Fuel 307 (2022) 121925

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Fuel
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Full Length Article

Hydrogen-diesel co-combustion characteristics, vibro-acoustics and

unregulated emissions in EGR assisted dual fuel engine
Sarthak Nag , Atul Dhar *, Arpan Gupta
School of Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Mandi 175005, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This work investigates the co-combustion characteristics of the hydrogen-diesel dual fuel with exhaust gas
Hydrogen recirculation (EGR). The experiments were performed on a retrofitted duel fuel compression ignition engine for
Diesel engine the entire engine load spectra, while the maximum hydrogen energy share in the study was 30%. Further, EGR
Exhaust gas recirculation
was varied up to 10% to examine its effect on the hydrogen-diesel co-combustion and other relevant charac­
Combustion characteristics
teristics. It was found that although, hydrogen exhibit contrasting effects on the combustion at low and high
Dual fuel engine
Unregulated emissions loads, EGR continually degraded the peak combustion pressure. However, interestingly, the combustion’s
variability improved on addition of EGR at higher loads, despite EGR’s detrimental effect on variability at lower
loads. In addition, combustion noise and engine vibration were also studied with the aim to understand the effect
of fuels and their combustion stability on such parameters. The relatively lower participation of hydrogen tends
to reduce the vibrations, however, EGR leads to higher vibrations in the engine. The combustion noise however
reduced with addition of hydrogen and EGR at lower loads. Further, the cumulative effect of EGR- hydrogen on
the much unattended but harmful unregulated emissions was also investigated, and a synergy between the
hydrogen addition and EGR was observed in this study. The present study showcases the key concerns as well as
advantages in the EGR assisted hydrogen diesel combustion.

acetaldehydes, and other aromatic hydrocarbons, which fugitively go

1. Introduction
While the COVID-19 pandemic held the world at standstill for most
of the year 2020 [1], it was still recorded as the hottest year ever since
the data recordings began [2,3]. The greenhouse emissions and envi­
ronmental pollutants, that we emit today have long term effects on the
earth’s environment, which necessitates an immediate response to
secure and ensure inhabitable conditions for the future generations. The
transportation sector itself amounts for 29% of the global greenhouse
emissions responsible for elevating atmosphere’s mean temperature [4].
The over-reliance of transportation sector on the crude oil derived fuels
and the slow progress in development and implementation of alternative
fuel technologies can be held responsible for such numbers and condi­
tions [5]. Crude oil is composed of hydrocarbons, and its utilisation
releases profusion of pollutants having adverse effects on humans and
environmental health. Diesel, a crude oil derivative, is no exception here
and its combustion in IC engine produces hazardous emissions like PM,
NOx, SO2, CO, CO2 and inconvenient noise and vibrations. More
importantly, but vastly neglected, the combustion of diesel also pro­
duces hazardous carcinogenic emissions like formaldehydes,
unchecked from various regulatory agencies but have unpropitious ef­
fect on human health. Additionally, the crude oil resources in the world
are geographically limited to few countries and regions which further
adds volatility to the global pricing and availability dynamics. Crude oil
is a limited resource and over-reliance may lead to its untimely deple­
tion, which presumably is going to affect the availability of other crude
oil derivatives. All this strongly advocates for the importance of studying
alternative fuels for the development of sustainable transportation
infrastructure for subsiding reliance on petroleum.
Diesel engines have carried their unscathed legacy of reliability,
durability, economy and crudeness [6,7], and have a proven in long haul
transportation, heavy duty machines and various earthmovers. How­
ever, diesel engines are high polluting and efforts are required to
converge these attributes to low emission-signature engines for a sus­
tainable and cleaner transport. Researchers have continuously explored
various alternative fuels like natural gas [8,9], H2 [10,11], biofuels
[12,13], alcohols [14,15], electricity [16] as possible replacements for
present transportation fuels with an objective to reduce overall carbon
footprint of transportation. Some studies have also suggested the
implementation of technologies like exhaust heat recovery [17,18],

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: add@iitmandi.ac.in (A. Dhar).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2021.121925
Received 16 May 2021; Received in revised form 24 August 2021; Accepted 4 September 2021
Available online 9 September 2021
0016-2361/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Nag et al. Fuel 307 (2022) 121925

Nomenclature EVO Exhaust valve open

H2 hydrogen gas
an Instantaneous acceleration HCHO Formaldehyde
aBDC After bottom dead centre HES hydrogen energy share
aTDC After top dead centre HRR Heat release rate
AHC Aromatic hydrocarbons IC Internal combustion
bBDC Before bottom dead centre IMEP Indicated mean effective pressure
BHP Brake horsepower IVC Intake valve close
bTDC Before top dead centre IVO Intake valve open
CA50 Crank angle at 50% mass burn fraction kW Kilowatt
CAD Crank angle degrees LHVx Lower heating value of × fuel
cc Cubic centimetre ṁx Mass flow rate of × fuel
CH3CHO Acetaldehyde NOx Oxides of nitrogen
CO Carbon monoxide PM Particulate matter
CO2 Carbon dioxide RMS Root mean square
COV Coefficient of variation rpm Rotation per minute
dBA A-weighted decibels SO2 Sulphur oxide
EGR Exhaust gas recirculation SOI (Diesel) Start of injection (Diesel)
EOI (Diesel) End of injection (Diesel) SOI (H2) Start of injection (hydrogen)
EOI (H2) End of injection (hydrogen) TDC Top dead centre
EVC Exhaust valve close λ Relative air fuel ratio

