9g. LOADED LINES 9.1 VOLTAGE DROP AND POWER LOSS. The owner of a trailer caravan installs electrical heating in the caravan according to the instruc- tions, The heating system is rated at 220 V and consumes 4 kW at this voltage. After installation, it is checked by a technician and set into operation. The technician measures the voltage and the current: U=220V;/=18A Subsequently, the owner takes a holiday and parks his caravan at a camping place. To connect up the heating system, he buys 100 m three-core cable with a conductor cross-section of g = 1.5 mm?, since the nearest supply point is rather distance. When the heating is switched on, the owner notices that it is not functioning at full capacity. The current and voltage are measured again and this time they are: U = 183.8 V; / = 15.2 A. These values are significantly lower than the earlier ones. The suspicion that the electric supply undertaking is supplying a low voltage, proves unfounded. The voltage is 220 V when measured at the supply point. The losses must therefore be caused by the re- sistance of the line (see 3.2), which forms a series connection with the heating resistance. Fig. 9.1 shows the circuit of the caravan heating system, with the bulit-in measuring instruments and the measured values. Fig. 9.2 shows the cor- responding equivalent circuit. Fig. 9.1 ring circuit for testing @ heating system (long supply cable) Fig. 9.2: Equivalent circuit for a load with line resistance 125 Dipindai dengan CamScanner [erThe voltage drop in the line depends upon tho load current / = 15.2 A and the line resistance R, This is the sum of the resistance of the outgoing and return leads Ri qm) +R) wun. Thus the line resistance is: Ry, = Reon + Re jou = 2Rr 20 Re cu xq The voltage drop is therefore: Voltage drop in a line Us=1-R, oa! i x¢ xg Power dissipation in a line p= 182A +2+100 m Pat 56 -10°S/m-1.5-10%m? x9 Us =36.2 V This drop in voltage causes a reduction of power in the load—the heating system in this case, The line therefore causes a power dissipation as well as a voltage drop. The power dissipation in a loaded line is directly proportionate to the square of the load current and directly proportionate to the line resistance. Ps=P Rt 15.2? A? 200 m Pee 56+ 10°S/m 1.5 °10%m? P,= 550W Fig. 9.3: Comparison between useful generally statedinpercen- voltage and usetul power in percen- tage terms. tage terms. In practice, losses ai 126 Dipindai dengan CamScannerVoltage drop as a percentage of the Power dissipation as a percentage of the read voltage rated power Uy =220 V Py = 4000 W Uae oY oo% Pm & PH. so Q% Uw Py umm © 3820 jong Pam @ B5OW OO 200 V 4000 W Us & 16.45% Pi & 13.75% The sum of the voltage drop and the load voltage is equal to the rated voltage. Ust+ U2 = Uat Ur 36.2V + 183.8V 220V This relationship does not hold for the sum of power dissipation and load power! The percentage of useful power is significantly smaller than the - percentage of useful voltage, since power varies in proportion to the square of the voltage. 9.2 RATING ELECTRICAL LINES What are the possibilities for a more economical utilisation of the electrical system in the example we have just prescribed? We know that the losses are caused by the line resistance. Thus this must be reduced. There are two ways of doing this (see 3.2): © Shortening the line. ; * Increasing the cross-section of the conductor. In practice, (as in our example) it is often only the second possibility which is open. Every loaded line causes a voltage drop, which should, however, be as small as possible. This is often specified by the electric supply undertaking, “The percentage of voltage drop in the lines should not be more than 0.5% from the service Connection to the meter. The percentage voltage Explanation: If the whole of the nomi- nal voltage is present across a load, 1e whole of the rated power will be available, 1, however, the voltage is less {83.55% in this case) because of a drop in the lines (16.45% in this case), then the available power will also be less (69.6% here), In percentage terms, the available power at the load is less than the effective voltage at the load, since power depends upon the square of the voltage. 