Stresses in Ship’s Structure

• The ship must at all times be able to resist and

withstand these stresses and strains throughout its
structure.
• It must therefore be constructed in a manner, and of
such materials, that will provide the necessary
strength.
• The ship must also be able to function efficiently as a
cargo-carrying vessel.
• These static and dynamic forces create longitudinal,
transverse and local stresses in the ship' structure.
Longitudinal stresses are greatest in magnitude and
result in bending of the ship along its length.
 Static force

• These are due to:

• Internal forces resulting from structural
weight, cargo and machinery weight.
• External static forces including the Hydrostatic
pressure of water on the Hull.
Center of Gravity(G): All gravity forced as one force acting downward through ship’s
Geometric center.

Center of Buoyancy(B): all buoyancy forces as one force acting upward through
underwater Geometric center.
• Consider a ship floating in still water. Two different forces will be
acting upon it along its length.
• The weight of the ship and its contents will be acting vertically
• downwards.
• The buoyancy or vertical component of hydrostatic pressure will
be acting upwards.
• ln total, the two forces exactly equal and balance one another
such that the ship floats at some particular draught.
• The centre of the buoyancy force and the centre of the weight will
be vertically in line. However, at various points along the ship's
length there may be an excess of buoyancy or an excess of weight.
Shear Force
• In a ship the neutral axis is generally nearer the bottom,
since the bottom shell will be heavier than the deck, having
to resist water pressure as well as the bending stresses.

• Bending stresses are greater over the middle portion of the

length and it is owing to this variation that Lloyd’s give
maximum scantlings over 40 per cent of the length
amidships.

• Other scantlings may taper towards the ends of the ship,

apart from locally highly stressed regions where other
forms of loading are encountered.
Hogging / Sagging
• The loading of the ship's structure will also tend to bend it. The
bending moment at any point is the sum of the various moments
to one side or the other.
• The bending moment at a section is aIso represented by the area
of the shear force diagram to the point considered.
• Since a bending moment acts on the ship then it will tend to bend
aIong its length. This still water bending moment (SWBM)
condition will cause the ship to take up one of two possible
extreme conditions.
• If the buoyancy forces in the region of midships are greater than
the weight then the ship will curve upwards or 'hog‘.
• If the weight amidships is greater than the buoyancy forces then
the ship will curve downwards or 'sag‘.
Ship’s Motion
 DYNAMIC FORCES