exhaust gas recirculation [19,20], retardation of fuel injection timing to engines [26,27].
control the emissions and boost the system’s efficiency [21], but even The efforts to study the H2-diesel co-combustion in dual fuel engines
these technologies need a suitable tandem to prove their effectiveness. have been significant. While the addition of H2 is suitable for reducing
H2 in its gaseous form is a viable option to substantially reduce the carbon based emission [28], engine is susceptible to knocking at higher
emissions from the engines. Moreover, utilisation of H2 in IC engine H2 levels [29]. The combustion properties of H2 such as wide flamma­
provides an edge over other power systems for mobility by standing on bility limit, low ignition energy requirement and small quenching dis­
the shoulders of the high R&D intensive and mature field of IC engines tance leads to severe knocking [30]. Juknelevicius et al. investigated the
[22]. H2, itself is an ultra-clean carbon-less fuel and does not emit any influence of H2 co-combusting with diesel on a modified 1.8 L stationary
carbonaceous pollutants on combustion. The combustion enhancing engine and found a significant increase in peak pressure at medium and
properties of H2 such as higher diffusivity, flame velocity and broader higher loads [31]. They observed a combustion knock at 35% H2
flammability limit improves the value of H2 as an alternative fuel. replacement level for nominal load. Dimitriou et al. studied the H2 diesel
Table 1 gives the comparison of fuel properties of H2 and diesel [23]. H2 combustion using in-line, 4-cylinder compression ignition engine [32].
has a very high auto-ignition temperature which requires high engine’s They reported increase in the peak pressure from 6 MPa to 8 MPa with
compression ratio to ignite the charge. Moreover, the poor energy 20% addition of H2, while the peak pressure doubled with 85% H2
density per unit volume of H2 discourages its utilisation as a single fuel. addition. Yilmaz and co-workers used a 4-cylinder, CRDI engine to study
Although the production and storage options for H2 are presently seen as the effect of H2 addition to a diesel engine and reported an increase in
a major hurdle, the ongoing advancements may soon provide a viable peak in-cylinder pressure [33]. In addition to the aforementioned
solution for the aforementioned concerns [24,25]. Moreover, the studies, significant pressure rise has been reported by numerous studies
shortcomings of H2 are complemented well by diesel and vice-versa, in the past [34]. The abrupt pressure rise is often due to the spontaneous
thus making the combination suitable for co-combustion. H2 is usually ignition of H2 charge leading to detonation and knocking, which may
injected through intake manifold, which then mixes homogeneously lead to severe damage to engines such as cracks in cylinder head or
with intake air due to its high diffusion coefficient. Diesel initiates the piston rings [29]. However, a previous study from the authors’ group
combustion due to its low compression ratio requirement and is fol­ highlighted an important disparity at higher and lower load conditions
lowed by extensive burning of H2. Therefore, the utilisation of H2 in IC for the peak pressure during combustion [35].
engines has gained significant interest by its utilisation in dual fuel On the other hand, although EGR is well received as a potent tech­
nology for NOx reduction in complete spectra of engines, the synergy of
H2 and EGR encapsulates higher potential for overall emission reduc­
Table 1
tion. A recent study reported a cumulative NOx reduction of over 38%
Physical properties of fuel: diesel and H2 [14,23,36].
while using EGR in a H2-diesel dual fuel engine [36]. The recirculation
Properties Diesel H2 Unit of cooled exhaust with the fresh air into the engine leads to the increased
Chemical Formula C10H20 to H2 – specific heat capacity of the charge which leads to decreased combustion
C15H28 temperature [37]. In addition, EGR has proven effectiveness in reducing
Lower heating value 42.7 119.8 MJ/kg
engine knocking tendency due its dilution effect [38]. However, the
Energy density, @ 15 ◦ C and 100 35.8 10.3 MJ/m3
kPa effect of EGR on the overall engine integrity along with its detrimental
Auto-ignition temperature 535 858 K effect on emissions, other than NOx, makes it suitable to be used with
Diffusivity, in air 0.04 0.63 cm2/s H2, which can offset some of the detrimental effects. The synergistic
Flammability limit (% vol. in air) 0.7–5 4–75 % vol. in air effect of both H2 and EGR can help in enhancing the combustion char­
Laminar burning velocity 30 268–330 cm/s
acteristics of the engine along with the reduction in unregulated emis­
Density, @ 15 ◦ C and 100 kPa 848 0.008 kg/m3
Carbon content 86.2 – % mass sions, which fugitively goes unchecked.
Oxygen content <0.1 – % mass Zhou et al. studied the unregulated emissions from ISUZU 4HFI 4334
Hydrogen content 14.3 99.97 % mass cc natural aspirated inline 4-cylinder engine and reported reduction in

