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Tunnel valleys: Current knowledge and future perspectives

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Geological Society, London, Special Publications published online May 3, 2012 as doi: 10.1144/SP368.13

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Tunnel valleys: current knowledge and future

perspectives
P. van der Vegt, A. Janszen and A. Moscariello

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 Geological Society, London, Special Publications published online May 3, 2012 as doi: 10.1144/SP368.13

Tunnel valleys: current knowledge and future perspectives

P. VAN DER VEGT1*, A. JANSZEN2 & A. MOSCARIELLO2,3
1
Cambridge Quaternary, Department of Geography, University of Cambridge,
Downing Place, Cambridge CB2 3EN, UK
2
Department of Geotechnology, Delft University of Technology, Stevinweg 1,
2628CN Delft, The Netherlands
3
Department of Geology and Paleontology, University of Geneva,
13, Rue des Maraichers, CH-1211 Geneva, Switzerland
*Corresponding author (e-mail: paulvandervegt@gmail.com)

Abstract: Tunnel valleys are elongated incisions that are commonly interpreted as being the result
of erosional processes by subglacial meltwater occurring under continental ice sheets. The abun-
dance, size and the primarily coarse-grained infill of these features have made tunnel valleys
important hydrocarbon and groundwater reservoirs. Although numerous tunnel valleys have
been described over the last century, their formation and infill remain poorly understood. This
review summarizes and discusses the current knowledge of tunnel valleys, providing an overview
of the observations around the world. Morphological aspects that separate tunnel valleys from other
landforms are discussed, as well as the wide variety of sedimentary environments found to contrib-
ute to the infilling of these features. The depth of the incision and the character of ice retreat sig-
nificantly determine the final infill architecture. The formational hypotheses proposed in the
literature are assessed to test their wider applicability to all other tunnel valleys in order to find
a generic model that helps in the prediction of the morphology and infilling of both Pleistocene
and pre-Pleistocene age. A quasi-steady-state model, with small meltwater outbursts that erode
tunnel valleys near the ice margin, seems compatible with most of the known valleys. Other pro-
posed models require specific geographical or climatic conditions.

Elongated and deep incisions up to 100 km long,
5 km wide and up to 400 m deep often characterize
the Pleistocene and pre-Pleistocene glaciated land-
scape and shallow subsurface (Figs 1 & 2). These
incisions are usually referred to as tunnel valleys
and were formed under continental-scale ice sheets
(e.g. Ó Cofaigh 1996; Huuse & Lykke-Andersen
2000; Jørgensen & Sandersen 2006). These features
also have social and economic significance as they
can contain natural resources such as groundwater
(e.g. Sharpe et al. 1996; BurVal Working Group
2006), hydrocarbons (e.g. Davidson et al. 2000;
Hirst et al. 2002; McDougall et al. 2006; Melvin
& Sprague 2006), ore minerals (c.f. McClenaghan
et al. 2001) and construction aggregate (e.g.
Clayton et al. 1999). Understanding their infill and
sedimentary architecture is therefore of critical impor-
tance for economic and environmental aspects
related to their exploitation.
The formation of tunnel valleys has been debated
since they were first described in the late nineteenth
century (Jentzsch 1884; Gottsche 1897; Ussing
1903). They were distinguished from ordinary
fluvial systems by their rising and falling thalweg
and abrupt beginnings and endings, which was
thought to be the result of water flowing against
a gradient. These characteristics are currently
considered the key diagnostic criteria for formation
by over-pressurized subglacial meltwater and for
distinguishing tunnel valleys from non-glacial
fluvial valleys (c.f. Ó Cofaigh 1996). The main
reason for the ongoing debate is the fact that subgla-
cial processes cannot usually be observed directly
(Boulton 1986). Many uncertainties regarding the
genesis of tunnel valleys and the associated sedi-
mentary processes therefore remain unresolved
and are still a matter of ongoing scientific research.
A thorough review of Pleistocene tunnel valleys
has been published previously by Ó Cofaigh (1996),
and other authors provide an extensive compilation
and discussion of regional data (Huuse & Lykke-
Andersen 2000; Jørgensen & Sandersen 2006). To
some extent, concepts derived from Pleistocene tun-
nel valleys have been applied to the explanation of
ancient incisions (e.g. Le Heron et al. 2004). How-
ever, no comprehensive comparison of pre-Pleistocene
and Pleistocene valleys has been attempted to date.
This study provides a review of current knowl-
edge on tunnel valleys, including their geomorphic
characteristics, nature of the infill and genetic pro-
cesses regardless of age and locality. After a review
of tunnel valleys from both the Pleistocene and

From: Huuse, M., Redfern, J., Le Heron, D. P., Dixon, R. J., Moscariello, A. & Craig, J. (eds) 2012. Glaciogenic
Reservoirs and Hydrocarbon Systems. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 368,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/SP368.13 # The Geological Society of London 2012. Publishing disclaimer:
www.geolsoc.org.uk/pub_ethics
 10°0'0"W 0°0'0" 10°0'0"E 20°0'0"E 30°0'0"E

Geological Society, London, Special Publications published online May 3, 2012 as doi: 10.1144/SP368.13
60°0'0"N 60°0'0"N

2 7
21

6 8
20
13
12 19
14 16

P. VAN DER VEGT ET AL.

11 19 55°0'0"N
55°0'0"N

4 1
9
10 15 17
3
1 5

50°0'0"N 18 50°0'0"N
Tunnel valley
Elsterian ice extent
Saalian ice extent
Weichselian iceextent
Elevation [m]
22
1000
23

