STRUCTURAL CONCRETE BUILDING CODE (ACI 318M-11) AND COMMENTARY 259

CHAPTER 14 — WALLS

CODE
14.1 — Scope
14.1.1 — Provisions of Chapter 14 shall apply for
design of walls subjected to axial load, with or without
flexure.
14.1.2 — Cantilever retaining walls are designed
according to flexural design provisions of Chapter 10
with minimum horizontal reinforcement according to
14.3.3.
COMMENTARY
R14.1 — Scope
Chapter 14 applies generally to walls as vertical load-
carrying members. Cantilever retaining walls are designed
according to the flexural design provisions of Chapter 10.
Walls designed to resist shear forces, such as shear walls,
should be designed in accordance with Chapter 14 and 11.9
as applicable.
In the 1977 Code, walls could be designed according to
Chapter 14 or 10.15. In the 1983 Code, these two were
combined in Chapter 14.

14.2 — General R14.2 — General

14.2.1 — Walls shall be designed for eccentric loads Walls should be designed to resist all loads to which they
and any lateral or other loads to which they are are subjected, including eccentric axial loads and lateral
subjected. forces. Design is to be carried out in accordance with 14.4
unless the wall meets the requirements of 14.5.1.
14.2.2 — Walls subject to axial loads shall be
designed in accordance with 14.2, 14.3, and either
14.4, 14.5, or 14.8. 14
14.2.3 — Design for shear shall be in accordance with
11.9.

14.2.4 — Unless otherwise demonstrated by an

analysis, the horizontal length of wall considered as
effective for each concentrated load shall not exceed
the smaller of the center-to-center distance between
loads, and the bearing width plus four times the wall
thickness.

14.2.5 — Compression members built integrally with

walls shall conform to 10.8.2.

14.2.6 — Walls shall be anchored to intersecting

elements, such as floors and roofs; or to columns,
pilasters, buttresses, of intersecting walls; and to
footings.

14.2.7 — Quantity of reinforcement and limits of thick-

ness required by 14.3 and 14.5 shall be permitted to
be waived where structural analysis shows adequate
strength and stability.

14.2.8 — Transfer of force to footing at base of wall

shall be in accordance with 15.8.

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 260 STRUCTURAL CONCRETE BUILDING CODE (ACI 318M-11) AND COMMENTARY

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14.3 — Minimum reinforcement R14.3 — Minimum reinforcement

14.3.1 — Minimum vertical and horizontal reinforce-
ment shall be in accordance with 14.3.2 and 14.3.3
unless a greater amount is required for shear by
11.9.8 and 11.9.9.
14.3.2 — Minimum ratio of vertical reinforcement area
to gross concrete area, ρl, shall be:
(a) 0.0012 for deformed bars not larger than No. 16
with fy not less than 420 MPa; or
(b) 0.0015 for other deformed bars; or
(c) 0.0012 for welded wire reinforcement not larger
than MW200 or MD200.
14.3.3 — Minimum ratio of horizontal reinforcement
area to gross concrete area, ρt , shall be:
(a) 0.0020 for deformed bars not larger than No. 16
with fy not less than 420 MPa; or
The requirements of 14.3 are similar to those in previous
codes. These apply to walls designed according to 14.4,
14.5, or 14.8. For walls resisting horizontal shear forces in
the plane of the wall, reinforcement designed according to
11.9.9.2 and 11.9.9.4 may exceed the minimum reinforcement
in 14.3.
The notation used to identify the direction of the distributed
reinforcement in walls was updated in 2005 to eliminate
conflicts between the notation used for ordinary structural
walls in Chapters 11 and 14 and the notation used for
special structural walls in Chapter 21. The distributed rein-
forcement is now identified as being oriented parallel to
either the longitudinal or transverse axis of the wall. There-
fore, for vertical wall segments, the notation used to
describe the horizontal distributed reinforcement ratio is ρt,
and the notation used to describe the vertical distributed
reinforcement ratio is ρl.