127 Dipindai dengan CamScanner | |drops in the wiring after the meter, should not ‘@xceed the following values: 1.5% in the case of lines for light and/or plug point Circuits from the meter upto the electrical load; 3% in the case of lines from the meter upto consumer systems with their own wiring circuits”. The heating system of the carvan possesses its own wiring circuit. A voltage drop of 3% is thus permissible here. This is known as the permissible Voltage drop Us pe. U4 per & 3% of 220 V U4 per = 0.03 + 220 V Us pr = 6.6 V This is the basis for calculating the required conductor cross section gig. Required conductor cross- bee section Usrw X * Greg = F2d The required conductor cross section is thus: X User Ube ed J Greg = x Us pe 8A-200m When the votage drop is only 3%, the rated cur- rent is treated as the load current. The calculation of required conductor cross-sec- tion generally yields values which are not stand- ard. Thus, the conductor which is purchased should have a cross-section of the next higher standard value. In our case, this is g = 10 mm?. The voltage drop is therefore less than what was specified, which is all to the good. fe2et xg Ua= 18 A+ 200 m i te AL Oe Us = 55-108 S/m + 10+ 10% m? ame Dipindai dengan CamScannerThis calculation contains a minor inaccuracy. Since the conductor resistance and the heating resistance form a series connection, it is not the rated current of 18 A, but a smaller current of 17.66 A which flows through the circuit. From this, we can calculate that the actual voltage drop Uy = 6.3 V. Since this value is very close to 6.4 V, how- ever, it is good enough for all practical purpose to use the rate current in the calculation. 9.3 PROTECTION OF ELECTRICAL LINES In order to ensure that an electrical system func- tions correctly and economically, it is extremely important to determine the correct specification for the lines. The maximum permissible voltage drop plays an important role here. Let us therefore consider one more example. The maximum permissible voltage drop for a 220 V system is 3%, i.e. Us pe = 6.6 V. The very short connecting line / = 3.5 m has to carry a current of / = 75 A. What should the conductor cross section be? According to the calculation, a conductor with a cross-section g = 1.5 mm’ is satisfactory. For a current of / = 75 A, however, such a small cross-section is not permissible. The line would heat up too much and the insulation would be damaged. The dissipation power in the line makes this clear: P-2 xg 75? A? 7m 56-10 $4.5. 107% m? Pe= 469 Pa P= 129 Dipindai dengan CamScannerOne criterion for determining whether excessive heating will take place, is the ratio between current and conductor cross-section. This is known as the current density. It should not be too high. The current density tells us how many amperes are flowing per square meter of the conductor cross section. The VDE (Union of German electrical engineers) has specified the maximum permissible current loading of insulated conductors (see table 9.1), in its norms for heavy current installations up to 1000 V {VDE 0100). The values in the table relate to an ambient temperature of 30°C. Three groups are distinguished in the table. Group 1: One or more single core cables laidina conduit. Group 2: Multi-core cables, e.g. sheathed cables, insulated metalsheathed cables, lead- covered cables, ribbon cables, flexible cables Group 3: Single core overhad lines, which are spaced at intervals at least equal to their diameter. “In our example therefore, a minimum cross-sec- tion g = 16 mm’ (group 2) is required, These calculations ‘must be made before instal- ling the electrical system. The lines must be rated to fulfil the following conditions: @ The permissible voltage drop should not be exceeded. @ The permissible load should not be exceeded. ‘¢ The mechanical strength of the cables shouldbe sufficient (see table 9.2. Extract from VDE 0100). The permissible continuous loading of electrical lines should not be exceeded. These have been calculated for the operating current. During nor- mal operations, therefore, impermissible overload- ing rarely takes place. In case of breakdowns and faults, however, this may happen, When a short circuit occurs, for instance, the permissible values may be greatly 130 Current density Formula symbol J ee q A War Dipindai dengan CamScannerTable 9.1: Current capacity of insulated conduc- tors and cables not laid underground, at an ambient temperature of 30nC exceeded. For such contingencies, the lines must be protected with overload protection devices, For different conductor cross-sections, different sizes of overload protection devices have to be used, in accordance with the group classification. Table 9.3 as per VDE 0100 lists the sizes of over- load protection units with reference to standard crosssections. These should be strictly adhered to. The protection should never be for values higher than those specified. Flexible cut outs (fuses) and automatic circuit breakers are overload protection devices. They absorb the overload current as well as short circuit current. 