Relationships Among Computer Games, Fantasy, and Learning Mahboubeh Asgari & David Kaufman Faculty of Education Simon Fraser University Burnaby, British Columbia Canada masgari@sfu.ca , dkaufman@sfu.ca Abstract Computer games have the potential to motivate learners and be used as effective instructional tools (Lepper & Malone, 1987; Cordova, 1993; Rieber, 1996; Stewart, 1997; Dempsey et al., 2002; Rosas et al., 2003). This paper explores the relationships among computer games, fantasy, and learning. The authors first define what they ‘mean by ‘game’, more specifically, ‘computer/video game’. They describe game characteristics and the key factors that make an activity or a game motivational and compelling, including fantasy and curiosity (Malone, 1980; Malone & Lepper, 1987; Myers, 1990, cited by Waal, 1995; Garris et al., 2002; Vockell, 2004). The terms fantasy and curiosity are then discussed and the implications of the use of fantasy in games are explained, KEYWORDS: fantasy; games; computer games; motivation; learning Introduction Computer games can give the opportunity to learners to explore their imagination comfortably (Millians, 1999). Using fantasies, mental images and non-real situations in computer games, can stimulate learners’ behavior (Vockell, 2004). To make learning motivating and appealing for learners, one way is to present the material to them either in an imaginary context which is familiar to them or in a fantasy context which is emotionally appealing for the leamer (Malone and Lepper, 1987). Creating such environments that stimulate learners to become absorbed in a fantasy world can motivate and engage them in activities (Cordova, 1993). Empirical research suggests that embedding material in a fantasy context can enhance learning more than a generic, de- contextualized environment (Cordova, 1993; Garris et al. cites from Druckman, 1995). This paper focuses on the relationship between fantasy and learning in computer- based instructional games. Since learning is believed to be one of play benefits which is related to factors such as increased motivation (Rieber, 2001), and computer games are reported to increase motivation, we first review the features that make such gamesmotivational. Among those features, we will focus on ‘fantasy’. The features ‘curiosity’ and ‘goal’ will also be explained, as these two game characteristics are also related to our discussion. Finally, we report what previous research has shown in regard with presenting instructional materials in fantasy contexts and their effects on learning, Game definition Generally, we define a game as a set of voluntary activities which has participants, goals, rules, and some kind of competition (physically or mentally). Dempsey et al. (2002) gives a more elaborate definition of a game: “A game is a set of activities involving one or more players. It has goals, constraints, payoffs, and consequences. A game is rule-guided and artificial in some respects. Finally, a game involves some aspect of competition, even if that competition is with oneself” (p.159), A computer game usually refers to a game played using a personal computer. Garris et al. (2002) define game play as “voluntary, nonproductive, and separate from the real world” (p.459). On the other hand, Jones (1999) points out that for some people, computer and video games are real and sometimes, they are more engaging than reality. Computer games can be categorized as adventure games, simulation games, competition games, cooperation games, programming games, puzzle games, and business management games (Hogle, 1996, citing from Dempsey et al., 1993; Jacobs & Dempsey, 1993). During the past 40 years, computer games have been played from a floppy disk, CD-ROM, with the use of email, or online through the Internet. Computer games can be played individually, against the computer, or against other people face-to-face or on-line, Game characteristics Games share a number of essential features. Good games are fun and intrinsically motivating. They incorporate an optimal challenge, have an appropriate goal and uncertain outcomes, provide clear, constructive, and encouraging feedback, and offer elements of curiosity, and fantasy (Malone, 1980). Intrinsically motivating games also include an intermediate number of choices and give players an intermediate control over the features of the game (Malone & Lepper, 1987; Waal, 1995; Snider, 2003). Interactivity (Waal, 1995, citing from Myers, 1990) and competition (Malone & Lepper, 1987; Vorderer & Hartmann, 2003; Vockell, 2004) are other essential features of motivating games. According to Garris et al. (2002), fantasy, rules/goals, sensory stimuli, challenge, mystery, and control are the six features that characterize games. They state that to enhance learning, some elements of games need to be activated within an instructional context; games by themselves are not enough to enhance learning. Curiosity, Fantasy, and GoalAs mentioned above, past research has shown that curiosity and fantasy are the features that make computer games motivating and engaging (Malone, 1980; 1981a; Malone & Lepper, 1987; Waal, 1995, citing from Myers, 1990; Garris et al., 2002). Curiosity is the result of knowledge gap. Malone and