2
S. Nag et al. Fuel 307 (2022) 121925

formaldehyde and aldehyde emissions with addition of up to 40% HES at Table 2

lower BMEP [39]. However, at higher loads, the emissions were Make and model of the experimental equipment.
invariable of the HES enhancements. Further, they even reported an Equipment Make Model
increase in benzene, toluene, and xylene emissions at higher loads on the
Test engine Specifications Kirloskar TV1
addition of H2. Sharma et al. studied the unregulated emissions from a 4-stroke single
H2-diesel dual fuel engine and observed a decreasing trend for aromatic cylinder
hydrocarbons, formaldehyde and aldehyde by increasing the H2 addi­ Water cooled 1500 rpm
tion [35]. Also, in general, the unregulated emissions reduced while Speed 5.2 kW
Rated Power 17.5
increasing the load in their study. In addition to these studies, only a Compression 661 cc
handful of literature is available on unregulated emissions. Further, the Ratio 17.5
combined effect of EGR-H2-diesel on the unregulated emissions is a key Displacement 40.1 cc
to understand the synergy between the EGR and H2 in the combustion. Compression 87.5 × 110 mm
Ratio 270 bars
Therefore, the present study aims at investigating the effect of EGR
Clearance
enhancement on the co-combustion of H2 diesel in a dual fuel engine. volume
The study is primarily focussed to investigate the synergistic effect of H2 Bore × Stroke
and partially cooled EGR on engine combustion characteristics and Injection
unregulated emissions. The tests were conducted at two load points: pressure
Test bed Dynamometer Accurate Test MA133M-G1
25% and 100%, whereas the H2 share was varied up to 30% based on 31 kW@1500 rpm, 197 N-m Equipments &
energy replacement and EGR was varied up to 10% based on fresh air nominal torque, max 7000 rpm, 4 Engineers
intake. The qualitative analysis of the combustion stability is carried by Poles.
studying parameters like combustion duration, ignition delay, cycle to In cylinder pressure sensor Kistler 6045B
Fuel line pressure sensor Kistler 4067E
cycle variation, combustion noise and engine vibrations. Unregulated
Single axis accelerometer PCB Piezotronics 352C03
emissions, which are extremely detrimental to human health, like Gaseous fuel mass flow meter Bronkhorst mini
formaldehyde, acetaldehyde and aromatic hydrocarbons are also re­ CORIFLOW
ported for EGR- H2-diesel combustion. The reported results will M14
contribute in improved apprehension towards the EGR enhanced H2 Diesel mass flow meter Sensortronics 65,089
Air flow meter Bronkhorst In-Flow F-116AI
diesel dual fuelled engines and will help in optimizing the H2 and EGR
Port fuel injector AFS Gs-60–05-5H
rates for formulating the strategies for stable operation. Engine encoder Encoder India ENC 82/25HT-
2500ABZ
2. Experimental setup and procedures Engine control and data acquisition National Instruments NI cRIO 9082
system (NI) NI 9223
NI cDAQ
The experimental study was carried on 4-stroke, single cylinder, Emission spectrometer AVL SESAM i60FT
water cooled, naturally aspirated compression ignition engine having
rated output of 5.2 kW at 1500 rpm, tailored to operate at dual fuel mode
with provision to incorporate EGR operation. Fig. 1 shows the schematic engines of varied dimensions, equipped with a 3-phase asynchronous
line diagram of the test setup, whereas Table 2 shows the specifications vectorial servo motor connected to a variable frequency drive (VFD) and
of the test engine as well as that of other equipment. The details of the the loading was done using a programmable logic controller (PLC). The
engine test setup have been reported in our previous work [36]. Briefly, whole test setup was built around this universal test bed. The original
the test engine was mounted on a universal test bed, capable to mount head of the test engine was replaced with a new engine head, which was

Fig. 1. Schematic line diagram of the experimental test setup.

