy. “Office occupants thought that the working
environment had a negative effect on their productivity, with an average rating of minus 10%.
This falls within the bottom 10% of all buildings on the Building Use Studies’ Database.”
Fig 7.2 a) exterior view and stack outlet; b) exterior view and air inlets; c) interior view of
auditorium; d) the queen’s building – natural ventilation strategy.
7.2 KANCHENJUNGA APARTMENT
7.2.1 PROJECT FACT

Project Name: Kanchenjunga Apartment

Category: Residential
Area: 441 Sq.m.
Project Status: Completed
Year: 1970-1983
Consultants: Charles Correa

Fig 7.3 Building view

7.1.2 Key Design Strategies

 Climate: Tropical wet & Dry
 Site and situation: City landscape surrounded by mid-rise and high-rise
structures.
 Prevailing wind direction: From southwest and northwest.
 The apartment himself is a direct response to the present society, the
escalating urbanization, and the climatic conditions for the region.
 Well ventilated and appear to suit the contemporary life style.
  One and two floor height terrace gardens in each flat alike to the protective
verandas in bungalow.
 The typical open floor plans with double heighted living room for cross-
ventilation.
 Best views of Arabian Sea on west just 450 m away and the harbor on the
east.
The living and dining space: Occupied period (morning - 7 AM to 10 AM) and evening (6
PM to11 PM)

North West bedroom: Occupied period (11 PM to 07 AM) at nighttime only.

South East Master bed room: Occupied period (11 PM to 07 AM) at night time only

Internal Conditions: As per occupancy the living and dining space: Three occupants, North
West bedroom: one occupant,

South East Master bedroom: two occupants Schedule of opening: Full day ventilation: Doors
and window openings are 50% open 24 hours.

Nighttime only ventilation: Doors and window openings are 50% open during nighttime i.e.
from evening 6 PM to morning 10 AM

Nighttime only ventilation: Doors and window openings are increased from 50% to 75%
open during nighttime i.e., from evening 6 PM to morning 10AM.

7.1.3 RANGE OF THERMAL COMFORT

Mean minimum and mean maximum temperature in the Summer: 26.2°C, 33.3 °C °C &
Indoor comfort Temperature (Summer): 25 °C - 32 °C, mean minimum and mean maximum
temperature in the Winter: 16.3 °C, 26.2 °C & Indoor comfort temperature (winter): 22°C -
27 °C.

Fig 7.4 View & TAS model of the building

 Fig 7.5 Section through Flat C & B

Fig 7.6 shadow analysis, sun path and yearly prevailing wind (March and April avail northwest
prevailing wind whereas May and June avail southwest)
Fig 7.7 Ventilation strategies for different types of Flats

Fig 7.8 Indoor airflow pattern of Type D

 Fig 7.9 Indoor airflow pattern

Fig 7.10 Indoor airflow pattern of typical floor

7.3 NEWTON SUIT
7.3.1 PROJECT FACT

Project Name: Newton suites

Location: Singapore
Category: Residential
Area:
 Plot area: 3,842.51sq.m
 Gross floor area: 11,834.93sq.m

Project Status: Completed

Year: 2003-2007

Client: United Land Overseas Pte Ltd

Consultants: WOHA Design firm.

FIG.7.11 BUILDING VIEW

7.3.2 Key Design Strategies
The architect uses the principles of natural ventilation to achieve indoor thermal comfort in
various possible ways where the use of air-conditioning in most of buildings in tropical
climate is very much essential for thermal comfort of the occupants. The building is oriented
North-South for optimized environmental performance with minimum solar gain and
maximum cooling potential. Extensive use of sunshades and protruding balconies adapt the
tropical climate responsive strategies helps in minimizing the energy demand. An expanded
steel mesh louver (a 3-dimensional section) is used around the building facade by appearing
transparent when looking down while blocking sunlight by appearing solid from the angle of
the sun.

Fig 7.12 Repetitive Sun shading screens of angled mesh

Fig 7.13 Unified Facade of Screens & protruding balconies.

Fig 7.14 Inner view of the building during day

Fig 7.15 Air circulation throughout the building
7.4 MOULMEIN RISE

7.4.1 PROJECT FACTS

 Location: SINGAPORE
 Building type: Residential
 Square footage/ stories:
Footprint: 230 Sq M
Built Area: 6491 Sq M
 Completion date: 2003
 Client: United Land Overseas Pte Ltd
Design team:

Architects: WOHA Architects Pte Ltd

Fig 7.16 building view

7.4.2 Key Design Strategies
With two apartments per floor, the slender tower designed properly to allow cross ventilation
as well as single sided ventilation.