45°0'0"N 45°0'0"N
–1000

10°0'0"W 0°0'0" 10°0'0"E 20°0'0"E 30°0'0"E

Fig. 1. Compilation of the Pleistocene European tunnel valleys from different authors (see references in Table 1). In this map, tunnel valleys are shown that have been interpreted as
such by the original authors. Maximum ice extent after Ehlers & Gibbard (2004). Relief from ETOPO1 (Amante & Eakins 2009).
 Geological Society, London, Special Publications published online May 3, 2012 as doi: 10.1144/SP368.13
TUNNEL VALLEYS
Fig. 2. Compilation of the Ordovician tunnel and palaeovalleys from North Africa and the Arabian Peninsula as interpreted by several authors (see references in figure). This map
is subject to data availability and although it gives an overview, it is most probably incomplete. Relief from ETOPO1 (Amante & Eakins 2009).
 Geological Society, London, Special Publications published online May 3, 2012 as doi: 10.1144/SP368.13
P. VAN DER VEGT ET AL.
pre-Pleistocene glaciogenic record (Figs 1 & 2), this
paper specifically offers a concise summary of the
various theories and mechanisms that have been
proposed to explain the formation and sedimentary
processes responsible for the infill of these large
incisions. This review outlines the significant uncer-
tainties related to the understanding of tunnel valley
genesis and proposes new perspectives for continued
scientific investigations of this poorly understood
subject. Finally, this work attempts to establish a
generic model for tunnel valley formation and a
framework for sedimentary infill.
Definition
Tunnel valleys were first recognized in the late nine-
teenth century by Jentzsch (1884) and Gottsche
(1897) in Germany and by Ussing (1903) in
Denmark. Madsen (1921) believed that the valley-
like incisions described earlier had been formed
subglacially by meltwater flowing through a tunnel
and thus introduced the term ‘tunnel valley’. Since
then, however, this definition has been subject to
debate. Several terms have been used, sometimes
to highlight distinctions concerning their mor-
phology or genesis. The non-genetic term ‘palaeo
valley’ has often been used for Palaeozoic glacial
incisions such as tunnel valleys and cross-shelf
troughs in North Africa and South America (e.g.
Beuf et al. 1971; Bache et al. 2012). Because this
term is used for several different morphologies
that do not have the same genetic origin, its use
can be ambiguous. ‘Tunnel valley’ is a more
genetic term for a subglacially formed landform
that can consist of one meltwater conduit or a com-
posite of migrating or multiple channels creating a
larger morphology (Mooers 1989). Other authors
(e.g. Clayton et al. 1999; Fisher et al. 2005) believed
that a single channel flowing with bank-full dis-
charge created these landforms. The size of the val-
ley would thus be equal to the size of the channel.
To stress this formational process, these authors
introduced the genetic term ‘tunnel channel’. Gripp
(1964)argued that the incisions were formed by direct
glacial erosion and proposed the German term ‘Gla-
ziellen’. Wingfield (1990) considered that the Pleis-
tocene incisions of the North Sea consisted of aligned
sets of plunge pools that were formed catastrophi-
cally, so he abandoned the use of the word ‘valley’,
instead introducing the term ‘major incision’.
In summary, it is clear that the terminology for
these glacial landforms has evolved based on their
inferred mode of formation. A precise process-
based terminology would certainly be preferable.
However, as the current knowledge of the genetic
processes does not allow a redefinition of the
nomenclature, the term ‘tunnel valley’ (sensu lato)
is used in this study to refer to incisions with undu-
lating thalweg and a width of less than 5 km that are
formed under ice sheets. This definition contains
both ‘tunnel valleys’ (sensu stricto) and ‘tunnel
channels’.
Pleistocene tunnel valleys
Tunnel valleys have been described in the Pleisto-
cene sedimentary record from many glaciated
regions worldwide, predominantly in the northern
hemisphere (e.g. Woodland 1970; Boyd et al.
1988; Ehlers & Linke 1989; Mooers 1989; Mullins
& Hinchey 1989; Wingfield 1990; Moscariello
et al. 1998; Huuse & Lykke-Andersen 2000; Praeg
2003; Russell et al. 2003; Jørgensen & Sandersen
2006; Dürst Stucki et al. 2010; Fig. 1 and Table 1).
They have also been described from the front of the
Antarctic ice sheet (e.g. Domack 1990; Lowe &
Anderson 2003). Beneath the Icelandic Breiðamer-
kurjökull glacier, a trough is currently being formed
that has very similar dimensions to the tunnel
valleys described elsewhere (Björnsson 1996). In
addition, relatively small-scale incisions (up to
30 m wide) are formed at the Icelandic ice margin
during outbursts of meltwater. The composite of a
number of such incisions has been proposed as an
analogue for tunnel valleys (Russell et al. 2007).
Pleistocene tunnel valleys have been described
both on continental shelves and lowlands (e.g.
Boyd et al. 1988; Piotrowski 1994) and the fore-
lands of large mountain ranges (e.g. Smith 2004;
Dürst Stucki et al. 2010; Preusser et al. 2010).
In northern Europe and North America, shallow
boreholes and aerial photography have been used to
map tunnel valleys and their infill (e.g. Woodland
1970; Ehlers & Linke 1989; Brennand & Shaw
1994; Russell et al. 2003; Vaher et al. 2010).
Two-dimensional seismic data and, more recently,
three-dimensional seismic data have improved the
understanding of the geometries of the Pleistocene
tunnel valleys in offshore regions (e.g. Boyd et al.
1988; Cameron et al. 1992; Huuse & Lykke-
Andersen 2000; Lonergan et al. 2006; Kristensen
et al. 2007; Stewart & Lonergan 2011; Moreau
et al. 2012). New high-resolution reflection seismic
acquisition and processing techniques have also
been developed (Pugin et al. 2004), specifically
to image the heterogeneous sedimentary infill of
tunnel valleys in onshore regions.
Other geophysical methods such as gravity (e.g.
Fichler et al. 2005; Götze et al. 2009), seafloor
bathymetry (e.g. Loncarevic et al. 1992; Bradwell
et al. 2008) and airborne or land electromagnetic
surveys (e.g. Jørgensen & Sandersen 2006; Bosch
et al. 2009; Tezkan et al. 2009) have been used to
outline the distribution and infill of tunnel valleys
 Geological Society, London, Special Publications published online May 3, 2012 as doi: 10.1144/SP368.13
TUNNEL VALLEYS
Table 1. Contributions to the map of European tunnel valleys (Fig. 1)
Map no. Location
1 Celtic and North Sea
2 Northern North Sea
3 East Anglia (England)
4 Cheshire, Lancashire (England)
5 South Wales (UK)
6 Central North Sea
7 Norwegian Central North Sea
8 Western Danish North Sea
9 Southern North Sea
10 Netherlands
11 German North Sea
12 Danish North Sea
13 Western Danish North Sea
14 Denmark
15 Germany
16 Skåne (Sweden)
17 Poland
18 Czech Republic
19 Lithuania and eastern Baltic Sea
20 Latvia
21 Estonia
22 Bern (Switzerland)
23 Lake Geneva (Switzerland)
in both on- and off-shore areas. In most cases,
Pleistocene valleys are covered by interglacial sedi-
ments, making sections through tunnel-valley fills
relatively rare and the outcrops often only reveal
the uppermost part of the buried tunnel-valley
infill (Eyles & McCabe 1989; Mooers 1989;
Martini & Brookfield 1995; Clayton et al. 1999;
Piotrowski et al. 1999; Russell et al. 2003). This
lack of sedimentary evidence has been a severe
problem in understanding tunnel valleys. Ideally,
outcrop studies should be combined with geophysi-
cal and borehole methods such that a sense of lateral
continuity can be combined with accurate sedi-
mentological descriptions. In comparison with the
pre-Pleistocene counterparts, the distribution and
stratigraphic context of Pleistocene examples is
well developed (c.f. Figs 1 & 2) and plays an impor-
tant role in the understanding of tunnel valleys.
Pre-Pleistocene tunnel valleys
Tunnel valleys in the ancient rock record are asso-
ciated with the Ordovician, Permo-Carboniferous
and Neoproterozoic glaciations. These features are
present in outcrop at several sites in Africa, the
Middle East, South America and Australia (e.g.
Beuf et al. 1971; Visser 1988; Vaslet 1990; Eyles
Ref.
Wingfield 1989
Bradwell et al. 2008
Baker 1977; Boreham 2002; Boreham & Rolfe 2009;
Gao 1997; Geological Survey of Great Britain
(England & Wales) 1975; Hopson & Zalasiewicz
1991; Woodland 1970
Delaney 2003
Al Saadi & Brooks 1973
Stewart & Lonergan 2011
Fichler et al. 2005
Kristensen et al. 2007
Moreau et al. 2012
Passchier et al. 2010
Lutz et al. 2009
Huuse & Lykke-Andersen 2000
Salomonsen 1993
Jørgensen & Sandersen 2009
Stackebrandt 2009
Lidmar-Bergström et al. 1991
Galon 1965
Nývlt et al. 2011
Šliaupa et al. 1995
Zelčs et al. 2011
Rattas 2007
Dürst Stucki et al. 2010
Fiore et al. 2011
& de Broekert 2001; Le Heron et al. 2004;
Eschard et al. 2005; Rieu et al. 2006; Gutiérrez-
Marco et al. 2010; Hoffman & Macdonald 2010;
Keller et al. 2011; Fig. 2) and have been identified
in the deep subsurface during hydrocarbon investi-
gations (McGillivray & Husseini 1992; Smart
2000; Hirst et al. 2002; McDougall et al. 2006;
Melvin & Sprague 2006).
Two- and three-dimensional seismic surveys
have mainly been used in the oil and gas industry
to investigate tunnel valley morphology and infill
(McGillivray & Husseini 1992; Aoudeh & Al-Hajri
1995; Smart 2000; Perrott et al. 2005).
Sedimentological investigation on outcrops and
boreholes, integrated with remote sensing studies
in areas across North Africa and the Middle East,
have undoubtedly highlighted the large variability
of sedimentary processes and depositional environ-
ments (e.g. Beuf et al. 1971; Vaslet 1990; Ghienne
& Deynoux 1998; Eyles & de Broekert 2001; Le
Heron et al. 2004; Clark-Lowes 2005; Eschard
et al. 2005; Moreau et al. 2005; Melvin & Sprague
2006; Le Heron 2007; Moscariello et al. 2008;
Fig. 2). Several authors have drawn attention to
similarities with the Pleistocene tunnel valleys
(Ghienne & Deynoux 1998; Eyles & de Broekert
2001; Le Heron et al. 2004). Considering the
scarcity of Pleistocene tunnel-valley outcrops, the
 Geological Society, London, Special Publications published online May 3, 2012 as doi: 10.1144/SP368.13

P. VAN DER VEGT ET AL.

Fig. 3. Comparison of (a) the Permo-Carboniferous glacial and related deposits from the Al Khlata Formation, Oman
(e.g. Levell et al. 1988) and (b) similar deposits from the Upper Pleistocene infill of the Petit-Lac, Switzerland
(Moscariello 1996). (c) Late Ordovician (Zarqa and Sarah formations; from McGillivray & Husseini 1992, courtesy of
the American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin) tunnel valley seismic cross-section from Saudi Arabia,
compared with (d) a similar feature of different size from the Middle Pleistocene record (Elsterian, c. 430 ka BP) from
the Southern North Sea (Foreste, unpublished).