3
S. Nag et al.
modified to incorporate the in-cylinder pressure sensor and a single axis
accelerometer. The fuel line of the engine was also replaced with a new
fuel line installed with fuel line pressure sensor. The performance pa­
rameters of the engine before and after the retrofitting were within the
acceptable limits.
Gaseous fuel - H2 was delivered from a pressurized industrial cylin­
der with a maximum pressure of 140 bar. The supply pressure was
reduced to 3 bar, using a double stage pressure regulator and a needle
valve, and flashback arrestors were installed in the gas line to enhance
fire safety. The flow of the gaseous fuel was recorded using a Coriolis
mass flow meter having accuracy of ± 0.5%, which utilizes Coriolis force
for the measurement of mass flow. It has a fixed vibrating tube, whose
vibrations are affected whenever a fluid passes through it and causes a
phase shift. Based on the phase shift, the flow output is derived [40]. The
standard diesel fuel was used in the experiments. Its consumption was
recorded gravimetrically using a shear-beam type load cell connected to
the PLC which averaged the fuel consumption data for 60 s within total
error of ± 0.03%. The fresh air intake was measured using air flow meter
having accuracy of 0.2%. A single hole port fuel injector (PFI) was used
for the injection of H2, and it was installed at the lower side of the intake
manifold at an estimated distance of 10 cm from the intake valve, using a
custom built PFI holder. A rotary incremental encoder with a resolution
of 0.144 CAD was mounted on the shaft, which provides 3 output signals
A, B and Z for occurrence, direction of movement and indexing of
reference position. The injection parameters for H2 were controlled by
an in-house developed LabView based engine control and data acquisi­
tion unit. The EGR was assimilated into the cylinder by first cooling the
exhaust gases in an expansion section and then fumigating it to the inlet
manifold using in-house assembled stainless-steel tubing and a manually
controlled mechanical valve was installed to regulate the EGR rate. The
unregulated emissions were measured using a 5 Hz Fourier transform
infrared spectrometer, which obtains the infrared spectrum and
measured intensity over a range of wavelength. The sampling probe of
the FTIR spectrometer was installed in the custom-made isokinetic
sampling section installed on the exhaust line, which passes the exhaust
through a preheater which maintained the exhaust temperature above
190 ◦ C. The details of the experiment equipment used in the study are
given in Table 2.
For this study, the experiments were performed for the engine load
25% and 100%, i.e. the dynamometer torque of 4.89 N-m and 20.04 N-
m, respectively. These loads were specifically chosen to understand the
Fig. 2. Valve timing and fuel injection timing diagram for the experimental setup.
4
Fuel 307 (2022) 121925
combustion behaviour at contrasting loading conditions. Further, the
EGR was varied up to 10% (0, 5% and 10%) and the hydrogen energy
share (HES) was varied at the discrete values of 0%, 10% and 30%. The
HES was varied by controlling the needle valve, whereas the mechanical
governor controlled the diesel consumption in the engine. The EGR was
controlled using a valve and its quantity was estimated using the deficit
in the air flow meter. In our previous investigations at HES 0%, 10% and
20%, contrasting characteristics were observed for the low and high HES
[35]. Hence, alongside studying the effect of EGR, we also aim to study
the effect of higher H2 addition. A total number of 36 experimental
conditions were investigated for this study.
The H2 injection was initiated at 14.5◦ aTDC and was allowed until
75.5◦ bBDC. The available injection window of 90 crank angle degree
(CAD) (10 ms) ensured the maximum H2 to enter the cylinder with
assured reliability. Required quantity of H2 at specified engine load and
HES% was controlled by controlling the needle valve placed just before
the injector. The start of injection (SOI) for the diesel fuel in the test
engine was constant, at 23◦ bTDC, throughout the experiments. Fig. 2
shows the valve timing and the fuel injection timing for the test engine
and the experimental setup. EGR was controlled manually using a con­
trol valve and was measured against the deficit in the fresh intake air.
The HES was calculated by:
ṁhydrogen LCV hydrogen
HES =
ṁdiesel LCV diesel + ṁhydrogen LCV hydrogen
where ṁhydrogen is the mass flow rate of H2, ṁdiesel is the mass flow rate of
diesel, LCV hydrogen is the lower heating value of H2 and LCV diesel is the
lower heating value of diesel. The EGR rate was calculated by:
V̇ exhaust
EGR =
V̇ air + V̇ exhaust
where V̇ exhaust is the flow rate of exhaust gas and V̇ air is the flow rate of
air. The EGR was partially cooled by expanding the exhaust gas in an
expansion section and avoiding any insulations material on the EGR
pipes. The temperatures measured just before mixing the EGR gas with
the fresh air are given in Table 3. It is to be noted that the temperature in
Table 3 does not reflect the actual exhaust temperature which is at least
6–8 times higher. Also, slight variations in temperature with hydrogen
addition were noted, which have been compensated in the displayed
temperature ranges in Table 3.
S. Nag et al. Fuel 307 (2022) 121925

