Statistics - refers to the science that deals with the collection, tabulation or presentation, analysis and

interpretation of numerical or quantitative data. The field of statistics may be divided into descriptive
and inferential statistics. descriptive concerns only on the data on hand, and do not attempt to
generalize.

inferential- use in prediction/inference for a larger group It aims to give information about large group
of data without dealing with each and every element of these group.

some terminologies used in statistics

Population - refers to totality of objects, individuals or reactions having a unique combination of

qualities

Sample- representative part of the population. It describes the characteristics of the population from
where it was taken.

Collection of data (two types of data to be collected)

1. Primary data - data collected from where they arise; refer

to information which are gathered directly from an original source or based on direct or first-hand
experience.

Ex: direct observation or measurement, interview, mail inquiry, autobiographies and diaries,
questionnaires,

2. Secondary data - data taken from published or unpublished which are previously gathered by other
individuals or agencies.

Ex: books, newspapers, magazines, business reports, etc.

Among the different descriptive tools are:

1. percentage + frequency distribution

2. ratios + ranking

3. measures of central tendency

4. measures of variability

5. Statistics of association

6. tables & graphs

2. Collection of Data

Types of Data: Primary data; Secondary data

Primary data - data collected from where they arise can be obtained from direct observation or
measurements, interview, mail inquiry and from the questionnaire.
Secondary data -data taken from a published source. This can be obtained from various sourus such as
published research; private and govt. agencies, scientific journals and statistical information published
on newspaper + magazine

Collection of Data

There are several techniques that may be used in

gathering statistical data. They are:

1. Interview method - person-to-person encounter between the one soliciting information (interviewer)
+ the one supplying the data (interviewee). The interview can be structured or unstructured

advantage: questions can be clarified for better understanding

disadvantage: time consuming

2. Questionnaire method - utilize questions to obtain information. It can be closed ended or open-
ended questionnaire.

3. Observation method - data pertaining to behaviors of individuals or group of individuals can be best
obtained by direct observation.

4. The use of documents - historical data, govt. records school and company records, text book and
published theses and journals are the best sources for data collection.

5. Experimentation - experimental researches obtain. or collect their data throng a series of

measurements.

Presentation of Data

Statistical data collected should be arranged in such a manner that will allow the reader to distinguish
their essential features. Data may be presented using one or a combination of three forms: textual,
tabular, graphical.

Textual or paragraph form

- It is utilized when the data to be presented are purely qualitative or when very few numbers are
involved.

Tabular form

- A more effective device of presenting data is by means of statistical tables. This method generally is
advised when there are many figures involved. A statistical table has four essential parts, table heading,
body, stub + column caption or boxheads
Graphical or Pictorial

a) line graph

b) bar graph

i. vertical bar graph

ii. horizontal bar graph

iii. multiple vertical bar graph multiple horizontal bar graph

c) Pie chart

d) Pictograph

e) Statistical maps.

Sampling Techniques

Population- the totality of all the actual or concern able objects of a certain class under consideration It
is a complete set of individuals, objects or measurements having some common observable
characteristics.

Investigations are frequently conducted w/ the principal objectives of gathering facts on a given
population. Collection of facts on every unit of the population is called a of the times collecting data on
census. But most every unit of the population is impossible, impractical and time consuming. In this case
a sampling procedure is employed.

sample - fraction or segment of the population that has all the characteristics of that population, here it
can be used to represent the entire population.

Determination of sample size

A sample side formula can be determined using slovin's (1960)

n = №/₁+ N₂² = sample size

N = population size

e = desired margin of error

Error is the percentage allowance for non-precision since a sample is used instead of a population

Ex. Suppose the population has a size of 1000. what would be the size of the sample using 0.05 margin
of error.

n= 4. Nez 1000 1+ 1000 (105) = 285.7 or 286

Two kinds of sampling 1. probability sampling & non-probability sampling

1. Probability sampling - derived from probability distribution wherein all elements in the population
have an equal chance of being selected

different types of probability sampling

1) simple random sampling

2) systematic sampling w/ random start

3) stratified random sampling

4) cluster sampling

6) multi stage sampling

a) Simple Random Sampling- the best known. most commonly used probability sampling.