pre-Pleistocene tunnel-valley field exposures add
important insights. This highlights the relevance of
comparing glaciogenic records of different geologi-
cal ages (Fig. 3) for understanding the genetic pro-
cesses and complex sedimentary architecture of
subglacial deposits associated with tunnel valleys.
Tunnel valley morphology and channel
patterns
Location of tunnel valleys
Tunnel valleys lie within former ice margins and are
generally oriented parallel to ice flow (Woldstedt
1922; Huuse & Lykke-Andersen 2000). They pre-
dominantly occur in areas with relatively soft sub-
strata consisting of poorly consolidated and/or
cemented sedimentary rocks, although some excep-
tions do occur (e.g. Wingfield 1990; Eyles & de
Broekert 2001; Lowe & Anderson 2003). The
‘classical’ large tunnel valleys are conspicuously
absent on the resistant crystalline shields, whereas
eskers are relatively widespread. On the softer sedi-
ments on the flanks of these crystalline shields,
large tunnel valleys suddenly become widespread
(Clark & Walder 1994; Aoudeh & Al-Hajri 1995;
Boulton et al. 2009). This indicates that the type
of subglacial drainage is strongly influenced by
bedrock.
One of the most valuable diagnostic criteria of
tunnel valleys is their abrupt beginning and termin-
ation. Tunnel valley beginnings are reported to
have slopes of between 1 and 138 and terminations
ranging from 1 to 118 (e.g. Kristensen et al. 2008;
Moreau et al. 2012). The termination of tunnel
valleys often coincides with changes in the substra-
tum. For example, the transition to a more per-
meable substratum would allow meltwater to drain
through the substratum, resulting in decreasing
erosive power of a subglacial meltwater stream
(Woodland 1970; Dobracki & Krzyszkowski 1997;
Glasser & Sambrook Smith 1999). This is demon-
strated, for example, by the presence of eskers
linking two individual tunnel valleys (Jørgensen &
Sandersen 2006). The occurrence of esker deposits
accumulated along the same tunnel valley axis
suggests a localized decrease of erosive power
leading instead to an accumulation of detrital
material (Kehew & Kozlowski 2007).
 Geological Society, London, Special Publications published online May 3, 2012 as doi: 10.1144/SP368.13
TUNNEL VALLEYS
The terminations of tunnel valleys are often
marked by outwash fans (Ussing 1903; Patterson
1994; Piotrowski 1994; Dobracki & Krzyszkowski
1997; Cutler et al. 2002; Jørgensen & Sandersen
2006; Le Heron & Craig 2008) and other ice-
marginal formations such as moraines or deltas
where tunnel valleys terminate at recessional mar-
gins (Ussing 1903; Mooers 1989; Patterson 1994;
Krohn et al. 2009). These glacial landforms can
reach up to 150 m above the level of the tunnel
valley floor (Ussing 1903; Krohn et al. 2009).
Tunnel valley dimensions
Tunnel valley morphology is highly variable, with
their depths ranging from tens of metres (e.g.
Mooers 1989) to 400 m (e.g. Ehlers & Linke
1989). Lengths ranging from a few kilometres to
more than 100 km have been observed (Wright
1973; Eyles & McCabe 1989; Praeg 2003; Le
Heron et al. 2004; Moreau et al. 2012). Widths
range from less than 100 m (Woodland 1970;
Mooers 1989) to 4–5 km (Beuf et al. 1971; Le
Heron et al. 2004; Jørgensen & Sandersen 2006;
Kristensen et al. 2007). The depth –width ratio of
tunnel valleys is often found to be close to 1:10
(e.g. Ghienne & Deynoux 1998; Gibling 2006),
which allows them to be differentiated from other
incisions such as proglacial channels or cross-shelf
troughs (Moreau 2005). Glaciogenic incisions that
are wider than 5 km are commonly considered to
represent ice streams or cross-shelf troughs rather
than tunnel valleys (Ghienne et al. 2007).
The minimum dimensions of tunnel valleys are
rarely reported in the literature. Sjogren et al.
(2002) describe systems of linked potholes that
might represent the earliest stages of tunnel valley
formation (referred to by Sjogren et al. (2002) as
‘incipient tunnel channels’). This would imply that
a continuous spectrum of tunnel valley sizes
should be present, ranging from these potholes to
mature tunnel valleys. Therefore, strictly speaking,
there would not be any minimum dimensions.
Tunnel valley cross-sectional morphology
Because of the difficulty of observing active tunnel
valleys directly, little has been reported on the mor-
phological aspects of the flanks of tunnel valleys.
Morphometric analysis is based on outcrop data
and inferred from subsurface geophysical and bore-
hole data. The sides can be very steep (exceeding
458) and may even be vertical or overhanging
(Woodland 1970; Beuf et al. 1971; Fig. 4.11). Gen-
erally, less steep angles of between 12 and 328 are
observed for Pleistocene tunnel valleys in the
North Sea (Kristensen et al. 2007) and between 18
and 258 for Ordovician valleys in North Africa (Le
Heron et al. 2004, Fig. 4.9). The sides of some pre-
Pleistocene tunnel valleys contain intraformational
striated pavements, indicating loading, abrasion
and shearing of the substrate resulting from contact
of moving ice with the sediment interface (e.g. Le
Heron et al. 2004, 2005; Moreau 2005; Le Heron
2007; Moscariello et al. 2008).
Studies have shown that the cross-section of
tunnel valleys can be both U- and V-shaped (Huuse
& Lykke-Andersen 2000; Jørgensen & Sandersen
2006) which might be indicative of erosion by
both glacial abrasion (U) and meltwater (V).
Overall, the width, depth and gradient of the valley
sides seem to be governed by bedrock lithology,
climate and potentially by ice sheet parameters
(Woodland 1970; van Dijke & Veldkamp 1996;
Huuse & Lykke-Andersen 2000; Jørgensen &
Sandersen 2006).
The resistance to erosion of the substrate
influences the size and the width/depth ratio of
the valley (Woodland 1970; Mooers 1989). For
example, some tunnel valleys incised in the Cretac-
eous chalk in East Anglia are narrower and more
V-shaped than the wide valleys formed in the
unconsolidated sandy bedrock in other parts of the
North Sea Basin (e.g. Woodland, 1970; Praeg,
2003; Moreau et al. 2012). Similarly, narrow
shapes characterize the Pleistocene ‘finger lakes’
in North America and Permo-Carboniferous
valleys of Australia, both of which incise into lithi-
fied rocks (e.g. Mullins & Hinchey 1989; Eyles &
de Broekert 2001). More resistant strata may also
decrease the depth of valley incision (Ehlers &
Linke 1989; Russell et al. 2003). After melting of
the ice sheet, the maximum angle of repose of the
bedrock might determine the amount of (post-)
glacial slumping that causes widening of the
valley (Woodland 1970; Ehlers & Linke 1989).
The reuse of channels has been noted to form a dis-
tinct morphology of the valley sides (Piotrowski
1994; Jørgensen & Sandersen 2006).
The depth and width of tunnel valleys also seem
to be related to ice sheet parameters such as ice
thickness. The latter in fact governs the pressure
regime under the ice, which, in turn, would deter-
mine the maximum depth to which tunnel valleys
can be carved without being closed by ice creep
(Nye 1976). Thus, tunnel-valley depth has been
used to reconstruct ice sheet thickness (Glasser &
Sambrook Smith 1999). Moreover, the debris
content of an ice sheet is thought to influence the
erosive power of the subglacial meltwater because
of the increased sediment load (Woodland 1970).
Glacial abrasion of the valley sides caused by
repeated ice advances is expected to cause a widen-
ing of the incision (Piotrowski 1994; Jørgensen &
Sandersen 2006).
 Geological Society, London, Special Publications published online May 3, 2012 as doi: 10.1144/SP368.13

P. VAN DER VEGT ET AL.

1. Section 1 - Long section: cross-cutting valley cross-cutting valley cross-cutting valley

Meltwater flow associated with ‘clinoforms’
Pleistocene

Sections 2-13 - Cross sections:

Esker
2. 3. 4.
100m 5. 6. 7.
8.
0
0 5 10 km

_ m
+30
9. 10. 11. 12.
Pre-Pleistocene

+50 m
_
13.