Table 3 This is due to the formation of excessive lean mixture of the gaseous fuel
EGR Temperature measured before mixing with the fresh air. with air, which may be below the lean flammability limit and may not
Load 25% Load 100% participate in the combustion due to the lower in-cylinder temperature
at low loads. The typical λ at 25% load conditions was around 7.2.
EGR 0% 29.1 C ~ 31.5 C
◦ ◦
31.1 ◦ C ~ 33.0 ◦ C
EGR 5% 31.5 ◦ C ~ 33.3 ◦ C 35.5 ◦ C ~ 36.8 ◦ C Additionally, H2 combustion depends on the diesel plume size, and the
EGR 10% 43.4 ◦ C ~ 44.9 ◦ C 51.6 ◦ C ~ 55.3 ◦ C mixture needs to be in the entrainment zone of diesel spray. H2 ignites
only when the chamber is heated sufficiently by combustion of sec­
ondary fuel - diesel. Due to its high specific heat capacity, the H2
The repeatability of the process was quantified using coefficient of molecule further absorbs the local heat in the combustion chamber,
variance (CoV) of Pmax and IMEP. CoV was calculated using: which further results in longer ignition delay. The poor H2 combustion
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
∑N
2
also results in some H2 escaping through the exhaust as unburned fuel
(Xi − X)
i=1
[41].
CoV =
N− 1 Fig. 4(a) shows the effect of both HES and EGR on peak pressure and
X peak pressure location at engine loading 25%. Here for x-axis, L25H0E5
means 25% load with HES 0% and EGR rate 5%. With the increase in
where, Xi is the studied parameter (Pmax and IMEP), X is the mean value
HES, the peak pressure location is observed to shift away from the TDC
and N is the number of sampled cycles.
location on the expansion side. This can also be linked to the with the
The measurements were taken for 2000 cycles for each test condition
retardation in the HRR curve shown in Fig. 3. Due to the poor partici­
and were initiated after all the test parameters attained stability.
pation of hydrogen at lower loads, the retardation in the combustion
phase is responsible for the retardation in peak pressure location. Fig. 4
3. Results and discussion
(b) shows the effect of HES and EGR on combustion duration and igni­
tion delay. Addition of HES at lower loads increases the combustion
3.1. Combustion characteristics
duration as well as the ignition delay. The decrease in the peak HRR,
along with the increase in CA50 on the addition of H2 (Fig. 4(c)) directs
Fig. 3 shows the variation in the in-cylinder pressure and heat release
towards deteriorating combustion on supplementing H2 in the engine.
rate with H2 addition at EGR levels of 0%, 5% and 10% at 25% engine
Hence, it is evident that H2 addition tends to degrade the combustion at
load. The increase in HES levels were observed to decrease the peak
lower loads.
pressure at 25% load. The decrease in pressure is further accompanied
EGR also has similar effects on peak pressure and tends to deteriorate
with the delaying peak pressure location and increase in ignition delay.
the peak cylinder pressure (Fig. 4(a)). This is because EGR substitutes
This observation indicates towards poor combustion efficiency of H2,
some portion of fresh air available for combustion and the dilution effect
specifically at lower loads [39]. Further, heat release rate curve in Fig. 3
comes into play. The effect is cumulative at HES 30% due to excess drop
indicates the slowdown of the combustion peak with HES enhancement.

Fig. 3. In-cylinder pressure and heat release rate at 25% load with varying HES at EGR (a) 0%, (b) 5% and (c) 10%.

5
S. Nag et al. Fuel 307 (2022) 121925

Fig. 4. (a) Peak pressure and peak pressure location; (b) Combustion duration and ignition delay; and (c) Peak HRR and CA50; at various HES and EGR and
25% load.

in volumetric efficiency and the higher dilution because of EGR and
HES. Drop of 4.5% in peak pressure can be observed between H0E0 and
H30E10 cases at 25% load. However, with EGR, the ignition delay is
reduced. Reduction in ignition delay can be attributed to the charge
heating. Agarwal et al. also observed that charge heating due to EGR
addition, and thus reducing the ignition delay [42]. The partially
elevated temperature due to the EGR addition tends to increase the
cylinder pressure initially and leads to rapid start of combustion.
Moreover, with EGR addition, the CA50, in general, tends to shift away
from the TDC, whereas the peak HRR continues to fall with the lowest
HRR for L25H30E10 case.
However, at 100% load (Fig. 5), the combustion efficiency on adding
H2 noticeably improved in comparison to part load operations. The drop
in the peak pressure, as in the part load cases, has diminished for this
case. This is because of increasing in-cylinder temperature and bulk
compressed gas temperatures, in general, at higher operating load. The
ignition delay is still evident at 100% load case, however the HRR is
more spread for 30% HES. However, the combustion duration sees a
reduction with addition of HES, as shown in Fig. 6(b). This clearly points
towards better participation of H2 in combustion at higher loads, as due
to the higher flame velocity, the combustion duration reduces. The CA50
also advances by 4◦ at 30% HES substitution, as shown in Fig. 6(c). At
lower load, the weak combustion participation coupled with lean com­
positions increases the combustion duration and CA50. An increase in
peak pressure can be observed for increase in HES% at 0% EGR, as the
peak pressure increases from 5.687 MPa at 0% HES to 5.718 MPa at 30%
HES. However, the peak pressure tends to shift away from TDC with
increasing HES.
However, if we compare the peak pressure locations from 25% load
(where it was near to 2◦ aTDC) with 100% load, the peak pressures have
shifted around 2˚bTDC with minimum being at EGR 10% and HES 0%.
The effects of EGR were partially deteriorating here, with peak pressure
showing a decline. At HES 0%, the peak pressure fell from 5.687 MPa to
5.672 MPa, at HES 10% from 5.692 MPa to 5.660 MPa and at HES 30%
from 5.718 MPa to 5.683 MPa (Fig. 6). No anomaly was found with EGR
and the trends were in partial agreement with 25% load case. The only
noticeable difference was that the effect of EGR on the variation of peak
pressure was less and the peak pressures for HES 0%, EGR 0% and HES
30%, EGR 10% were quite similar. Therefore, importantly, the addition
of HES tends to offset the decay observed on EGR enhancement. Inter­
estingly, the peak HRR reduces on addition of H2, but the peak broadens
at 100% load case, as shown in Fig. 5.
3.2. Cycle to cycle variation in combustion characteristics
Cycle to cycle variation is a critical parameter indicating the overall
engine stability and repeatability of the operation. Moreover, for dual
fuel engines, it is of high importance as it gives an overview of the
interaction of the two different fuels, their stability of operation and
their compatibility at different test conditions. Cycle to cycle stability is
of even more importance with dual fuel and EGR combined [43]. The
quality of fuel injection and air fuel mixture greatly influences the cycle
to cycle variation in CI engines, supposedly more for H2 induction and
EGR implementation [44]. The general observation is that combustion
process has high cycle to cycle variability in lean combustion at low load
due to heterogenous mixture of dual fuels and air [45].
Fig. 7 shows the variation of CoV of Pmax and IMEP on HES
enhancement at different EGR rates. The addition of H2 in a stock diesel

