Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 324–342

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

HCNG fueled spark-ignition (SI) engine with its effects on performance and MARK
emissions
⁎
Hayder A. Alrazena,b, , K.A. Ahmada
a
Department of Aerospace Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
b
Technical Institute/Qurna, Southern Technical University, Qurna, Basra, Iraq

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The usage of natural gas in internal combustion engines involves various difficulties, like weak lean-burn ability,
Diesel low flame speed and ignitability, which demand deep studies for its usage in IC engines. For compressed natural
Natural gas gas (CNG) in SI engines, there is an engine efficiency sacrifice at low loads and high levels of hydrocarbon (HC)
Hydrogen and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions which cannot be solved without using after-treatment equipment. This
Alternative fuel
equipment, however, is very expensive. Therefore, an additional fuel can enhance the characteristics of the
HCNG
combustion of natural gas, which can be added in the intake charge. Hydrogen is an effective gas for enhancing
Performance
Emissions the flame rate regarding combustion in an SI-CNG engine, in addition to increasing engine stability. Small
amounts of hydrogen improve performance and reduce exhaust emissions. Thus, a number of investigators have
carried out research studies on SI engines with different ratios of HCNG. This paper is comprehensive overview
of CNG, H2 and HCNG blends. The main topics discussed consist of the combustion fundamentals of natural gas,
hydrogen and hydrogen-natural gas mixture. Natural gas and hydrogen usage as fuels and their characteristics
have been analysed. The storage of hydrogen and HCNG is still challenging researchers and, therefore, their
storage has been taken into consideration. Moreover, a comprehensive review has been performed of HCNG
blends in order to understand the effect of hydrogen enriched CNG on performance and the emissions of SI
engines. The combustion characteristics of HCNG engines are strongly dependent on the conditions of the en-
gine. The air-fuel ratio, the time of injection, the compression ratio and speed play a major role in blending
HCNG in an SI engine and have been discussed in this article.

1. Introduction
The world is facing various issues in the 21st century. Some of the
most important of these are the decreasing availability of low-cost
sources of fuel, the growth of the population of the world, and the
growth of energy demand in all sectors of industry. Fossil fuels, like
coal, diesel, and gasoline, are depleting at a fast pace. Moreover, they
pollute the environment and thus are not regarded as sustainable and
permanent solutions to the world's energy requirements [1]. Further-
more, any shortage in these types of energy sources might result in the
fluctuation of oil prices and is regarded as a threat to the energy se-
curity of the world and the global economy [2]. With the global in-
crease of fossil fuel usage, the quality of local air deteriorates and the
amount of greenhouse gas (GHG) emission increases. Transportation
(marine, air, road, etc.) encompasses 33% of the USA's emission; of
which more than one third are from road transport. Power stations are
responsible for 41% of the emissions in the USA, agriculture and in-
dustry emit 16% and the remaining 10% is emitted by other sources
[3].
Employing NG as a substitute fuel is one of the solutions that has
been accepted and has spread throughout the world. NG, whose main
constituent is methane, provides great environmental and economic
advantages like lower emissions, along with enhanced availability and
efficiency. The use of natural gas in internal combustion engines in-
volves various difficulties like methane's ignitability, poor lean-burn
capability and low flame speed [4]. Based on past research studies,
hydrogen is a green fuel that can be used in vehicles as an alternative to
conventional fuel [5,6]. Compared to compression ignition (CI)