• If the ship is now considered to be moving

among waves, the distribution of weight is the
same.
• The distribution of buoyancy, however, will
vary as a result of the waves.
• The movement of the ship will also introduce
dynamic forces.
• If the wave crest is considered at midships then
the buoyancy in this region will be increased. With
the wave trough positioned at the ends of the
ship, the buoyancy here will be reduced.
• This loading condition will result in a significantly
increased bending moment which will cause the
ship to hog.
• This will be an extreme condition giving the
maximum bending moment that can occur in the
ship' s structure for this condition.
• If the wave trough is now considered at midships then the
buoyancy in this region will be reduced. With the wave
crests positioned at the ends of the ship, the buoyancy here
will be increased.
• This loading condition will result in a bending moment
which will cause the ship to sag.
• Since the ship in its still water condition is considered to
hog, then this change to a sagging condition has required a
bending moment to overcome the initial hogging bending
moment in addition to creating sagging. The actual bending
moment in this condition is therefore considerable and,
again, it is an extreme condition.
SUMMARY OF SHIP MOVEMENT
• Heave: involves upward and downward
acceleration of ships along their vertical axis.
Only in an absolute calm are upward and
downward motion at equilibrium and the ship
floats at rest. Buoyancy varies as a ship
travels through wave crests and troughs.
• If the wave troughs predominate, buoyancy
falls and the ship "sinks“, while if the wave
crests predominate, the ship "rises“.
Dynamic loading of ship
 Stress on the structure
• The bending of a ship causes stresses to be set up
within its structure. When a ship sags, tensile stresses
are set up in the bottom shelI plating and compressive
stresses are set up in the deck.
• When the ship hogs, tensile stresses occur in the decks
and compressive stresses in the bottom shelI.
• This stressing, whether compressive or tensile,
reduces in magnitude towards a position known as the
neutral axis. The neutral axis in a ship is somewhere
below half the depth and is, in effect, a horizontal line
drawn through the centre of gravity of the ship's
section.
Static loading
 Static loading
• A transverse section of a ship is subjected to Static pressure
from the surrounding water in addition to the loading
resulting from the weight of the structure, cargo, etc.
• Although transverse stresses are of lesser magnitude than
longitudinal stresses, considerable distortion of the
structure could occur, in the absence of adequate stiffening.
• The parts of the structure which resist transverse stresses
are transverse bulkheads, floors in the double bottom
(where fitted) ,deck beams, side frames and the brackets
between them and adjacent structure such as tank top
flooring or margin plates.
Racking
 Racking
• When a ship is rolling it is accelerated and
decelerated, resulting in forces in the
structure tending to distort it. This condition is
known as racking and its greatest effect is felt
when the ship is in the light or ballast
condition.
• Brackets and beam knees joining horizontal
and vertical items of structure are used to
resist this distortion.
Pounding
 Pounding
• ln heavy weather, when the ship is heaving
and pitching, the forward end leaves and
re-enters the water with a slamming effect.
This slamming down of the forward region on
to the water is known as pounding. Additional
stiffening must be fttted in the pounding
region to reduce the possibility of damage to
the structure.
Localised loading
 Localised loading
• Heavy weights, such as equipment in the
machinery spaces or particular items of
general cargo, can give rise to localised
distortion of the transverse section.
• Arrangements for spreading the load,
additional stiffening and thicker plating are
methods used in dealing with this problem.
Superstructures and discontinuities
• The ends of superstructures represent major discontinuities in the
ship's structure where a considerable change in section modulus
occurs. Localised stresses will occur which may result in cracking
of adjacent structure.
• Sharp discontinuities are therefore to be avoided by the
introduction of gradual tapers. Thicker strakes of deck and shell
plating may also be fitted at these points.
• Any holes or openings cut in decks create similar areas of high
local stress. Well rounded corners must be used where openings
are necessary, and doubling plates may also be fitted.
• ln the case of hatchways the bulk of the longitudinal strength
material is concentrated outboard of the hatch openings on either
side to reduce the change in section modulus at the openings.
 Vibration
• Vibrations set up in a ship due to reciprocating
machinery, propellers, etc., can result in the setting up
of stresses in the structure. These are cyclic stresses
which could result in fatigue failure of local items of
structure leading to more general collapse.
• Balancing of machinery and adequate propeller tip
clearances can reduce the effects of vibration to
acceptable proportions.
• Apart from possible damage to equipment and
structure, the presence of vibration can be most
uncomfortable to any passengers and the crew.
 Fatigue failure
• Unlike brittle fracture, fatigue fracture occurs
very slowly and can in fact take years to
propagate. The greatest danger with fatigue
fractures is that they occur at low stresses
that are applied to a structure repeatedly over
a period of time.
 Buckling
• With the substantial increase in size of oil
tankers, bulk carriers, and container ships in
recent years, greater attention has had to be
given to the buckling strength of the stiffened
plate panels constituting the shell.
• Buckling of a structural member loaded in
compression may occur at a stress level that is
substantially lower than the material’s yield
stress.
What are ships made of

Ships are made of steel. But what all forms of steel are used in building ships. I
mean what shape of steel ?

Plate

We all know what we mean by plate. It is a rectangular shape steel with certain
thickness. The most common place you can see the plate in ship construction is
the main deck and side of the ship.

Bar
There is only one principle difference between steel plate and steel bar. The steel
bar has lesser cross sectional width than the steel plate.

Beam/ Pillars
A beam is a structural element that increases load bearing capability and avoid
bending of the structure. Beams can be categorized by many types but from point
of ship construction, we need to categorize it through cross sectional shape.

For example, there are Octagonal pillar, C-shaped beams, I-shaped beams and
SI-shaped beams. SI shaped beams are I-shaped beams with slight curved cross
section. There may be may different types of beam/ Pillars in use.
Keel

Keel of the ship is the bottom most plate of the ship laid along the entire length
of the ship.

During construction of the ship this is the first thing that is placed on the blocks.

Keel laying also has the importance with respect to many IMO conventions as this
is the date construction of the ship starts.

So keel is the steel plate with slightly more thickness than the other adjoining plates
on its sides. This area need more strengthening because the ship sits on this area on
the blocks, during construction as well as during dry docks.

It has two functions:

It prevents the ship from being blown sideways by the wind, and

It holds the ballast that keeps the ship right-side up.

DUCT KEEL
Shell plating

Shell plating is the steel plate used on the shell of the ship. The dictionary meaning of
the shell is “hard outer covering”. So shell plating is whatever we see on outer side of
the ship.

One of the main purpose of shell plating is to provide watertight skin of the ship.