 The building is oriented North-South for optimized environmental performance with

minimum solar gain and maximum cooling potential.
 The north facade is cladded with sliding perforated panels to maximize the solar
shading as well as natural ventilation.
 'Monsoon Window' is the most innovative feature of this building. Monsoon window
is basically a bay window incorporating a sliding aluminium shelf to allow the natural
breeze from outside during rain, which are mainly on the southern facade of the
building. This is the common feature of Malay, Vietnamese and Indonesian
vernacular houses.
 Architects have used a horizontal steel grill maintenance ledge between the timber
louvers and windows, set flush with internal floor. When the louvers are shut and
windows are open the cool air comes in.
 Horizontal openings keep the rain out without interrupting the air movement of cool
breeze. A winder operates the panel and the perforated metal shelf above the opening
prevents things to fall through.

Fig 7.17 sketch of Monsoon window

Fig 7.18 The shading device integrated with façade

Fig 7.19 Section through Moulmein Rise

CHAPTER EIGHT

CONCLUSION

8.1 Future Prospects of Natural Ventilation & the Emergence of

Hybrid Strategies
Natural ventilation offers the means to control air quality in buildings, to directly
condition indoor air with cooler outdoor air, to indirectly condition indoor air by night
cooling of building thermal mass, and to provide refreshing airflow past occupants
when desired. While mechanical ventilation systems may also accomplish these goals,
natural ventilation systems:

• can offset cooling energy consumption when climate and operational conditions are
suitable

• can offset the fan power required to provide ventilation mechanically

• potentially provide quantitative health, comfort, and productivity advantages that

may, in part, be due to the greater robustness of natural ventilation systems

• provide qualitative advantages of ‘fresh air’ in the minds of most occupants, • may
offer users greater direct control of their environments and, as a consequence, may
benefit from less restrictive comfort criteria that results from occupants’ ability to adapt
their environment to their immediate perception of comfort

• can offset a significant fraction of the relatively large first costs associated with
conventional mechanical ventilation systems in commercial buildings by simply
replacing them with lower cost natural ventilation systems

• can recover the large spatial requirements that conventional mechanical systems
demand and return them to serve formal architectural, daylighting, and air quality
objectives or to reduce non-technical construction costs

• can avoid the duct cleanliness dilemma, and its attendant costs, simply by
circumventing the need for ducts altogether.

Yet natural ventilation systems:

• presently lack proven ventilation heat recovery capabilities, although some methods
are currently under development

• are generally difficult to control and are inherently unreliable when natural driving
forces are small

• Presently lack proven filtration capabilities thus may be compromised by

environments, particularly urban, with high outdoor particle and gaseous contaminant
concentrations. The potential of natural ventilation systems depends on the suitability
of a given climate design of the natural ventilation system used advantages offered by
mechanical system alternatives. Recent developments in natural ventilation system
design have been matched by collateral developments in mechanical ventilation design.

Thus, for example, as the development of natural ventilation systems offer a means to
ventilate without fan power consumption, research into low pressure ventilation
systems answer with mechanical systems with reduced fan power requirements. These
and other research developments have led quite naturally to the emergence of so-called
hybrid ventilation systems that attempt to combine the benefits of both natural and
mechanical ventilation in an optimal way.

“Independent studies with new buildings using low-energy heat recovery mechanical
ventilation integrated into fabric energy storage designs using hollow core slabs has
reported better year-round comfort (including summer cooling) standards, together with
significantly lower annual delivered and prime energy consumption with lower
maintenance requirements than even the best natural ventilation designs.” Thus, the
future of both natural and mechanical ventilation now clearly lies in the emerging field
of hybrid ventilation system design. However, this report is focused on natural
ventilation as a stand-alone strategy. Future work will address hybrid approaches in
more detail.

These issues should be notice at one time instead of noticing individually.

 Building forms and configuration: small or narrow footprint along with west and east
direction.

 Internal layout plan: Open plan with high ceiling.

 Building details to enhance cross ventilation: dynamic building façade.

 Balconies or verandas should be shaded for the protection against rain and sun.

 Use of tree canopy for sun protection in summer to shade building but allow breeze
for ventilation since deep recessions with plantings influences the air movement

.  Ventilation/airflow is important during the rain. Special architectural features: Wind

wing wall, Monsoon window etc. enhance this
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