131 Dipindai dengan CamScannerctions for lines Table 9.2 : Minimum conductor cro: protected installation Wiring jn switch gear and distributors with currents upto 2.5 A above 2.5 A upto 16 A gove 16. A Open installation (on insulators) distance between fixing points flexible leads for connecting light hand tools upto 1 A current lconsumption and a maximum length of 2 m, when this is in jaccordance with the specifications for the appliance. [Appliances with rated currents upto 2.5 A a maximum lead jof 2 m, when this is in accordance with the specifications for | equipment. : c [Appliances with rated currents upto 10 A, connectors and lsockets upto 10 A rated current. Appliances with rated currents above 10 A, multiple point |sockets and connectors with rated currents between 10A and A Fuses (low voltage cut outs) Fuses are the most sensitive points ina circuit. If the rated current of the cut out is exceeded by a certain amount, the fuse wire melts within a speci- fied time, breaking the circuit, Cut outs belonging to the D-system are com- monly known as DIAZED-fuses. Their rated cur- Fig. 9.4: Fuse units for 500 . From left 10 right: HRC fuse, DIAZED fuse and NEOZED fuse ‘ 132 Dipindai dengan CamScannerrent ranges from 2 A to 100 A at arated voltage of 500 V. The base has a matched insert, which pre- vents fuse cartridges of higher ratings from being inserted. Cut outs belonging to the DO-system are com- monly known as NEOZED-fuses (Greek neo new). They are constructed along the same lines as those of the D system, only smaller. They have a current rating of 2 A to 100 A at arated voltage of 380 V (250 V for direct current). Fuses belonging to the NH-system (Nieder- spannungs-Hochleistungs-Sicherungen = low voltage, high power fuses) also known as HRC fuses (High Rated Capacity) can cut out very high currents. Their rated currents can be upto 1250 A ata rated voltage of 500 Va.c. or 660Va.c.and 440 V d.c, NH fuses have knife contacts. They can only be handled by technicians, because fuse units with higher ratings than those specified can easily be fitted in. The fuse inserts are handled with insu- lated fuse pullers. All cut outs break the circuit when overload takes place. The disconnection is more rapid the higher the overload is. In the following table, the disconnection time is given for cut outs used to protect cables and lines. Cut outs used for protect- ing switchgear and semi-conductors, break the cir- cuit considerably faster. In the trade, they are known as “quick-acting” cut outs as against “time-leg” cut outs. Until their current load capacity is fixed interna- tionally, protection units for 16 A can be used for lines with only 2 loaded conductors. Automatic circuit breakers Automatic circuit breakers are often used in place of fuses (fig. 9.8 and fig. 9.10). These have the advantage that they can be switched on again after tripping. Large overload currents are cut out immediately in the circuit breakers by a rapid short circuit release (magnetic relay). Smaller overload currents are cut after a time-lag by a bimetallic strip. Circuit breakers are used upto a rated current of 63 A with a rated a,c. voltage upto 415 V. Fig. 9,7: HRC fu puller with insulated {use Fig. 9.6:(a) DIAZED fuse (Diametrically graded two-part E rew plugs): (b) NEOZED fuse 133 Dipindai dengan CamScannerTable 9.3 Correspondence betwoen overload Protection units and rated cros: yetions of insu- lated lines 9.8: Construction of an automatig clreuit breaker Rated "Group 1] Group 2 | Group 3 ‘cross- [Guy Ar} cuy Al] cu] Al Sectionmm:| A | A | A | A | A‘) A ar |—|—} 6] — | 0] — 1 [G0 Me! to it 18 to, — | 10) =] 20] — S| ¢ 25 16| 10 | 20) te; 2) 20 4 20} 16 | 25] 20] 95 | 25 = 6 25] 20 | 35 |. 25 | 50] 35 10 35] 25.|, 60] 95 | 63 | 50 | 6 50} 95 | 63] 50| 80} 63 TL) 25° | 63| 50] 80] 63 | 100 | 80 | = 80 Too] 80) 125} 100 1 2e1e299219 21 wa 50 100} 80 | 125 | 100 | 160 | 125 70 425 | — | 160 | 125 | 200 | 160 35 760, — | 200 | 160} 250.] 200 120 200} — | 250 | 200'| 915 |, 200 ae 2501200 S150) 3. Switching mechanism 185 Sf J B15) 250 | 400 F315] 4. contact system 240 SS} 1400 | 815. | 400 | S15 | 5. overioad trip with bimetal 300 e 400/815 |) 600 | 400 | 6.Supply lead terminal 700 ar ary S007] | 7-Contact 500 Lo a 630 | 500 | &-Disconnecting sheet I 9.Jack | 10.See 8. 