Apart from that it also adds to the longitudinal strength of the ship.

Ship construction requires us to be able to pin point each component. So when we say
shell plating, it is a huge area. We can further divide this area in two broad parts,

which is

•Bottom shell plating

•Side shell plating

Bottom shell plating is the shell plating on the bottom part of the ship. Or we can say
that bottom shell plating form the watertight skin of the bottom of the ship. It is the
plate laid in the horizontal direction.

To a certain extent we can say that even keel of the ship is also bottom shell plate.

Side shell plating is the shell plating on the sides of the ship that forms the watertight
skin along the ship side. It is the plate laid in the vertical direction.
Strake

What is strake is?

We need to understand the construction of shell plating.

Ship’s side plate (Shell plating) is not made of single metal sheet. It is made of smaller
sections of steel plates. These smaller sections of the plate are welded together.
Irrespective of with what method these plates are joined together, these are placed
in a certain pattern.

In naval architecture and ship construction each of these plate has an identification.
These are numbered in certain pattern.

For example the plates on the side shell plating are numbered like this:
• The plates are identified by a letter and a number.
• Each plate is given a letter in the vertical direction starting with A from the bottom.
• Each plate is given a number in the horizontal direction starting from aft.
• Each section of the plate placed in fore and aft direction is called a “strake”.

So in the above example, we have A-Strake, B-Strake and so on.

If we want to be more specific, We can say that we have starboard A-Strake , starboard
B-strake and so on. Similar naming will be on the port side.

For the bottom shell plating, similar numbering is done for the plates forming it:
• Plates are given a letter starting with “A” to the plate adjacent to the keel plate.
• Plates and given a number starting from the aft
• So the plate adjacent to the keel plate will have a identification of A1, A2 and so on
• starting with A1 from the after most plate.
Now there are three type of strakes that you would hear in ship construction.

Shear Strake

Shear strake is the top most strake of the Side shell plating. So if side shell plating
has strakes from A to K, then K-strake is the shear strake. This is the strake that
connects with the deck plating.

Shear strake is usually of higher thickness and strength than other strakes.

This is because this strake can have lot of physical damages during the life of ship.
Keel Strake

Keel plate is back bone of the ship. But keel plate is also made up of smaller sections
of the steel plates. These strake of plates that form the keel of the ship is called
Keel Strake.

The plates in the keel strake are number from aft to forward starting from the aft
one which has the number “1”.

Unlike other strakes, keel strakes do not have letter associated with its naming.

Garboard Strake

Garboard strake is the first strake on each side of the keel strake. As we discussed in the
bottom strakes, the first stake from the keel is named A-strake.

So we can also say that Bottom A-strake is called Garboard strake.

Naming of strakes might look simple but for actual ship with curved sides and flared
bottom, it might not be that simple.
Deck plating
Deck plating again is a plate. It is steel plate that forms the main deck of the ship.

As per the location, we can give a more specific name to the deck plating.

For example accommodation deck plating or main deck plating.

Stiffners

A steel plate of 2mm thickness can be easily bent. If you lift this plate with the crane
from its ends, it will most likely bend at the center. Now what can you do to
avoid it from bending ?

One easy solution is to increase the thickness of the plate by welding two or more
plates together. But in ship construction this is not a good idea. One among many
reasons for this is that we do not want to increase the light weight of the ship.

The better option is to weld two of more flat bars either in fore and aft direction
or athwartship direction.

In this case these flat bars will be called stiffners. Anything that is used solely to
provide strength to a ship structure can be called a stiffner.

A stiffner welded in longitudinal direction is called “Longitudinal stiffner”. Same way

a stiffners welded in transverse direction is simply called “transverse stiffner”.

Longitudinal stiffners and transverse stiffners can further will named according to
various factors including the amount of strength these provide to the structure.
Girder

Girders are one form of longitudinal stiffners. These are Big size steel plate
(or sometimes beams) connected to bottom of the ship, Runs in fore and aft direction
strengthen the ship against bending moment.

Girders are also named according to its location. The girder at the center of the ship
is called center girder.

In double bottom tanks, the thick solid metal plate that divides the ballast tanks into
port and starboard tank is the center girder.

Apart from the center girder, there can be few girders on each side of the ship or
double bottom. Depending upon the breadth of the ship, there can be more than
one side girder on each side.

While center girder runs in full depth of the double bottom tank, side girders may or
may not run in full depth.
Longitudinals

Longitudinal is short name for longitudinal stiffners.