Weiorma (1975) defines as a method of selecting a sample from a universe where each member of the
population has an equal of chance of being included as a sample. Because of this feature it is considered
as the best procedure.

Lottery Method - this method is known as fishbowl technique + applicable in finite population.

Procedure: Construct the population frame + assign randomly a number to each participant. Write the
numbers of all the participants in a same size piece at paper. Draw the desired no. of samples.

Note: The researcher may draw piece of paper. or may not return the

It is preferable to return the paper drawn.

The wise of the Table of Random numbers. Table of Random Numbers

1. Construct the population frame and assign a number to each participant randomly

use the table of random numbers by closing one's eyes and randomly pointing a number.

3. Move in a systematic way, upward and downward or in horizontal manner choosing numbers of the
parti: pant of the sample.

4. Stop when the desired number for the sample has been obtained.

b. Systematic Sampling w) Random Start - every kb unit of the population will become the sample.

Steps in using table of random numbers 1. Construct the population frame and assign

a number to each participant randomly & uses the table of random numbers by closing one's eyes and
randomly pointing a number.

1. Move in a systematic way, upward and downward horizontal manner choosing numbers of the parti
part of the sample. stop when the desired number for the sample has been obtained.

b. Systematic Sampling with Random Start -every ktb unit of the population will become the sample.

c. Stratified sampling

-population is or strata subdivided into subpopulation

- spies from each stratum are selected, by random or systematic proportional to the size.
d. Cluster Sampling - popn is grouped into clusters of similar units

- mostly used in simple surveys

e) 10 Multi-Stage Sampling - commonly used when no detailed or accurate listing of units of the
population are available.

-the population is grouped into hierarchy of units.

NON- RROBABILITY SAMPLING

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- Opposite of probability sampling - random sampling (lesser chance of obtaining a representative sple.

Type of non-probability sampling 1) accidental or convenience sampling

2) purposive or judgement sampling *) quota sampling

1 Accidental or convenience - based on the

convenience of the researcher

two types Snow balling, network sampling a) snow balling - subjects suggest other subjects to the
researcher. -Sampling process gains momentum like snowballs down a hill -

weed when subjects are difficult to identity because they are hidden.

Ex: transexual woman who had abortion

b. network sampling- weld in socially devalued urban pop’n Like addicts, alcoholics, child abusers,
criminal because they are usually hidden from outsiders.

2. Purposive or "idgement sampling - deliberate sampling -samples were chosen based on certain
criteria or purpose set on a particular study. In this type of sampling the researcher cannot infer the
characteristics of the pop‘n but may interpret data only for sample.

3.Quota sampling- oftentimes used for infinite pop’n and therefore is not a random sple Like the
purposive sple is not a representative spic.

Ex: A researcher wants to make a study the cars that will pass on a particular bridge

The cans that will pass the bridge is definitely an infinite popn.

In this case a quota sample may be used and the first 100⁰ or 200 cars considered as sample.

Desirable characteristics of samples to be collected

1. Validity

a) sensitivity

b) specificity

2. Objectivity
3. Precision, repeatability, reliability

4. Practicability

Possible sources of variability of data 1) Biological variation.

a) Desirable characteristics of samples to be collected

1. Validity

a) sensitivity

b) specificity

2. Objectivity

3. Precision, repeatability, reliability

4. Practicability

Possible sources of variability of data 1) Biological variation.

a interindividual variation - diff. bet. people b) intraindividual variation

2. Experimental Errors

a) measuring device

b) observer

L. inter-observerivariation - lack of objectivity of the test.

il. intra-observer variation lack of both objectivity + observer consistency in reporting result.
interindividual variation - diff. bet. people

b) intraindividual variation

2. Experimental Errors

a) measuring device

b) observer

i. inter-observer variation - lack of objectivity of the test.

il. intra-observer variation lack of both objectivity + observer consistency in reporting result.