100m

0
0 5 10 km

Gravels Sands Diamicton or till Fault

Ice-marginal deposits Argillaceous sands Lacustrine environment (mostly glacial) Seismic reflectors, ‘Clinoforms’
Substrate varied Substrate sand and clay Substrate clay Substrate chalk Lithified substrate

Fig. 4. Examples of the wide variety of sizes and sedimentary fills of tunnel valleys. The sections are all presented at the
same scale, with the exception of 4.11. Section 1 is a long section along the axis of the valley, whereas sections 1 to 12
are perpendicular to the thalweg orientation. (1) A long section with ‘clinoform’ reflectors with meltwater flow
presumed from the right during formation and three cross-cutting tunnel valleys; eastern North Sea, modified from
Kristensen et al. (2007). (2) Oak Ridges Moraine, Canada, from cored borehole and seismic data, modified after Russell
et al. (2003). (3) Tunnel valley containing esker sediments from Lake Geneva, Switzerland; seismic data with borehole
control (Moscariello et al. 1998), modified after Fiore et al. (2011). (4) Bornhöved Valley, Germany, under-filled after
ice retreat, as indicated by the presence of diamicton deposited by the subsequent glaciation; reconstruction from
borehole data, modified after Piotrowski (1994). (5) Cam tunnel valleys, England, from borehole data; modified after
Baker (1977). (6) Hornsyld Valley, Denmark, from borehole, seismic and transient electromagnetic data; modified after
Jørgensen & Sandersen (2006). (7) Subglacial channel under Breiðamerkurjökull in Iceland, a possible recent analogue
of tunnel valley, in an image based on radio-echo soundings by Björnsson (1996); figure modified after Boulton et al.
(2007). (8) Scotian Shelf, Canada, from seismic and borehole data; modified after Boyd et al. (1988). (9) Gargaf Arch,
Libya, cross-section of two confluent tunnel valleys, from field data; modified after Le Heron et al. (2004). (10) Tassili
N’Ajjer, Algeria, from outcop data; modified after Eschard et al. (2005). (11) Subglacial or possibly proglacial channel
Tassili du Tufassasset, Algeria, from field observations; modified after Beuf et al. (1971). (12) Adrar Mauritania, from
field research; modified after Ghienne & Deynoux (1998). (13) Saudi Arabia from field observations, with valleys
exceeding the typical tunnel valley dimensions stated in this paper; figure modified after Vaslet (1990).

Tunnel valley course Basin and Minnesota it has been shown that these
valleys are formed by 1- to 40-km linear to slightly
Tunnel valleys usually have straight or slightly arcuate segments (Mooers 1989; Praeg 1996). These
sinuous courses. In particular cases, the direction segments are often associated with other ice-
of valley courses has been explained by the proper- marginal landforms (e.g. outwash fans, terminal
ties of the substratum. For instance, their course moraine ridges), indicating that they were most
can be influenced by structural lineaments (e.g. likely formed at the edges of successive ice sheet
Beuf et al. 1971; Dobracki & Krzyszkowski 1997; positions (e.g. Andersen 1931; Mooers 1989; Wing-
Ghienne et al. 2003; Praeg 2003), salt domes field 1990; Patterson 1994; Praeg 2003; Moreau
(Ehlers & Linke 1989; Kristensen et al. 2007) and et al. 2012). The morphology of tunnel valley
pre-existing river beds or tunnel valleys (Cox drainage networks can be anastomosing (Baker
1985; Piotrowski 1997). These features form struc- 1977; Huuse & Lykke-Andersen 2000; Lonergan
tural and/or hydrological anomalies that may et al. 2006), tributary (Woodland 1970; Piotrowski
deflect the tunnel valley course, promoting mean- 1997; Praeg 2003) or radial (Wright 1973; Mooers
dering of the valley. 1989).
In plan view, tunnel valleys can occur as single- The lateral spacing between adjacent tunnel
thread features, in swarms or as multiple, cross- valleys varies significantly and might be related to
cutting channels (Figs 1 & 2). In the North Sea substratum variations (Praeg 1996). The spacing
 Geological Society, London, Special Publications published online May 3, 2012 as doi: 10.1144/SP368.13
TUNNEL VALLEYS
of the Pleistocene valleys recorded on perme-
able substrates in the southern North Sea, NW
Germany and Michigan is generally in the order
of 10–30 km (Praeg 2003; Stackebrandt 2009;
Kehew et al. in press; Moreau et al. 2012). Tunnel
valleys in Denmark and Poland incised into chalk
and Palaeogene clay have a spacing of less than
1 km (e.g. Galon 1965; Jørgensen & Sandersen
2009). The general observation is that spacing of
tunnel valleys is closely related to substrate proper-
ties. However, according to van Dijke & Veldkamp
(1996), substrate is not the only control, because
regions that have been covered multiple times by
ice sheets of different glaciations do not necessarily
have tunnel valleys associated with each of these
ice advances.
Interpreting the pattern and spacing of chan-
nel networks is hampered by the difficulties in deter-
mining whether they represent a single erosional
event or multiple incision phases within one or
more glaciations (e.g. Praeg 1996; Stewart & Lone-
rgan 2011; Moreau et al. 2012). The cross-cutting
pattern of tunnel valleys can be used to investigate
the phases of ice sheet advance and retreat
(Mooers 1989; Praeg & Long 1997; Kristensen
et al. 2007; Sandersen et al. 2009; Stewart & Lone-
rgan 2011; Moreau et al. 2012). For example, recent
investigations based on three-dimensional seismic
data have shown up to four to seven cross-cutting
tunnel valley generations on the North Sea floor
(Kristensen et al. 2007; Stewart & Lonergan 2011;
Moreau et al. 2012). In this case, the greater
number of generations might reflect a position
more proximal to the centre of the ice sheet and
therefore a higher probability of experiencing
more ice fronts. Cross-cutting patterns within the
Pleistocene onshore in northern Europe show that
multiple generations of valleys can be eroded and
filled within one glaciation (e.g. Baker 1977). In
some instances, channel patterns correlate to
stages of a retreating ice sheet, indicating that
tunnel valleys could have formed within a few
hundred years or less (Krohn et al. 2009; Sandersen
et al. 2009). This observation also provides one of
the few indications of the timing required for
tunnel valley formation.
Tunnel valley infill
Sediments infilling glacial incisions such as tunnel
valleys, as with most deposits of glaciogenic
nature (e.g. Benn & Evans 1998), are typically
characterized by a remarkable facies and architec-
tural heterogeneity (Fig. 3). This complexity reflects
the different sedimentary and erosional processes
that occurred both during glacial and post-glacial
conditions. Tunnel valley infill can be subdivided
into (i) primary infill, which directly overlies the
erosional surface and is genetically associated
with this surface and (ii) secondary infill, which is
genetically unrelated to the erosional processes
that formed the tunnel valley.
Primary valley fill
Studies have reported different types of infill that
have been found overlying the basal erosional
surface:
† Diamicton strata, interpreted as basal till with
high concentrations of angular, monogenic,
bedrock clasts, have been found in boreholes
from the Pleistocene of Germany (Ehlers &
Linke 1989; Piotrowski 1994; Fig. 4.4), the
Netherlands (Kluiving et al. 2003), Switzerland
(Moscariello 1996) and the Ordovician of
Saudi Arabia (Vaslet 1990; Fig. 4.13). Glacial
deformation and high meltwater pressure are
inferred from faulting, folding, injections,
load/compaction structures, grooves and intra-
formational striations in outcrops of Ordovician
tunnel valleys (Le Heron et al. 2004; Moreau
2005; Le Heron 2007; Moscariello et al. 2008;
Gutiérrez-Marco et al. 2010; Fig. 4.9).
† Massive gravels and sands deposited by melt-
water have been described from Pleistocene
tunnel valleys (Ehlers & Linke 1989; Russell
et al. 2003; Fig. 4.2) and in Ordovician valleys
(Ghienne & Deynoux 1998; Le Heron et al.
2004; Le Heron 2007; Keller et al. 2011;
Fig. 4.9, 4.12). They have been interpreted
as non-cohesive debris flows (Ghienne &
Deynoux 1998; Le Heron et al. 2004; Le Heron
2007; Fig. 4.9, 4.12) commonly associated
with ice-proximal sub-aquatic fans (Ghienne &
Deynoux 1998; Russell et al. 2003; Eschard
et al. 2005; Fig. 4.2, 4.10). Coarse-gravel depos-
its have also been interpreted as subglacial
deposits. These gravels can form dunes (Shaw
& Gorrell 1991), channels (Eyles & McCabe
1989) and eskers (e.g. Mooers 1989; Jørgensen
& Sandersen 2006; Kehew & Kozlowski 2007;
Fiore et al. 2011; Fig. 4.3, 4.6). The presence of
sedimentary dykes and pipes in massive gravels
and sands is an indicator of subglacial over-
pressurization (Eyles & McCabe 1989; Moreau
2005; Moscariello et al. 2008; Ghienne 2009).
† Tunnel valleys can contain gently inclined seis-
mic reflections of 3–20 km in length that fill
the whole valley. In the southern and eastern
North Sea area, these ‘clinoforms’ are typically
inclined at an angle of 1–118 towards the
former ice sheet centre and are therefore not
interpreted as prograding glaciofluvial outwash
(Praeg 1996; Kluiving et al. 2003, Kristensen
 Geological Society, London, Special Publications published online May 3, 2012 as doi: 10.1144/SP368.13
P. VAN DER VEGT ET AL.
et al. 2008; Fig. 4.1). The sparse borehole
data indicate that these clinoforms consist of
massive, normal and reverse graded sands and
silts of locally derived sediments (Laban 1995;
Praeg 2003; Kluiving et al. 2003; Kristensen
et al. 2008). Similar features have been recog-
nized in seismic data from Alberta, Canada
(Ahmad et al. 2009). A time-transgressive back-
filling model was proposed for these clinoforms
by Praeg (1996). This model considers that,
while the ice sheet is progressively receding, a
meltwater channel incises backwards into the
bedrock. The eroded sediment is directly rede-
posited on the terminal slope of the valley at
the ice margin. Kristensen et al. (2008) expanded
this model by introducing glaciohydraulic super-
cooling (Alley et al. 1998; Lawson et al. 1998) as
a way to explain the formation of the clinoforms.
The time-transgressive backfilling model has
thus far not been invoked for pre-Pleistocene
tunnel valleys. The sediments forming these
clinoforms have not yet been studied in the
field, although large-scale inclined structures
filling Saudi Arabian tunnel valleys have been
interpreted as cross-valley thrust moraines
(Melvin et al. 2006; Melvin & Sprague 2006).
Secondary valley fill
Higher in the sequence the nature of the sedimentary
infill becomes more varied because these deposits
are not strictly glaciogenic in origin. Sand and
gravelly deposits can be associated with the distal
end of outwash fans and glaciofluvial deposits
linked to the receding ice sheet (Ehlers & Linke
1989; Vaslet 1990; Piotrowski 1994; Powell et al.
1994; Ghienne & Deynoux 1998; Le Heron et al.
2004; Clark-Lowes 2005; Jørgensen & Sandersen
2006; Gutiérrez-Marco et al. 2010; Fig. 4.4, 4.6,
4.9, 4.12, 4.13). Well-sorted sands can be associated
with underflows and turbidites in lacustrine or
marine environments (Beuf et al. 1971; Moscariello
1996; Hirst et al. 2002; Le Heron et al. 2004; Melvin
& Sprague 2006; Fig. 4.9, 4.11). Laminated clays
and silts, possibly with dropstones or varves in
the sequence, can originate from glaciomarine or
glaciolacustrine environments, both of which are
often described as filling significant parts of tunnel
valleys (Beuf et al. 1971; Cameron et al. 1987;
Vaslet 1990; Piotrowski 1994; Moscariello 1996;
Huuse & Lykke-Andersen 2000; Kluiving et al.
2003; Praeg 2003; Smith 2004; Melvin & Sprague
2006; Krohn et al. 2009; Gutiérrez-Marco et al.
2010; Fig. 4.4). Diamictons can be deposited sub-
glacially during ice sheet (re-)advances, settling
from sediment plumes and ice-rafting (Ehlers &
Linke 1989; Hirst et al. 2002; Eschard et al. 2005;
Melvin & Sprague 2006; Fig. 4.10), melt out from
stagnant ice (Eyles & de Broekert 2001) or hypercon-
centrated mass transport, sometimes associated with
slumping and failure of the valley sides.
Of particular note is that following deglacia-
tion, although valleys can be completely filled by
sediments, a significant number remain at least par-
tially underfilled (e.g. Bradwell et al. 2008). Post-
glacial infilling of tunnel valleys can therefore occur
under various depositional environmental condi-
tions including marine, fluvial and possibly aeolian.
These sedimentary systems can show transport
directions that are independent of the directions
influenced by the glacial system (e.g. Mullins &
Hinchey 1989; Ghienne & Deynoux 1998). Elon-
gate depressions on the seabed of the central North
Sea indicate tunnel valleys that were flooded by
the sea before they were completely filled with
sediments (Bradwell et al. 2008; Moreau et al.
2012).
Infill stratigraphy
When diamictons filling tunnel valleys can be inter-
preted as subglacial tills (c.f. Boulton & Deynoux
1981), they might be associated with a subsequent
glaciation or ice sheet readvance. Identification of
subglacial tills therefore provides insights into
event stratigraphy and chronology (Ehlers & Linke
1989; Piotrowski 1994; Le Heron 2007). However,
generally chronostratigraphic markers formed by
interglacial strata and regional marine transgres-
sions are more widespread, and interpretation can
be less equivocal than the often patchy distributed
tills (e.g. Moreau 2011).
Despite the wide range of erosional and sedi-
mentary processes contributing to the fill of tunnel
valleys, some general patterns occur repeatedly.
In many places, the infill of tunnel valleys records
a gradual or punctuated glacial retreat. The sedi-
mentary sequence consequently records an overall
upward decrease of glacial influence (e.g. Le
Heron et al. 2004; Smith 2004; Krohn et al. 2009).
Furthermore, it has been observed that the lithology
of the valley infill often has a strong resemblance
to the lithology of the preglacial substratum in
which the valley is incised (Jørgensen & Sandersen
2009).
Within the available literature it can be summar-
ized that the sedimentary infilling of tunnel valleys
depends on the subglacial sedimentary processes,
the amount and type of sediment load transported
by the ice, and the interplay between ice movement,
melting and grounding. In addition, decoupling and
floating of the ice margin as a consequence of the
formation of a proglacial water body (marine or
lacustrine) during ice withdrawal needs to be con-
sidered (e.g. Eyles & McCabe 1989; Moscariello
1996; Le Heron et al. 2004). The post-glacial infill
 Geological Society, London, Special Publications published online May 3, 2012 as doi: 10.1144/SP368.13