In most cases the longitudinals are beams (mostly L-beams) and runs along the length
of the ship. Double bottom space is the most common space where you can easliy
identify longitudinals.

Longitudinals are further named depending upon what section these longitudinals
are strengthening.

In double bottom ballast tank, longitudinals strengthening the bottom are called
“bottom longitudinals”.

Longitudinals strenghtening the top of the ballast tank are called “top longitudinals”.
Frames

Frames act as major transverse stiffners. Frames are Big size steel plate connected to
bottom of the ship.

Runs in athwartship direction strengthen the ship against buckling and bending.

We can consider the frames to be similar to the girders but with only one difference.
Frames runs in transverse (Athwartship) direction.

If keel is the backbone of the ship, the frames are considered to be the rib cage.
Frames are numbered starting from aft perpendiculars.

Transverse

Transverse is the short name for “transverse stiffners”. These are different from
frames in two ways. First unlike frames these do not extend to full height of the
compartment. Second transverse are of lesser strength and thickness than frames.

Based on the location of transverse, these may be called “bottom transverse”,

“inner bottom transverse” or even “deck transverse”.
Stringer:

A horizontal stiffener fitted along the ships’ side or a longitudinal bulkhead,

in order to provide strength and rigidity.

Stringer ----A fore and aft member used to give longitudinal strength. Depending
on location, these are called hold stringers, bilge stringers, side stringers, etc.

Stringer Plate ----A deck plate at the outboard, edge of deck connected to the shell
of a ship with an angle or a welded joint.
Girders:

A girder is a longitudinal member used in the construction of the bottom of a

ship. They can be solid or not and can be placed above the keel (centre girder) or
spaced equal distances from it (side girders). They can be continuous or divided
by floor sections (intercostal side girders). The centre girder is always one
continuous piece and must be fastened to the keel with a continuous weld.
Girders must extend as far as possible from the forward to the aft end of a ship.

Deck girders:
These are longitudinal members that combine with the beams to form the
longitudinal framing of the deck.

Frames:

These are vertical members that make up the framing of the vertical part of the
hull. Frame type and spacing vary considerably depending on the ship's
construction.
Longitudinals:
A very general term to identify any small longitudinal member that can be used for
several purposes. This term is used more specifically in longitudinal framing.

Web frames:
Oversized members that replace a frame at certain locations on a ship.

Bracket:
A general term that identifies any part used to connect two members.

Beam knee:
Bracket located at the end of deck beams that connect the beam and frame to the
shell plating.

Pillar:
Vertical member inside a ship that connects the deck to the ship's
bottom, where it is installed between two tweendecks, especially
around hatches. They are quite bulky and complicate cargo handling
inside holds.
Plating:
The plating of a hull is the series of plates that form the watertight shell of the
hull. There is bottom plating, deck plating and side shell plating.

Bilge plating:
Longitudinal plating that connects the side shell plating to the bottom plating.

Tank top:
Watertight series of plates attached to a ship's bottom framework.

Transverse bulkheads primarily resist such transverse deformation, the side

frames
contribution being insignificant provided the transverse bulkheads are at their
usual regular spacings.
Floors:
These are made up of cross members that are mounted perpendicular
to the keel and girders.

There are three main types of floor: solid, plate and bracket.
A solid floor is the easiest to comprehend, and consists of a solid
plate, with no lightening holes cut into it.

for example, be used to subdivide an area into different tanks.

A plate floor is the reverse, and does have lightening holes cut into the plate,
which, as mentioned, does reduce weight, or lighten the weight, thus the name.
However, it also reduces the strength of the floor. They would be used inside a tank
to provide additional strength while allowing any fluid stored in the tank to flow
freely back and forth.

A bracket floor

It is the lightest of all floors.

It consists of a relatively short bracket connected either to the centre girder
extending athwartships towards the sides of the hull, or connected to a similar
girder, called the margin plate, located at the start of the round of the bilge, and
extending athwartships towards the centre girder. In between the two brackets are
fairly short stiffeners, like a T, at the top and bottom of the space, with nothing
between them. They are used to provide some stiffening between the plate floors
without adding too much weight.
A bracket floor

It is the lightest of all floors.

It consists of a relatively short bracket connected either to the centre girder extending
athwartships towards the sides of the hull, or connected to a similar girder, called the
margin plate, located at the start of the round of the bilge, and extending athwartships
towards the centre girder. In between the two brackets are fairly short stiffeners,
like a T, at the top and bottom of the space, with nothing between them. They are used
to provide some stiffening between the plate floors without adding too much weight.