Abbreviations: A/F, Air fuel ratio; CAD, Crank angle degree; TDC, Top dead center; ATDC, After top dead center; SI, Spark ignition engines; CI, compression ignition; IC, Internal
combustion; CNG, Compressed natural gas; NGVs, Natural gas vehicles; LPG, Liquefied petroleum gas; CO, Carbon monoxide; CO2, Carbon dioxide; HC, Hydrocarbons; PM, Particulate
matter; NOx, Nitrogen oxides; BTE, Brake thermal efficiency; LHV, Lower heat value; BMEP, Brake mean effective pressure; HRR, Heat Release Rate; SOC, Start of combustion; CR,
Compression ratio; CA, Crank angle; EGR, Exhaust gas recirculation; λ, Exceed air (1/4 air-fuel ratio); η, Molar fraction of methane
⁎
Corresponding author at: Technical Institute/Qurna, Southern Technical University, Qurna, Basra, Iraq.
E-mail address: hayderalrazen@yahoo.com (H.A. Alrazen).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.09.035
Received 4 July 2016; Received in revised form 14 June 2017; Accepted 14 September 2017
1364-0321/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
H.A. Alrazen, K.A. Ahmad
Table 1
Air pollutants, their sources and health effects [36].
Pollutants Source/formation
Carbon monoxide (CO) IC engine, industries and waste incineration
Hydrocarbon (HC) Evaporative emissions from vehicle fuel system, or in exhaust
emissions
PM and soot IC engine (e.g., cars and trucks) and Industry
engines, SI engines are more appropriate for adopting hydrogen since
hydrogen's auto ignition temperature is rather high (around 858 K [7])
[8–12]. Hydrogen has various combustion characteristics that are un-
ique and beneficial in emission performance and engine efficiency
[13,14].
Mixing hydrogen with natural gas is one of the most effective ways
of handling this issue since the burning velocity of the mixture is sub-
stantially high, the ignition energy is low, and the lean-burn capability
is satisfactory. There is a rise of interest in the research on pollutant
emissions and the performance of the hydrogen-enriched, CNG-fueled,
conventional internal combustion engine [13,15,16]. These studies in-
dicate that mixing hydrogen with natural gas enhances the combustion
stability and reduces the hydrocarbon emissions; however, it results in
the production of more nitrogen oxides (NOx). The impact of different
CNG-hydrogen blend combustions on the combustion traits in direct-
injection SI engines has also been examined by different researchers
[13,15,17,18]. These studies have proposed an optimum hydrogen
volumetric fraction CNG-hydrogen blend that results in a balanced
compromise in the emission and performance of the engine. It is ex-
pected that natural gas combustion with hydrogen will enhance the
lean-burn traits and reduce the engine emissions (particularly CO, HC,
and CO2); however, the main concern is the possibility of a rise in NOx
emissions [19]. The addition of hydrogen enhances the process of
combustion with the added possibility of developing engines that have
a lower environmental effect and higher performance. Hydrogen is
entirely carbon-free and can be produced with relative ease; these are
characteristics that make it a good alternative choice to conventional
fuel. But, there are some disadvantages in using pure hydrogen, like the
low calorific value per unit volume, the high adiabatic flame tem-
perature, and pre-ignition phenomena caused by contact with the re-
sidual gas or the hot spots resulting from lower ignition energy [20–22].
Employing NG/hydrogen mixtures which contain H2 provides an op-
portunity to exploit the positive aspects of using hydrogen without the
considerable alteration of the natural gas engines that already exist
[23]. Moreover, employing hydrogen as an element that complements
natural gas results in the extension of the lean-burn limit to the hy-
drogen's extended flammability range. Lean-burn ability decreases the
knock coincidence (a serious condition which is threatening to spark
ignition (SI) engine's safe performance), enhances the thermal effi-
ciency, and decreases the combustion temperature and the emission of
NOx [24,25]. Hydrogen's anti-knock characteristic enables it to enhance
the compression ratio (CR), which results in the further enhancement of
thermal efficiency [25]. Adding hydrogen can also result in a significant
decrease of IMEP (the coefficient of the indicated mean effective pres-
sure variation) and reduces the duration of combustion leading to
better thermal efficiency and a decrease in fuel consumption [26,27].
In this article, past studies examining hydrogen-enriched CNG as a
fuel used in a reciprocating spark-ignited (SI) piston engine have been
reviewed in detail. There are several review papers on this subject.
Several reviews have discussed the effect of natural gas on SI engines
and CI engines in dual-fueling [28–34]. The effect of hydrogen on SI
engines and on CI dual fuel engines was reviewed by several others
[1,34–41]. For hydrogen-enriched CNG, a few papers [26,42–44] con-
tained short discussions about its influence on the performance and
emissions of the engine, with their main focus being on other topics.
325
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 324–342
Human health effects
When inhaled CO enters the bloodstream and disrupts the supply of oxygen to the
body's tissues.
Exposure can cause headaches or nausea, while some compounds may cause cancer.
Long term exposure may cause to lung cancer, heart disease, and asthma attacks.
Some of them focused on the effect of HCNG on diesel engines only. In
the present work, there is firstly a discussion of the necessity for al-
ternative fuels with regards to the current state of pollution and fossil
fuel reserves. How natural gas is implemented in IC engines and its
economic aspects are then discussed. Hydrogen fuels in an IC engine, its
production and its storage are presented in a sub-section of this paper.
In the main section of the article, using hydrogen and natural gas blends
in an SI engine are considered, as well as the effect of HCNG on the
engine performance, combustion and emission characteristics. Lastly,
the overall conclusions and future recommendations are presented.
2. The usage of alternative fuels in an SI engine
Harmful emissions (like PM, soot, NOx, HC and CO) are emitted by
fossil fueled (like LPG, CNG, diesel, and gasoline) vehicles. These
emissions eventually become part of the environment and pollute the
earth's atmosphere. During combustion, CO and CO2 are emitted from
the carbon that existed in the fuel. CO2 and water vapour are formed as
a result of a perfect combustion which is illustrated by Eq. (1). How-
ever, in the actual combustion, other species (like N2O, NO2, NO, HC,
CO) are generated, as shown in Eq. (2). These pollutants are generated
by various sources; however, transportation vehicles contribute the
most. Human health is affected by the increase of pollutants in the
environment [36]. Table 1 illustrates various pollutants and their
health impact.
Cx Hy + a (O2+3.76N2) → bCO2 + cH2 O + a×3.76N2 (1)
Cx Hy + a (O2+3.76N2) → bCO2 + cH2 O + dCO + eCx Hy + fNO + gN2 O
+ a×3.76N2 (2)
The level of pollution in urban areas can be controlled through the
use of hybrid vehicles, battery-operated vehicles, and fuel change. Zero
emission is produced by battery-operated vehicles on the road.
However, a number of factors contribute to the limited use of electric
vehicles, e.g. the short travel range, the lower battery life, and the lower
ratio of power to weight. Hybrid technology can be regarded as inter-
mediate to fuel change and battery mode. It needs a battery and a
traditional power train, resulting in higher maintenance and capital
expense. After observing road transportation vehicles’ future needs, fuel
change seems like a more convenient solution [36]. Alternatively,
biofuels, hydrogen and CNG can fuel IC engines. High emissions, such
as nitric oxides, carbon dioxide, hydrocarbons, and carbon monoxide,
are produced from engines operated using petroleum, and this problem
is still a challenge to researchers [45]. Alternative fuel is one of the new
technologies used to reduce emissions in CI engines. Natural gas, pro-
pane, and methanol have been used since the year 2000 as alternative
fuels for vehicles [6]. Due to their clean burning nature and their ever-
increasing usage in the automobile industry, alternative fuels might be
termed as future fuels. Hydrogen, natural gas and mixtures of natural
gas and hydrogen have been taken into consideration as alternative
fuels in recent years in order to reduce the pollution from vehicles
[14,46].
H.A. Alrazen, K.A. Ahmad Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 324–342