TUNNEL VALLEYS

will be controlled by the type of sedimentary pro-
cesses and depositional environment (e.g. subaqua-
tic versus subaerial) that will develop after ice
withdrawal (Le Heron et al. 2009). The topographic
setting and isostatic rebound effects (e.g. Sutcliffe
et al. 2000) determine the timing of inundation
during post-glacial sea-level rise. Geomorphic char-
acteristics such as the steepness of the valley flanks
and the depth of the negative relief left by the ice
will also influence the final nature and architecture
of the post-glacial infill.
Genesis of tunnel valleys
Small incisions are being formed in modern Icelan-
dic ice-marginal settings during meltwater outbursts
(Russell et al. 2007). These incisions have been pro-
posed as an analogue for tunnel valleys. However,
the Icelandic setting might not be generally repre-
sentative and it is often assumed that large tunnel
valleys are not forming under present-day ice
sheets (Jørgensen & Sandersen 2006). This gives
rise to a difficulty in observing the physical pro-
cesses associated with the formation of such large
geomorphic features and in proposing a consistent
and satisfactory genetic model.
Over the past century, different hypotheses
have been postulated on the processes associated
with the formation of tunnel valleys. Early research
dealing with these deep incisions suggested several
mechanisms, varying from tectonic (Berendt 1863;
Kronborg et al. 1978), erosion by subglacial melt-
water (Jentzsch 1884; Ussing 1903), direct glacial
erosion (Woldstedt 1952; Gripp 1964) to river
erosion during eustatic lowstand (Wolff 1907) and
tidal scouring (Donovan 1973). Sissons (1981) pro-
posed that the ‘valleys’ are not incisions but are
actual depositional features formed by steady aggra-
dation of channels on a subsiding delta.
Since the proposition of these hypotheses, the
understanding of tunnel valleys has been greatly
improved by detailed investigations, as discussed
in the previous sections. Most recent published
studies have concluded that tunnel valleys are
formed by a combination of erosion by subglacial
meltwater and direct glacial erosion (Ó Cofaigh
1996; Huuse & Lykke-Andersen 2000; Jørgensen
& Sandersen 2006). The continued research into
tunnel valleys has provided a number of important
criteria that improve our understanding and ability
to recognize these features since the first descrip-
tions offered by Gottsche (1897). Table 2 sum-
marizes the diagnostic criteria for tunnel valley