Lepper explain that curiosity can be stimulated by making individuals think that their existing knowledge lacks one or more of these three characteristics: completeness, consistency, and parsimony. In a game, mystery can evoke curiosity. For example, adventure themes, or including activities in fantasy contexts can stimulate curiosity. Malone and Lepper (1987) define fantasy as an environment that “evokes mental images of physical or social situations not actually present” (p.240). Garris et al. (2002) assert that including “imaginary or fantasy context, themes, or characters” and providing “optimal level of informational complexity” can make computer games motivational (p-447). They state that through fantasies, individuals can interact in situations that are not part of their real life. Fantasy environments may increase intrinsic motivation in individuals through satisfying theit needs. For instance, individuals can satisfy those needs that are not available for them in their real life such as power, success, or fame, with different kinds of fantasies and imaginary characters that computer/video games provide for them (Malone & Lepper, 1987; Cordova, 1993). Likewise, Gee (2003) states that in computer games, some players play outside their “real” identity. They project their own values and desires onto the virtual identity. For example, they may play their virtual character as, someone who takes risks, is creative or is resilient in the face of failure.. However, in their real life, they may not be anything like that. Therefore, it is important to create different kinds of fantasy for different kinds of players, since there are large differences among individuals in the fantasies they find compelling (Malone and Lepper, 1987). According to Myers (1990, cited by Waal), fantasy, unlike challenge and interactivity, is not powerful enough to keep the player motivated and engaged; however, it is influential in engaging the player in the first stages of playing the game, when the player is deciding whether or not play the game. In other words, fantasy can be the hook to motivate the player. Malone (1980) notes that computer games that involve fantasies such as war, destruction, and competition seem to be more compelling than games with less emotional fantasies. In addition, fantasies that girls find compelling appear to be different from those of boys (Cassell & Jenkins, 1999), Among other features of captivating games is providing an appropriate goal. According to Malone (1980), in simple games, using visual effects or fantasy can make goals compelling, Practical or fantasy goals are better than goals in which they use a skill To maximize motivation in leamers, goals should be “personally meaningful”. One way to make goals motivating and personally meaningful is through fantasy relevance. Motivation and LearningThe integration of computer games in education has been the subject of debate in the past several decades. In his Ph.D. dissertation, Malone (1980) states that the characteristics that make games fun do not necessarily make them educational. This is the key question in research, i.e., whether or not adding such game features to instructional materials which seem to increase learners’ motivation and interest, also leads to greater earning. Lepper and Malone (1987) discuss the effects of adding game features to educational content on students’ motivation and learning. With regard to learning, they examine two approaches. From one perspective, they argue that this addition may be distracting and therefore decrease learning. From the other perspective, these motivational game-like features may increase students’ attention and ultimately enhance learning. Concerning motivation, they indicate that adding game embellishments may increase students’ motivation in the short term, However, in the long-term, it may have negative effects because when students are back to classroom work, they may find the subject matter boring; thus, their interest may decrease. From the other perspective, they discuss that these motivational features can have positive effects. Similarly, Garris et al (2002) cite a study by Ricci et al. (1996) and report that incorporating game features in instruction had increased motivation and consequently produced greater attention and retention. Another empirical research by Chen et al. (1998) has demonstrated the positive effects of computer-based instructional games on motivation and learning. Cordova (1993, citing from Davis et al., 1997, Lesgold, 1982) states that advocates of computer-based educational games see such integration as to enhance earning because they inerease children’s enjoyment, attention, effort, and concentration, However, opponents of using computer games in education indicate that such activities may distract children from the educational content and weaken learning (Cordova, 1993, citing from D’Attore, 1981; Psotka, 1982). Fantasy and Learning Experimental research on fantasy and learning has shown that instructional material that is presented in a fantasy context that is of interest leads to increases in both students’ interest and leaming (Parker and Lepper, 1992; Cordova, 1993; Cordova & Lepper, 1996). This means those who learned from an