6
S. Nag et al.
Fig. 5. In-cylinder pressure and heat release rate at 100% load with varying HES at EGR (a) 0%, (b) 5% and (c) 10%.
engine decreases the repeatability of the operation when added to the
diesel engine, and hence increases the CoV Pmax and CoV IMEP at lower
as well as higher loads. This highlights the importance of design im­
provements of present engines but remains beyond the scope of this
study. Moreover, if compared with the CoV for 100% load, the CoV at
25% load is high. It is because of the unstable combustion process at part
load due to lean combustion and heterogenous mixture. Although H2 has
a wider flammability limit, its combustion efficiency at low loads is a
concern which has been reported in the past too [27]. The poor com­
bustion is possibly due to the inability to support complete combustion
of H2 trapped outside the diesel spray plume [46]. Combustion is more
stable near stoichiometric fuelling. The weak combustion efficiency of
H2 at lower loads, as reported in previous section results in partial
burning of H2. Moreover, in our study, H2 was injected via port fuel
injection strategy, and there is a possibility of asymmetrical induction of
H2 in-between the cycles, resulting in increased CoV. This trend is
replicated similar for EGR also, where the variation in the performance
of EGR assisted combustion is high and increases, cumulatively, with
further EGR enhancement and H2 addition. Since EGR induction and
mixing is through the pumping capacity of the engine, there may be
sporadic distribution of exhaust gas in the cylinder coupled, which
coupled with H2 leads to high variations [47].
At 100% load case, the near stoichiometric condition (λ ~ 3) and
high bulk temperature favours the H2 combustion. The CoV of Pmax in­
creases with both EGR and HES up to HES 10%. However, at 30% HES
substitution, the CoV of Pmax tends to decrease with EGR enhancement.
The addition of H2 up to 30% at full load makes the combustion stable. It
can be concluded from the results that at high HES and EGR rates, the
engine tends to stabilize and the repeatability increases. This is due to
the improvement in the combustion efficiency of the H2 at higher loads
due to higher in-cylinder temperature.
7
Fuel 307 (2022) 121925
3.3. Vibro-acoustic characteristics
3.3.1. Combustion noise
Combustion noise tends to predominate over additional noise sour­
ces like injection, oil pumps, mechanical noises, valve noise etc. [48]. In
our study, in-cylinder pressure sensor data was used to calculate the
combustion noise [49]. In brief, the in-cylinder data, originally in the
crank angle domain was converted to the time domain, followed by its
conversion to the frequency domain using Fast Fourier Transforms
(FFT). The frequency domain data was then converted to the 3rd octave
spectra and A-weighted filter was applied to emphasize frequencies
where human hearing is sensitive. Fig. 8 shows the effect of EGR
enhancement and HES supplementation on the combustion noise. For
apprehension, combustion noise variation at 25% and 100% loads are
considered here. The noise levels at 25% load decreases with both EGR
and HES. Although the decrease is not very sharp (0.2 dBA), the stan­
dard deviation for the combustion noise is nearly 1dBA for every case in
25% load. This is due to high cyclic variations in the dual fuel com­
bustion and the EGR. Due to the decrease in in-cylinder pressure on
addition of both H2 and exhaust gas, the combustion noise is low.
Contrastingly, at high load condition, the noise level increases with HES
addition, but decreases with EGR. This reassures the role of H2 in
enhancing the combustion performance at high load conditions. On the
contrary, the EGR leads to the decay in combustion pressure and leads to
reduced combustion noise due to its role of combustion inhibitor in
tested cases.
3.3.2. Engine vibration
The engine vibrations affect engine performance [50], life and
commuter comfort [51]. Most of the time, travelling fatigue is associated
with engine’s vibration depending on exposure time and magnitude of
S. Nag et al. Fuel 307 (2022) 121925

Fig. 6. (a) Peak pressure and peak pressure location; (b) Combustion duration and ignition delay; and (c) Peak HRR and CA50; at various HES and EGR at 100% load.