Table 2. Characteristics of tunnel valleys as mentioned in text

Characteristics Conclusions

Morphology Within boundaries of former ice sheets Formed subglacially

of channel Parallel to ice sheet movement Erosion driven by ice velocity or
pressure gradient
Commonly found on erodible substratum Substrate influence
Max. 100 km long, 1 – 40 km segments Shorter than ice streams
Max. 5 km wide Narrower than ice streams
Max. 400 m deep Less than fjords
Width: depth ratio, c.1:10 Common formational processes
U- and V-shaped valleys Formed and modified by both glacial
No minimum valley dimension defined and meltwater erosion
Angle beginning, average 1 – 68, max. 138 Not subaerial fluvial
Angle termination, average 1 – 68, max 118
Slight sinuous course Not direct glacial erosion
Undulating long profile with large Not driven by gravity gradient
overdeepenings and thus not formed subaerially
(i.e. fluvial)
Flanks can be subvertical
Single channel, tributary, distributive, Observed drainage patterns not
cross-cutting, net-like pattern possible specific
Infilling Primary infill: tills, deformations, striations Direct glacial erosion
Sedimentary injections Over-pressurized meltwater
Clinoforms dipping towards former ice Over-pressurized meltwater
sheet centre Meltwater
Waterlain coarse sand and gravels indicative of
tractive flow
Secondary infill: glaciogenic and Infill can be associated with any
non-glaciogenic depositional environment
 Geological Society, London, Special Publications published online May 3, 2012 as doi: 10.1144/SP368.13
P. VAN DER VEGT ET AL.
location, morphology and infilling to distinguish
these from ice streams, glacial valleys/fjords and
proglacial spillway channels. These criteria also
have implications for the possible formational pro-
cesses of tunnel valleys.
The main evidence for over-pressurized melt-
water erosion is the common undulating thalwegs
that are commonly incised well below sea-level.
This has been used as an argument against the
interpretation of tunnel valleys as lowstand incised
valleys. Subglacial pressurized meltwater is also
recognized by the association with waterlain depos-
its such as eskers and outwash fans found high
above the valley floor. Evidence for ice flowing
along the tunnel–bedrock interface and glacial
loading is provided by intraformational striations
and glaciotectonic deformations observed in out-
crop (e.g. Le Heron et al. 2004; Moscariello et al.
2008) and rarely in borehole data (Moscariello
1996). Direct glacial erosion (i.e. abrasion and quar-
rying) is likely to be another result of this interaction
between the ice sheet and the bedrock. The available
data do not show evidence for both erosion by melt-
water and direct glacial erosion in each studied
tunnel valley, so the contribution of each indi-
vidual process is probably variable (Jørgensen &
Sandersen 2006).
As well as ice, a variety of erosional agents
have been associated with the formation of tunnel
valleys, including the gravel content of the melt-
water (Woodland 1970; Eyles & McCabe 1989),
sediment creep (Boulton & Hindmarsh 1987;
Piotrowski 1997), a jökulhlaup plunge-pool mecha-
nism (Wingfield 1990) or fluidization resulting from
the high velocities of escaping over-pressurized
subglacial meltwater (Hooke & Jennings 2006).
Key parameters in these formational processes are
ice sheet thickness (i.e. subglacial pressure), melt-
water availability, the permeability of the bedrock
and the potential to build up pressure and meltwater
volumes behind a margin frozen to the substratum or
in a sub- or supraglacial lake.
The process by which meltwater erodes tunnel
valleys can be subdivided in two main hypotheses,
both focusing on the nature of the basal drainage.
Tunnel valleys might have been formed by either
‘catastrophic’ meltwater discharge (i.e. jökulhlaups)
under continental ice sheets (Wright 1973; Shaw &
Gilbert 1990; Wingfield 1990; Brennand & Shaw
1994; Piotrowski 1994; Barnett et al. 1998) or
steady-state drainage (e.g. Boulton & Hindmarsh
1987; Mooers 1989; Jeffery 1991; Praeg 2003).
The authors regard the term ‘catastrophic’ as being
ambiguous; in the literature on tunnel valleys, ‘cat-
astrophic’ discharge of pressurized subglacial melt-
water would be capable of forming a tunnel valley in
days or weeks (e.g. Boyd et al. 1988; Wingfield 1990;
Beaney & Hicks 2000). However, the erosion of a
150-m-deep tunnel valley in just a few hundred
years would be considered non-catastrophic (e.g.
Sandersen et al. 2009).
‘Catastrophic’ hypothesis
Based on the large size and substantial geographical
extent of tunnel valleys, many authors have pro-
posed that large quantities of water must flow
through them. The water could be supplied by
melting of supraglacial meltwater flowing through
crevasses in the ice. Basal meltwater production
is, however, generally considered to be relatively
low compared with the volume that can theoretically
be drained by all combined valleys. Some sort of
ponding and accumulation is therefore required
before catastrophic drainage of these large volumes
of subglacially stored meltwater results in tunnel
valley formation (e.g. Wright 1973; Lewis et al.
2006; Fig. 5). This meltwater originates from sub-
or supraglacial lakes, a common feature of
temperate ice sheet systems (Benn & Evans 1998).
The catastrophic release of this water, similar to a
jökulhlaup, would initiate the formation of a
tunnel valley. One hypothesis proposed by Shaw
& Gilbert (1990) and Brennand & Shaw (1994)
suggests the formation of tunnel valleys during a
catastrophic flood under large parts of the Pleisto-
cene Laurentide ice sheet. This flood was initiated
as a broad sheet flow followed by progressive chan-
nelization during waning discharge. As well as the
formation of tunnel valleys, this hypothesis explains
a continuum of landforms that formed during differ-
ent phases of the flood. However, such catastrophic
hypotheses have been severely critiqued, largely
based on concerns regarding the large volumes of
water required (Ó Cofaigh 1996; Clarke et al.
2005; Eyles 2006). The majority of the catastrophic
meltwater discharge models suggest that meltwater
might be stored behind the frozen toe of an ice sheet
and would break through when reaching a certain
pressure threshold (e.g. Wright 1973; Piotrowski
1994; Cutler et al. 2002; Hooke & Jennings
2006; Fig. 5a, b). This mechanism might also be
periodically recurring, resulting in repeated out-
bursts along a predefined flow path (Jørgensen
& Sandersen 2006). Ehlers & Linke (1989).
Piotrowski (1994) interpreted the thick homoge-
neous sequences of glaciofluvial sand, filling some
of the Pleistocene tunnel valleys in Germany, to
be an indication of such catastrophic drainage. The
large clasts recorded in some of the outwash fans
associated with tunnel valleys indicate large flow
velocities and therefore rapid outbursts (Piotrowski
1994; Cutler et al. 2002). Such outbursts also
occur in Iceland, where they form incisions similar
to tunnel valleys (Björnsson 2002; Russell et al.
2007). However, whether the Icelandic ice cap,
 Geological Society, London, Special Publications published online May 3, 2012 as doi: 10.1144/SP368.13
TUNNEL VALLEYS
where volcanism and subglacial morphology
strongly favour ponding and rapid release of
large volumes of meltwater, represents a good ana-
logue for the continental-scale ice sheets of the
Pleistocene, Permo-Carboniferous and Ordovician
is debatable.
Proponents of the catastrophic discharge hypoth-
esis commonly assume that the valleys flow comple-
tely filled with meltwater (e.g. Boyd et al. 1988;
Beaney & Hicks 2000). As mentioned before, this
assumption necessitates extremely high meltwater
discharges, reflecting the great dimensions of the
valleys. Furthermore, some authors propose that
the whole valley network is active simultaneously
(e.g. Brennand & Shaw 1994).
Steady-state hypothesis
The steady-state hypothesis requires a small, poten-
tially ephemeral stream that erodes gradually into
the substratum, thereby forming a tunnel valley
(Fig. 5c). In this model, melting and drainage of
meltwater are more or less in equilibrium, although
minor recurring outbursts are likely to be important.
The stream, which might be fed by basal or supra-
glacial meltwater flows during summer when
abundant meltwater is available, might be closed
during winter by plastic deformation of ice into the
channel (Nye 1976). As this stream steadily erodes
a larger valley it may be partially filled by the
ice sheet all year round (e.g. Boulton & Hind-
marsh 1987; Mullins & Hinchey 1989; Jeffery
1991; Piotrowski 1997; Praeg 2003). Boulton &
Hindmarsh (1987) proposed that initial incision
occurred by piping of subglacial sediments at the
ice sheet terminus. Piping, fluidization, ‘boiling’ or
‘heaving’ (Shoemaker 1986; Hooke & Jennings
2006; Boulton et al. 2007) of sediments can result
in an initial conduit. This subglacial conduit can
be open to the proglacial environment beyond
the ice margin and therefore be at a lower pressure
than the pore pressure in the surrounding substrate
(Röthlisberger 1972). Meltwater and sediments are
drawn from the surrounding sediments because of
the pressure gradient, thereby increasing the width
of the valley and possibly creating tributaries. This
mechanism, however, fails to explain the obser-
vations of injections into the preglacial substrate
(Eyles & McCabe 1989; Moreau 2005; Ghienne
et al. 2007) because injections into the substrate
require the pressure in the conduit to be higher
than in the surrounding substrate. Tunnel valleys
on lithified bedrock (Eyles & de Broekert 2001)
are also difficult to explain with this hypothesis.
The time-transgressive backfilling model pro-
posed by Praeg (1996, 2003) and expanded by
Kristensen et al. (2008), which describes a com-
bined simultaneous erosion and sedimentation to
explain the clinoform morphology (as described in
the section ‘Primary valley fill’, Fig. 4.1) in the
North Sea, can also be considered a steady-state
hypothesis.
Despite the numerous works carried out over
the previous decades, the mechanisms behind
tunnel valley formation remain controversial. How-
ever, the formational hypotheses require certain
prerequisites that are not applicable everywhere
(Table 3).
Discussion and steps towards a model
for formation and infill of tunnel valleys
Tunnel valleys are present globally, were formed
throughout each glaciation over geological history
and share comparable morphologies. The wide-
spread occurrence of these landforms probably indi-
cates that there must be a common genetic model
that is applicable to at least the majority of cases.
In the following section an attempt will be made
to get closer to such a model by testing the applica-
bility of hypotheses for pre-Pleistocene and Pleisto-
cene examples.
The overwhelming consensus in the literature is
that tunnel valleys are formed subglacially and pre-
dominantly by erosion associated with running melt-
water (e.g. Ussing 1903; Mooers 1989; Ghienne &
Deynoux 1998). The data on location, dimensions,
morphology, course and spacing of tunnel valleys
suggests that substrate properties are likely to be
one of the main controlling factors influencing tun-
nel valley emplacement. However, not all aspects
can be explained by the bedrock, and ice sheet
and climate might also be important parameters.
Catastrophic hypothesis
Proponents of the catastrophic hypothesis often
suggest that all tunnel valleys in an area act as an
integrated network and were formed during one
single catastrophic event. This hypothesis originates
from studies in North America where tunnel valleys
have been primarily studied from a geomorpho-
logical perspective. However, in such cases, it is
difficult to delineate cross-cutting of several gener-
ations of valleys from valleys forming an integrated
network. Furthermore, there is insufficient hard
evidence that tunnel valleys were connected during
their subglacial formation, and demonstrating the
continuity of subglacial sedimentary deposits within
tunnel valleys is generally difficult.
The catastrophic hypothesis is not traditionally
invoked for the tunnel valleys in North Africa and
Europe. The increase of resolution offered by
recent geophysical studies in NW Europe has
shown that tunnel valleys are generally not arranged
 Geological Society, London, Special Publications published online May 3, 2012 as doi: 10.1144/SP368.13