(b) 0.0025 for other deformed bars; or

14 (c) 0.0020 for welded wire reinforcement not larger

than MW200 or MD200.

14.3.4 — Walls more than 250 mm thick, except

basement walls, shall have reinforcement for each
direction placed in two layers parallel with faces of
wall in accordance with the following:

(a) One layer consisting of not less than one-half

and not more than two-thirds of total reinforcement
required for each direction shall be placed not less
than 50 mm nor more than one-third the thickness of
wall from the exterior surface;

(b) The other layer, consisting of the balance of

required reinforcement in that direction, shall be
placed not less than 20 mm nor more than one-third
the thickness of wall from the interior surface.

14.3.5 — Vertical and horizontal reinforcement shall

not be spaced farther apart than three times the wall
thickness, nor farther apart than 450 mm.

14.3.6 — Vertical reinforcement need not be enclosed

by transverse ties if vertical reinforcement area is not
greater than 0.01 times gross concrete area, or where
vertical reinforcement is not required as compression
reinforcement.

14.3.7 — In addition to the minimum reinforcement

required by 14.3.1, not less than two No. 16 bars in walls
having two layers of reinforcement in both directions

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 STRUCTURAL CONCRETE BUILDING CODE (ACI 318M-11) AND COMMENTARY
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and one No. 16 bar in walls having a single layer of
reinforcement in both directions shall be provided
around window, door, and similar sized openings.
Such bars shall be anchored to develop fy in tension at
the corners of the openings.
14.4 — Walls designed as compression
members
Except as provided in 14.5, walls subject to axial load or
combined flexure and axial load shall be designed as
compression members in accordance with provisions
of 10.2, 10.3, 10.10, 10.11, 10.14, 14.2, and 14.3.
14.5 — Empirical design method
14.5.1 — Walls of solid rectangular cross section shall
be permitted to be designed by the empirical provisions
of 14.5 if the resultant of all factored loads is located
within the middle third of the overall thickness of the
wall and all limits of 14.2 and 14.3 are satisfied.
14.5.2 — Design axial strength φPn of a wall satisfying
limitations of 14.5.1 shall be computed by Eq. (14-1)
unless designed in accordance with 14.4.
kl c 2
φ P n = 0.55φf c′ A g 1 –  ----------
 32h
where φ shall correspond to compression-controlled
sections in accordance with 9.3.2.2 and effective
length factor k shall be:
For walls braced top and bottom against lateral
translation and
(a) Restrained against rotation at one or both ends
(top, bottom, or both)............................................0.8
(b) Unrestrained against rotation at both ends.....1.0
For walls not braced against lateral translation ....... 2.0
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261
COMMENTARY
R14.5 — Empirical design method
The empirical design method applies only to solid rectangular
cross sections. All other shapes should be designed
according to 14.4.
Eccentric loads and lateral forces are used to determine the
total eccentricity of the factored axial force Pu. When the
resultant load for all applicable load combinations falls
within the middle third of the wall thickness (eccentricity
not greater than h/6) at all sections along the length of the 14
undeformed wall, the empirical design method may be
used. The design is then carried out considering Pu as the
(14-1) concentric load. The factored axial force Pu should be less
than or equal to the design axial strength φPn computed by
Eq. (14-1), Pu ≤ φPn.
With the 1980 Code supplement, Eq. (14-1) was revised to
reflect the general range of end conditions encountered in
wall designs. The wall strength equation in the 1977 Code
was based on the assumption of a wall with top and bottom
fixed against lateral movement, and with moment restraint
at one end corresponding to an effective length factor
between 0.8 and 0.9. Axial strength values determined from
the original equation were unconservative when compared
to test results14.1 for walls with pinned conditions at both
ends, as occurs with some precast and tilt-up applications,
or when the top of the wall is not effectively braced against
translation, as occurs with free-standing walls or in large
structures where significant roof diaphragm deflections
occur due to wind and seismic loads. Equation (14-1) gives
the same results as the 1977 Code for walls braced against
translation and with reasonable base restraint against
rotation.14.2 Values of effective length factors k are given for
commonly occurring wall end conditions. The end condition
“restrained against rotation” required for a k of 0.8 implies
attachment to a member having flexural stiffness EI/l at
least as large as that of the wall.
The slenderness portion of Eq. (14-1) results in relatively
comparable strengths by 14.4 for members loaded at the
 262 STRUCTURAL CONCRETE BUILDING CODE (ACI 318M-11) AND COMMENTARY