Fig. 7. Effect of HES and EGR on the coefficient of variance for Pmax and IMEP at (a) 25% and (b) 100% load.

vibration. Combustion in the engines is the principal source of vibration.
Fig. 9 shows the comparison of the conventional vibration signal for
motoring (fuel supply cut) and combustion case (L100H0E0) in the test
setup. It is very clear from here that the combustion case has higher
vibrations at near TDC location, which leads to an increase in total vi­
bration of the engine. The other signals present at 144.5˚bTDC, 144.5˚
aTDC and 354.5˚aTDC represents the vibrations produced due to inlet
and outlet valves opening and closing.
RMS acceleration is an important parameter to represent the total
acceleration magnitude for any case. Previously, researchers have
investigated the effect of various fuels on the engine vibration. Calik
studied the effect of H2 addition on the vibrational characteristics of a
stationary engine [52]. They found that the vibrations to be lower by at
least 1.5% on addition of H2 with diesel blends. Matienzo, in their recent
study reported that the engine running at lower vibrations on induction
of HHO, due to its positive effect on the combustion [53]. In our study,
we studied the variation of RMS value of acceleration on HES
enhancement and EGR at low load and high load conditions. RMS

8
S. Nag et al. Fuel 307 (2022) 121925

Fig. 8. Effect of HES and EGR on combustion noise at (a) 25% and (b) 100% load.

Fig. 9. Vibration signal at (a) motoring and (b) combustion at 100% load.

acceleration can be given by: Where, an is the instantaneous value of the vibration and n is the number
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ of samples acquired.
√N
√∑ 2
√ an Fig. 10 shows the RMS acceleration for varying EGR and HES at 25%
√
RMS = n=1 and 100% engine load. For the 25% load, with H2 addition, the vibra­
N
tions on the engine tend to decrease. The H2 shows low combustion

Fig. 10. Effect of EGR and HES on RMS acceleration at (a) 25% and (b) 100% load.