P. VAN DER VEGT ET AL.

(a) Catastrophic

(b) Outbursts forming individual channels

1
nts
me
seg
km
40
10-
2-2
sp 0 k
ac m
ing

(c) Steady-state formation during ice retreat

ts
en
gm
se
1 0
km
-4
10 2-2
sp 0 k
ac m
ing

2
 Geological Society, London, Special Publications published online May 3, 2012 as doi: 10.1144/SP368.13

TUNNEL VALLEYS

in long integrated networks but instead form shorter
segments terminating at former ice margins. The
fact that valleys seem to be primarily formed at
the margins of the ice sheet is not consistent with
large, integrated regional tunnel valley networks.
The existence of large subglacial lakes, as
required for there to be sufficient volume of melt-
water to occupy all valleys simultaneously, is
problematic, because geomorphological or sedi-
mentological evidence for such lakes in the rela-
tively geographically flat lowlands of Europe and
the Ordovician of Africa has yet to be documented.
Although observations of the current ice sheets in
Antarctica and Greenland indicate that large
accumulations of water can be stored within and
on the ice sheet (e.g. Siegert et al. 2005; Wingham
et al. 2006), this is often considered insufficient to
produce such large-scale outbursts (e.g. Clarke
et al. 2005).
The catastrophic formation of a single channel
by the build-up of a subglacial lake behind a frozen
ice margin might be applicable to tunnel valleys
in a terrestrial environment. However, there are
many tunnel valleys formed in areas without per-
mafrost (i.e. marine and lacustrine), where a frozen
toe is unlikely. For the reasons mentioned above, the
catastrophic hypothesis for tunnel valley formation
can only be used in specific cases (i.e. subglacial
volcanism, specific topography) and appears not
to be applicable to a generic tunnel valley model.
Steady-state hypothesis
The steady-state hypothesis requires a small, poten-
tially ephemeral stream that gradually erodes into
the substratum, thereby forming a tunnel valley.
However, from present-day glaciers it is known
that water stored in permeable substrate or local
cavities at the base of the ice leads to episodic fluc-
tuations in discharge (Eyles 2006). This is similar
to the repeated outburst model envisioned for the
rapidly formed tunnel valleys in Denmark (Pio-
trowski 1997; Jørgensen & Sandersen 2006; Sander-
sen et al. 2009). Steady-state erosion will require a
longer period for excavation. From esker systems
it is known that subglacial meltwater pathways
can be relatively stable over hundreds of years
(Boulton et al. 2007) and could argue in support
of the steady-state model.
The steady-state to quasi-steady-state requires
less specific circumstances, such as permafrost and
water storage in lakes. The steady-state model has
sometimes been disregarded because of disagree-
ments regarding the pressure regime in the channels
and also the belief that valleys hundreds of metres
deep must require catastrophic floods in order to
be formed. It is therefore necessary to investigate
the minimum discharges required to erode such a
valley in a few hundred years under steady-state
conditions.
The time-transgressive backfilling model of
linked erosion and infilling has so far only been inter-
preted from the occurrence of ‘clinoforms’ that dip
towards the former ice sheet centre in seismic data
of the central and southern North Sea (Europe).
Similar Pleistocene ‘clinoforms’ have been observed
in seismic data from North America (Ahmad et al.
2009). However, no accounts of these features
have yet been provided from older glaciations, or
they have instead been interpreted as cross-valley

Fig. 5. Formational processes for tunnel valleys as proposed by previous authors. (a) The catastrophic hypothesis,
where (1) large amounts of meltwater collect sub- (or supra-)glacially behind a frozen toe or because of the subglacial
topography (e.g. Shaw & Gilbert 1990; Brennand & Shaw 1994). When the pressure becomes high enough, the ice sheet
is separated from the bed and the meltwater is rapidly drained, first as a sheet flow followed by progressive
channelization (2). During such a flood, the whole tunnel valley network is open and active simultaneously. However,
this hypothesis has been criticized for the very large amounts of stored meltwater that are required. Such reservoirs of the
necessary scale have not been documented in the sedimentary record (e.g. Ó Cofaigh 1996; Clarke et al. 2005). (b)
Repeated outbursts of stored meltwater have also been proposed to form tunnel valleys (e.g. Piotrowski 1994). This
mechanism requires smaller reservoirs (i.e. isolated bodies of water) as the outburst are local and repeated frequently.
Similarly to the catastrophic model, storage of water behind a frozen toe has often been invoked. This reservoir might be
drained rapidly because of decoupling of the ice sheet and bedrock, similar to the process invoked for the catastrophic
hypothesis, or by siphoning through an initially small channel. This channel is formed gradually by continued headward
erosion of sub- and supraglacial meltwater (1) (Hooke & Jennnings 2006). The channel is rapidly widened when
additional meltwater is derived from the reservoir. Support for the repeated outburst hypothesis is found in the large flow
velocities required to transport the large boulders commonly found on outwash fans. However, the dependence on a
frozen toe excludes this mechanism in areas where permafrost was absent. (c) The steady-state hypothesis proposes
locally and gradual lowering of the bed by erosion as the result of meltwater flowing under steady-state conditions (1).
Erosion might be reinforced by piping and fluidization of sediments (e.g. Boulton & Hindmarsh 1987). Running water is
only present at the floor of the valley, as a significant part of the valley is occupied by ice. During ice sheet retreat, linked
segments can form longer tunnel valleys (2). In this case, simultaneous erosion at the ice-proximal end can be combined
with sedimentation at the ice-distal end (e.g. Praeg 1996). The steady-state hypothesis with liquefaction of sediment
seems unlikely in the case of lithified or impermeable bedrock. Whether the formation of large tunnel valleys can be
explained by relatively slow erosion still remains uncertain.
 Geological Society, London, Special Publications published online May 3, 2012 as doi: 10.1144/SP368.13