4 The VDE 0641 classification includes circuit breakers with the L-characteristic. These should not trip within one hour when the test current is 1.3 to 1.5 times larger than the rated current. With current 2.4 times the testing current, they should not trip in less than0.1 s. If, however, the currents 3.5 times the test current, the circuit breaker should trip in less than 0.1 s (fig. 9.9). Circuit breakers with the G-characteristic are used to protect electrical equipment. When the overload is small, they trip faster than circuit breakers with the L-characteristic and when the overload is larger, they trip more slowly (fig. 9.9), ‘Overload protection devices are meant to break the circuit when there is an overload current, Short 134 11.Current contact 12.Plunger rod 13.Bi-metal 17.equalising channel 18.Jack 18.Spring 20.Spring 21.Terminal 22.Housing 23.Coll 24.Guide siot 28.Switch lever Dipindai dengan CamScannerRated current /y in A Fig, 9.9: L and G charact circuits are critical instances of this. There are circuit breakers with short circuit breaking capabi- lities of 3000 A, 6000 A and 10000 A. Apart from this, the time lapse between the occurrence of the fault (short circuit) and circuit breaking, is impor- tant. The current limiting class of the circuit breaker specifies this aspect. There are three cur- rent limiting classes: 1, 2 and 3. Ata given magni- tude of short circuit current, the circuit will be broken faster by the circuit breaker of the higher current limiting class. Selectivity The overload protection device must be installed at the beginning of every circuit as well as at all such points where the loading capacity is low. This, for instance, is the case wherever the cross-section becomes smaller. A large system always contains several circuits. These are individually protected. Overriding these, there is @ larger cut out at the beginning of the feeder line (e.g. the line for one floor in a building), 135 Dipindai dengan CamScanner- Several such lines may be connected together to the main line. The main line, which has an even larger cross-section than the lines for each floor, will be likewise protected by a cut out with aneven higher rating. This ensures that—in the event of malfunction—only the cut out immediately preced- ing the point of the fault in the circuit will trip. A 16 A cut out will trip before a 20 A cut out. This principle is known as selectivity. Selectivity means the graded protection of a sys- tem, which ensures that only the overload protec- tion device immediately preceding the point of malfunction in a circuit will trip. Let us assume that 2 household wiring system contains a light circuit with a 16 A circuit breaker, an electric stove with a 20 A circuit breaker and a water heating device with a 25 A fuse. If a short circuit occurs in any of these circuits, the nearest preceding overload protection device should trip. In none of these cases should F4 or F5 trip. Selectivity is ensured between F1 and F4 or F2 and F4, Between F3 and F4, however, selectivity is not certain, since a 35 A cut out may trip faster than a time lag fuse for 25 A under certain conditions. In order to ensure selectivity, every preceding ‘cut out should be 2 steps higher than the next one. F4 should have had a 50 A rating. 136 ys Fig. 9.10; Automatic circuit breaker with L and G characteristics Fig. 9.11: Characterisations for short circuit cut out capability and current loading classe: Fig. 9.12: Selectivity in a domestic wiring system Dipindai dengan CamScannerExercises for 9 1, What conditions should be fulfilled for the installation of electric lines according to regulations? 2. At what points in the overall circuit should overload protection devices be installed? 3. Under what conditions is selectivity in a sys- tem ensured? 4. What is the range of applications for delayed fuses as against instant ones? 5. In what respect are fusible cut outs different from automatic cut outs? 6. What should the maximum length of a two- core feeder line (Cu) with g=1,5 mm’ be, ifa 16A flows through it and the maximum permissible voltage drop is 3.3V? 7. What conductor cross-section should be used for a water-heating device (Uy =220V, Py=4 kW), if the line length is 12 m and the permissible vol- tage drop is 1.5% (conductor material: Cu)? 8. What percentage of its rated power will a clothes iron with Py=1000 W consume, if a vol- tage drop of 10% takes place in the line? 137 Dipindai dengan CamScanner