CODE COMMENTARY

Fig. R14.5—Empirical design of walls, Eq. (14-1) versus 14.4.

14

middle third of the thickness with different braced and

restrained end conditions. See Fig. R14.5.

14.5.3 — Minimum thickness of walls designed by R14.5.3 — Minimum thickness of walls designed by
empirical design method empirical design method

14.5.3.1 — Thickness of bearing walls shall not be The minimum thickness requirements need not be applied
less than 1/25 the supported height or length, which- to walls designed according to 14.4.
ever is shorter, nor less than 100 mm.

14.5.3.2 — Thickness of exterior basement walls

and foundation walls shall not be less than 190 mm.

14.6 — Nonbearing walls

14.6.1 — Thickness of nonbearing walls shall not be

less than 100 mm, nor less than 1/30 the least
distance between members that provide lateral support.

14.7 — Walls as grade beams

14.7.1 — Walls designed as grade beams shall have

top and bottom reinforcement as required for moment
in accordance with provisions of 10.2 through 10.7.
Design for shear shall be in accordance with provisions
of Chapter 11.

14.7.2 — Portions of grade beam walls exposed above

grade shall also meet requirements of 14.3.
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CODE COMMENTARY
14.8 — Alternative design of slender walls R14.8 — Alternative design of slender walls

14.8.1 — When flexural tension controls the out-of-
plane design of a wall, the requirements of 14.8 are
considered to satisfy 10.10.
14.8.2 — Walls designed by the provisions of 14.8
shall satisfy 14.8.2.1 through 14.8.2.6.
14.8.2.1 — The wall panel shall be designed as a
simply supported, axially loaded member subjected to
an out-of-plane uniform lateral load, with maximum
moments and deflections occurring at midspan.
14.8.2.2 — The cross section shall be constant over
the height of the panel.
Section 14.8 was introduced in the 1999 edition and the
provisions are based on requirements in the 1997 Uniform
Building Code (UBC)14.3 and experimental research.14.4
Changes were included in the 2008 edition to reduce
differences in the serviceability provisions and ensure that
the intent of the UBC provisions is included in future
editions of the International Building Code.
The procedure is presented as an alternative to the require-
ments of 10.10 for the out-of-plane design of slender wall
panels, where the panels are restrained against overturning
at the top.
Panels that have windows or other large openings are not
considered to have constant cross section over the height of
the panel. Such walls are to be designed taking into account
the effects of openings.

Many aspects of the design of tilt-up walls and buildings are

discussed in References 14.5 and 14.6.

14.8.2.3 — The wall shall be tension-controlled. R14.8.2.3 — This section was updated in the 2005 Code
to reflect the change in design approach that was introduced
in 10.3 of the 2002 Code. The previous requirement that the 14
reinforcement ratio should not exceed 0.6ρbal was replaced
by the requirement that the wall be tension-controlled,
leading to approximately the same reinforcement ratio.

14.8.2.4 — Reinforcement shall provide a design

strength

φMn ≥ Mcr (14-2)

where Mcr shall be obtained using the modulus of

rupture, fr , given by Eq. (9-10).

14.8.2.5 — Concentrated gravity loads applied to the

wall above the design flexural section shall be
assumed to be distributed over a width:

(a) Equal to the bearing width, plus a width on each

side that increases at a slope of 2 vertical to 1 hori-
zontal down to the design section; but

(b) Not greater than the spacing of the concentrated

loads; and

(c) Not extending beyond the edges of the wall

panel.