embellished fantasy context had greater learning than those in an unembellished program. According to Malone (1980), an emotionally appealing fantasy needs to be intrinsically related to the skill leamed in the activity. Games with no fantasies involve only abstract symbols. Fantasy contexts can be intrinsic/endogenous and extrinsic/exogenous to the game content (Lepper and Malone, 1987; Rieber, 1996). In endogenous fantasy, the content to be learned is embedded in the fantasy context, i.e., the skill to be learned and the fantasy are related to each other. In exogenous fantasy, the relationship between the content of the study and the fantasy is purely arbitraryIn their study, Lepper and Malone (1987) describe endogenous and exogenous fantasy through two types of instructional games. In the first type (exogenous), students earn about prefix; whenever they perform successfully, a cavorting dragon breathing smoke and fire appears on the screen. In this context, the content of the game can be replaced with any subject, and the dancing dragon does the same. However, in the second type of the instructional game (endogenous), leamers need to solve problems about fractions presented to them in the form of requests from customers in a pizza place. In this context, the skills to be learned; ie., fractions, are integrated with the context. Lepper and Malone believe that the use of these two different types of fantasy contexts affect differently in the long-term on learners’ interest in the material being presented. They also believe that endogenous fantasies are preferred to exogenous fantasies because in endogenous fantasy, the feedback is not just right or wrong, but it provides specific constructive feedback to the learner. Generally, both Lepper and Malone (1987) and Rieber (1996) find endogenous fantasies more interesting and educational than exogenous fantasies. Fantasy can be studied from two aspects: cognitive aspects of fantasy, and emotional aspects of fantasy (Lepper and Malone, 1987; Malone and Lepper, 1987). Cognitive aspects of fantasy: There are cognitive advances of the use of fantasy in instructional design. For instance, presenting new information to learners by relating it to their past knowledge through endogenous fantasies can help better understanding the information. On the other hand, in simulations, new information can be embedded in an imaginary context in which learners will later apply them to their real-life situations. Fantasy may also improve memory for the instructional material. Malone & Lepper (1987) state that “Fantasies should provide appropriate metaphors or analogies for the material presented for learning” (p.249). In addition, Lepper and Malone discuss that goals in fantasy activities should reinforce instructional goals, not competing with them, For instance, the consequences of failure should not be more interesting and exciting than the consequences of success (e.g. Hangman). Moreover, achieving instructional goals should be placed in priority to subjective success; as they say “fantasy should not permit the learner to experience subjective success without the achievement of instructional goals” (p.247). Emotional aspects of fantasy: Fantasy fulfills emotional needs, especially when it provides imaginary characters that are familiar to the learner (Malone and Lepper, 1987). In emotional aspects of fantasy, two factors are related: personalization and leamers’ prior interests. The fantasy context can be personalized by incorporating information about learners’ background and interests into the fantasy environment (Lepper and Malone, 1987; Cordova, 1993). Lepper and Malone believe that personalizing fantasies might be beneficial in increasing intrinsic motivation, For instance, asking about the earners’ favorite sport or books and then presenting the instructional problems in relation to those interests, can increase learners’ motivation and engagement. The second factor is to relate fantasy elements to learners’ previous interests. In this regard, differences between girls and boys need to be considered.Discussion It appears clear from the professional literature, as well as from discussions with game designers, that fantasy plays a key role in successful computer games for enhancing both motivation and learning. Creating a fantasy context is emotionally appealing, can motivate and engage, and can lead to greater learning, A few basic guidelines can go a Jong way towards creating effective computer games. These guidelines include: (1) use fantasy to reinforce instructional goals, not compete with them; (2) provide appropriate metaphors and analogies for learning; (3) provide imaginary characters that are familiar to the learner; (4) accommodate gender differences in fantasies; and (5) relate the fantasy to the content to be leaned, Although fantasy is a key component of a good computer game, it is important to emphasize that it is not powerful enough to sustain motivation and engagement. However, fantasy can serve as a ‘hook’ to engage the learner so that other game features can be activated such as interactivity, competition, control, curiosity, challenge and feedback (Asgari & Kaufman, 2004). 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