9
S. Nag et al.
efficiency at low loads, which leads to the decay in the vibrations. The
low peak pressure and low rate of pressure rise during the combustion
process leads to overall stability in terms of vibration. The acceleration
decreases from 4.11 g at 0% HES to 3.78 g at 30% HES for 25% engine
load.
EGR addition leads to the rise in vibrations for the engine. This can
be correlated with the fact that EGR leads to higher cyclic variability in
the combustion, leading to the rise in vibrations. With the EGR
enhancement for 0% HES, the vibration rises by 12% from EGR 0% to
EGR 10%. However, for the load of 100%, with HES enhancement, the
vibrations in the engine increases. Again, having an improved com­
bustion efficiency of H2 at higher load leads to the rapid pressure rise
and higher vibrations. The two light knocking cases have abnormally
high vibrations in the engine. EGR addition at higher loads result in
lower rise in vibration as compared to that in 25% load. Low cycle to
cycle variability at higher loads can be a reason for not a substantial rise
in vibrations due to EGR.
3.4. Unregulated emissions
Unregulated emissions from internal combustion engines are usually
emitted in low quantities and hence, do not have any regulatory limits
unlike the previously studied regulated emissions [36]. However, these
compounds are known to be very toxic, carcinogenic and mutagenic in
nature and are known to cause respiratory issues, pregnancy compli­
cations and risk to infants [54]. For investigating the effect of HES
supplementation and EGR enhancement on the engine exhaust species,
formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, and aromatic hydrocarbons were studied.
Formaldehyde and acetaldehyde are considered as probable human
carcinogen Group B1 and B2, respectively, and their inhalation lifetime
cancer risk is 1.3 × 10− 5 per µg/m3 and 2.2 × 10− 6 per µg/m3,
respectively [55,56]. Aromatic hydrocarbons, measured in this study
were benzene, toluene, and xylene. Although the toluene and xylene’s
data are inadequate for assessing human carcinogen potential risk, the
inhalation lifetime cancer risk for benzene is 2.2 × 10− 6 per µg/m3
[57–59].
3.4.1. Formaldehyde (HCHO) and acetaldehyde (CH3CHO)
Fig. 11 shows the variation of HCHO and CH3CHO at various test
parameters. Both these pollutants are indexed as human carcinogens
and are produced during combustion of diesel. The general trend is that
H2 addition reduces HCHO. HCHO is an intermediate product formed
during oxidation of diesel [60]. It is affected by H2 supplementation due
to the variation in OH radical concentration. The decrease in formal­
dehyde emission for 100% load at 0% EGR was 3% and 21.3% for HES
10% and 30%, respectively. However, with an increase in EGR rate, the
formation of formaldehyde increases due to a decrease in available OH
radical concentration, thus resulting in increase of HCHO formation.
In case of acetaldehyde, lower HES values do not significantly lower
Fig. 11. Effect of HES and EGR on formation of Formaldehyde and Acetaldehyde at (a) 25% load and (b) 100% load.
10
Fuel 307 (2022) 121925
its formation. On H2 addition, the C–H bond ratio is decreased, which
causes the decrease in paraffin content resulting in the decrease of
acetaldehyde. HES 30% tends to decrease the CH3CHO by a higher
extent when compared with HES 10%. For 100% load and 0% EGR, the
decrease in acetaldehyde emission was 8.7% and 31.3% for HES 10%
and 30%, respectively. Enhancement in EGR share tends the increase the
CH3CHO emissions due to enhancement in C–H bond ratio by circulating
exhaust gas [61].
3.4.2. Aromatic hydrocarbons (AHC)
Fig. 12 shows the variation of aromatic hydrocarbons with varying
HES and EGR. Measured aromatic compounds consist of benzene,
toluene, and xylene (BTX). The general trend shows the reduction of
aromatic compounds with H2 addition. Benzene is a product of diesel
pyrolysis and further grows into PAHs. H2 addition reduces the forma­
tion of diesel pyrolysis intermediates and hampers PAH formation.
However, at 100% loading condition, the formation of aromatic com­
pounds was observed to increase. The primary reason for the increment
in AHC emissions is the consumption of O2, O and OH radicals. The
participation of H2 in combustion is enhanced at higher loads, which
leads to the consumption of oxidizing species. Zhou et al. also suggested
that the consumption of O2, O and OH radicals on H2 addition has strong
impact on oxidation of unregulated compounds at higher loads [39].
This phenomenon enhances the formation of aromatic compounds at
higher loading conditions. The aforementioned phenomenon also holds
true for EGR enhancement, the reduction in O2, leads to higher AHC
formation.
Fig. 13 shows the fraction of the studied unregulated emissions,
CH3CHO, HCHO and AHC as the fraction of total hydrocarbon emissions
(THC). For the 25% load condition, the studied unregulated emissions
constitute up to 24% of the total hydrocarbon emissions. The addition of
EGR worsens the unregulated emissions. However, the addition of H2
lowers the % content of unregulated emissions. At 30% HES, the share of
unregulated emissions is reduced by 10%. The EGR however, increases
the net share of the unregulated emissions. At the 100% load, the
percent share of unregulated emissions in the THC content is much
lower. At HES 0% and EGR 0%, the unregulated emissions contribute to
almost half to that at 25% load. This highlights the importance of
considering unregulated emissions in the regulatory norms. Considering
the unregulated emissions in undiluted form, the concentrations at 25%
load and 0% HES and EGR for formaldehyde and acetaldehyde are ~
110 mg/m3 and 81 mg/m3, which exceeds the inhalation lifetime cancer
risk values recommended by the US EPA. The improvements in these
quantities are highly desirable to attenuate the overall risk of these
emissions to human life.
4. Conclusions
The synergistic effect of EGR and H2 supplementation on the
S. Nag et al.
Fig. 12. Effect of HES and EGR on Aromatic Hydrocarbons at (a) 25% load and (b) 100% load.
Fig. 13. CH3CHO, HCHO and AHC as a fraction of total hydrocarbon emissions at (a) 25% load and (b) 100% load.
combustion characteristics and unregulated emissions in a CI engine
modified to work on dual fuel mode is studied in this investigation. The
study was carried at wide range of engine loading conditions with H2
share up to 30% and EGR rate of 5% and 10%. The significant findings
are:
• The increase of both, HES and EGR, at part load conditions, results in
deterioration of both maximum pressure and heat release rate.
However, on high load conditions, H2 actively participates in com­
bustion leading to improvement in peak in-cylinder pressure. EGR
continues to deteriorate the combustion process at high loads and
HES enhancement.
• EGR at lower loads tends to decrease ignition delay but increases the
combustion duration, whereas HES tends to increase both ignition
delay and combustion duration. However, at higher loads, the igni­
tion delay is still increased by HES addition, but the combustion
duration decreases with HES addition. This is due to the high flame
speed of H2. EGR decreases both ignition delay and combustion
duration at higher loads.
• The cycle to cycle variability of Pmax and IMEP increases with both
HES and EGR enhancement, however this increase is high in low and
part load conditions when compared with higher loads.
• The vibrations at higher loads in single fuel engine are lower than the
dual fuel engine. EGR worsens the effect and results in increased
engine vibration.
• The addition of H2 leads to an overall reduction in unregulated
emissions. This can be majorly attributed to two reasons:
11
Fuel 307 (2022) 121925
participation of H2 in intermediate reactions and replacement of
carbon-based fuel due to its addition. However, EGR worsens the
unregulated emissions and leads to an increase in all the measured
unregulated emissions: AHC, CH3CHO and HCHO.
The EGR enabled H2 diesel dual fuel engine exhibits higher stability
at high load conditions due to enhanced participation of H2 in com­
bustion process. However, there is a scope of massive gains for low load
operations and the future research direction should be towards exer­
cising different H2, EGR and diesel injection strategies to attain stable
combustion in the full load spectrum.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Sarthak Nag: Conceptualization, Investigation, Visualization,
Formal analysis, Writing – original draft. Atul Dhar: Conceptualization,
Methodology, Resources, Writing - review & editing, Supervision,
Funding acquisition. Arpan Gupta: Conceptualization, Resources,
Supervision.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
S. Nag et al.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by the Department of Science and
Technology-Science and Engineering Research Board, Government of
India vide Project No. ECR/2015/000135 titled “Study of Synergistic
Use of hydrogen and other Alternative Fuels in a Dual Fuel Engine for
Emissions Reduction” at Indian Institute of Technology Mandi, India.
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