14.8.2.6 — Vertical stress Pu /Ag at the midheight

section shall not exceed 0.06fc′.

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 264 STRUCTURAL CONCRETE BUILDING CODE (ACI 318M-11) AND COMMENTARY

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14.8.3 — Design moment strength φMn for combined R14.8.3 — Before the 2008 edition, the effective area of
flexure and axial loads at midheight shall be longitudinal reinforcement in a slender wall for obtaining an
approximate cracked moment of inertia was calculated
φM n ≥ M u (14-3) using an effective area of tension reinforcement defined as

where Pu
A se, w = A s + ------
fy
Mu = Mua + PuΔu (14-4)

Mua is the maximum factored moment at midheight of However, this term overestimated the contribution of axial
wall due to lateral and eccentric vertical loads, not load in many cases where two layers of reinforcement were
including PΔ effects, and Δu is used in the slender wall. Therefore, the effective area of
longitudinal reinforcement was modified in 2008
2
5M u l c P h/2
Δ u = -------------------------------------
( 0.75 )48E c I cr
(14-5) A se, w = A s + -----u-  --------
f  d y

Mu shall be obtained by iteration of deflections, or by The neutral axis depth, c, in Eq. (14-7) corresponds to this
Eq. (14-6). effective area of longitudinal reinforcement.

M ua
M u = ----------------------------------------------- (14-6)
2
5P u l c
1 – -------------------------------------
( 0.75 )48E c I cr
14
where

3
Es Pu h 2 lw c
I cr = ------  A s + ------- ------- ( d – c ) + ------------ (14-7)
Ec  f y 2d 3

and the value of Es /Ec shall not be taken less than 6.

14.8.4 — Maximum out-of-plane deflection, Δs , due to
service loads, including PΔ effects, shall not exceed
lc /150.
If Ma , maximum moment at midheight of wall due to
service lateral and eccentric vertical loads, including
PΔ effects, exceeds (2/3)Mcr , Δs shall be calculated by
Eq. (14-8)
( M a – ( 2/3 )M cr )
Δ s = ( 2/3 )Δ cr + ------------------------------------------ ( Δ n – ( 2/3 )Δ cr ) (14-8)
( M n – ( 2/3 )M cr )
If Ma does not exceed (2/3)Mcr , Δs shall be calculated
by Eq. (14-9)
R14.8.4 — Before the 2008 edition, out-of-plane deflections
in wall panels were calculated using the procedures in
Section 9.5.2.3. However, re-evaluation of the original test
data14.4 demonstrated that out-of-plane deflections increase
rapidly when the service-level moment exceeds 2/3Mcr . A
linear interpolation between Δcr and Δn is used to determine
Δs to simplify the design of slender walls if Ma > 2/3Mcr .
Service-level load combinations are not defined in Chapter 9 of
ACI 318, but they are discussed in Appendix C of ASCE/
SEI 7-10.14.7 Unlike ACI 318, however, appendixes to
ASCE/SEI 7 are not considered to be mandatory parts of the
standard. For calculating service-level lateral deflections of
structures, Appendix C of ASCE/SEI 7-10 recommends
using the following load combination

Ma D + 0.5L + Wa
Δ s =  ---------- Δ cr (14-9)
 M cr
in which Wa is wind load based on serviceability wind speeds
provided in the commentary to Appendix C of ASCE/SEI
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where 7-10. If the slender wall is designed to resist earthquake
effects, E, and E is based on strength-level earthquake effects,
2 the following load combination is considered to be appropriate
5M cr l c
Δ cr = ------------------- (14-10) for evaluating the service-level lateral deflections
48E c I g
D + 0.5L + 0.7E
2
5M n l c
Δ n = --------------------- (14-11)
48E c I cr

Icr shall be calculated by Eq. (14-7), and Ma shall be

obtained by iteration of deflections.

14

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Notes
CODE COMMENTARY

14

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