P. VAN DER VEGT ET AL.

Table 3. Summary of models proposed for the formation of tunnel valleys with indication of their supporting
observation and major limitations

Model Support Limitations

Steady-state, ephemeral or continuous

Definition: melting and discharge is in
equilibrium, no large-scale ponding
Model proposed for relatively small
channels or composite valleys
(1) Steady state: low pressure draws water
and sediment to channel; sediment
supply by deformation and
liquefaction; main meltwater source
from substrate and ice-bed interface;
fluctuations in discharge are likely
(2) Steady-state backfilling model: tunnel
valley migrates backwards during
deglaciation, depositing eroded
material on the rising slope at the
terminus
Catastrophic, single channel
Large discharge from a sub- or
supraglacial lake can rapidly erode a
single tunnel valley
A variation with multiple smaller
outbursts is also possible
Model proposed for composite tunnel
valleys up to the largest valleys
Catastrophic channel network formation
There is a transformation from sheet flow
to channelised flow
Model proposed for forming
simultaneous network of tunnel valleys
† Hydrological modelling
† Field evidence for soft
sediment deformation
† Clinoforms dipping up-ice in
seismic data
† To form large valleys, large
amounts of meltwater are
needed for preventing
closure by ice creep
† Large boulders indicating a
minimum flow velocity
(comparable to Icelandic
jökulhlaup)
† Large open-work gravel
bedforms, indicating the
valley is largely filled with
fast flowing water
† Large boulders indicating a
minimum flow velocity
(comparable to Icelandic
jokülhlaups)
† Large open-work gravel
bedforms, indicating the
valley is largely filled with
fast flowing water
† Not possible for
impermeable substrate
tunnel valleys
† Evidence of overpressure in
subglacial meltwater
sediments
† Large boulders on outwash
fans indicate high discharge
† Never observed in outcrop
† Geographically restricted
† Build up of a large
meltwater reservoir needs
frozen margin/permafrost.
† Tunnel valleys found to start
at kames.
† To build up a large
meltwater reservoir
permafrost is usually
proposed.
† Needs vast amount of
melt-water.
† Tunnel valleys found to start
at kames.

thrust moraines (Melvin et al. 2006; Melvin &
Sprague 2006). It is therefore possible that the time-
transgressive backfilling model originally proposed
by Praeg (1996) is related to particular regional
parameters that have been favourable for these
deposits. These parameters might be related to ice
dynamics or geographical peculiarities and are not
applicable to all tunnel valleys globally.
Infill
The present authors argue that the infill of tunnel
valleys can vary greatly depending on the phase of
ice sheet development during which sediment
accumulation occurs. The nature of the infill might
therefore contain important information regarding
the genetic process of the tunnel valley itself.
Tunnel valleys formed during the advance phase
would be expected to be filled with significant
volumes of subglacial deposits such as basal till
and possibly sediments deposited in subglacial
lakes. Furthermore, these deposits would show per-
vasive glaciotectonic deformation by continued
overriding of the ice sheet. On the other hand,
tunnel valleys formed during the ice-retreat phase
would contain little subglacial till, and mainly
proglacial outwash, diamicton from gravity pro-
cesses (slumping and debris flows) and lacustrine
or marine fine-grained deposits. This literature
review shows that subglacial tills and subglacial
 Geological Society, London, Special Publications published online May 3, 2012 as doi: 10.1144/SP368.13
TUNNEL VALLEYS
lake sediments are generally only subordinately
present in tunnel valleys, indicating that tunnel
valley formation most probably occurs during
standstill or retreat. Previous workers have also con-
cluded that tunnel valleys are most likely formed
during the retreat phase of the ice sheet, because
during this phase ice is melting and more meltwater
is available. This is also confirmed by the relation-
ships of tunnel valleys to recessional moraines and
back-stepping cross-cutting relationships.
The deposition of sediments is determined by the
accommodation space available for these sediments.
In the case of tunnel valley infill, this accommo-
dation space is generally very large during initial
ice retreat and consequently a thick and relatively
continuous succession of sediments is deposited.
This succession begins with ice-proximal deposits,
but as ice retreat proceeds, these become more
ice-distal in nature, until all accommodation is filled.
Sediments will then bypass the former valley and
find a different locus of deposition. This mechanism
might explain why relatively small tunnel valleys
are filled primarily with ice-proximal and subglacial
deposits, but in larger valleys, ice-proximal, ice-
distal and non-glaciogenic deposits can be found.
Conclusions and future perspectives
This review shows that pre-Pleistocene and Pleisto-
cene tunnel valleys are very similar and that
regional variations within one glaciation exceed
differences observed across time (cf. Fig. 4). The
most important controlling factors on their for-
mation appear to be the substrate character and
palaeo-glaciological parameters.
Because tunnel valleys are present globally and
throughout geological time, there should be a
common model that is applicable to the majority
of the cases. Many of the proposed ‘catastrophic’
formational models are very case-specific and
require special topographic relief or a frozen ice
margin. However, the quasi-steady-state model
with small meltwater outbursts at the ice margin is
applicable in most instances. Another important
trend observed is the general lack of tills in valleys,
together with an upwards-decreasing glacial influ-
ence in the majority of tunnel valleys. This, together
with the relationship with recessional landforms,
indicates that tunnel valleys are mostly formed
during still stand or retreat phases. Finally, it is con-
cluded that the scale of the tunnel valley influences
the infilling. Smaller valleys usually contain pre-
dominantly ice-proximal deposits, whereas large
valleys are more likely to be left partially underfilled
after glaciation. The precise nature of the deposits is
influenced by the development of the terrestrial,
lacustrine or marine environment.
Although significant progress has been made
concerning the understanding of the formation, infill-
ing mechanisms and resulting sedimentary architec-
ture of tunnel valleys, several outstanding questions
remain to be addressed. The most important remain-
ing question concerns genesis, where detailed
process knowledge is still lacking despite an increas-
ing understanding of the potentially important
mechanisms. The formation of tunnel valleys is pre-
dominantly associated with erosion. Preservation of
these events is therefore relatively poorly documen-
ted in the sedimentary record. To test the possible
range of formational processes, scaled physical
experiments and computer simulations are required
(c.f. Catania & Paola 2001). Targets for future
investigation are notably the possible dependence
on a frozen glacial margin, the difference between
marine and terrestrial ice sheet termination, the
presence of tributaries, tunnel valley morphology,
infilling and the nature of the associated proglacial
system. An extensive investigation of outcropping
tunnel valley sedimentary sequences is therefore
fundamentally important to improving the under-
standing and predictability of infill architecture
and heterogeneity. Special attention should thereby
be paid to regional-scale variability in the nature of
the sediments and tunnel valley morphology. More-
over, at the scale of hydrocarbon and groundwater
reservoirs, the integration of boreholes and geo-
physical data together with a detailed understanding
of dynamic fluid-flow behaviour should also be
pursued to unravel details of the internal sedimentary
architecture and permeability distribution. (e.g.
Jørgensen et al. 2010). The predictive capability
of the valley infill will be especially important
because of the great economic and social importance
associated with tunnel valleys.
This paper is a contribution to the Glaciogenic Reservoirs
Analogue Studies Project (GRASP). GRASP is a joint
industry research programme sponsored by BP, ENI,
GdF-Suez, Repsol, Shell, Total and Wintershall.
This paper would not have been possible without the
constructive discussions with J. Moreau, P. Gibbard and
M. Huuse. Their advice, knowledge and experience were
invaluable in improving earlier versions of the manuscript.
Careful reviews by M. Stewart and an anonymous reviewer
helped to improve the manuscript significantly. The
authors are grateful to A. Bitinas, F. Jørgensen, R. Lutz,
V. Zelčs, D. Nývlt and K. Foreste for sharing their maps
and work on tunnel valleys.
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