Table 2 From then onwards, with technological advancements, natural gas ve-
Properties of hydrogen, methane, propane and gasoline at NTP [48–51]. hicles entered the transportation market of various regions or countries
and exited it at various times. NGVs with dedicated CNG engines ori-
Properties Hydrogen Methane Propane Gasoline
ginate from Italy. The initial gas vehicles that utilised a gas container
Thermodynamic properties were manufactured in 1936 in Italy [53]. However, the period with
Chemical formula H2 CH4 C3H8 C7.6 H16.2 marked notable activity is the 1970s, when CNG was found to be a
Molecular weight (a.m.u.) 2.016 16.04 44.09 107.0
stable and cheap fuel following the oil crisis.
Density at NTP (kg/m3) 0.0824 0.643 1.767 730
LHV (MJ/kg) 120 50 46.3 44.8
LHV (MJ/m3) 9.9 32.6 81.2 32,704
Heat of combustion (MJ/kgair) 3.48 2.90 3.14 3.05 3.2. CNG economics
Specific heat (Cp) at NTP gas 14.89 2.22 – 1.62
(MJ/kg K)
Providing an affordable source of energy is among the main ad-
Specific heat ratio (γ) at NTP 1.383 1.308 – 1.05
gas vantages of CNG. The low-cost CNG provides a glimmer of hope amid
Diffusion co-efficient in air at 0.61 0.16 0.1 0.005 continuous consumption of costly fuel like gasoline and diesel. Even
NTP (cm2/s) though the main reason for the use of CNG in road transportation,
Viscosity of gas at NTP (10-3 g/ 0.0875 0.110 – 0.052
particularly in big cities, was its emission control and environmental
cm s)
Combustion properties aspects, today, with the sharp increase in oil prices, the economic ad-
Flammability limits (vol% in 4–75 4.3–15 2.2–9.3 1.4–7.6 vantage of CNG usage is becoming more evident and attracts the at-
air) tention of new users [54]. In most of the countries in the world, CNG
Flammability limits 0.1–7.1 – – 0.7–3.8 costs much less than diesel and gasoline (per gallon equivalent) even
Minimum ignition energy (mJ) 0.02 0.29 0.3 0.24
when taking the compression costs into account. Thus, despite having a
Auto ignition temperature (°C) 585 540 495 228–470
Flame velocity (m/s) 2.65–3.25 0.37–0.45 0.42–0.48 0.37–0.43 lower thermal efficiency than gasoline and diesel, CNG usage as a
Quenching distance (mm) 0.64 2.1 2.0 2.0 transportation fuel has substantial economic advantages. Natural gas
Stoichiometric composition in 29.53 9.48 4.03 1.76 needs to be slightly processed from the production field to the vehicle to
air (vol%)
become appropriate for transportation fuel usage, whereas gasoline and
Stoichiometric air-fuel ratio 34.12 17.23 14.75 14.7
(mass bacis)
diesel need to be separated from crude oil and undergo an intricate
Adiabatic flame temperature 2318 2148 2267 2470 refining process. Moreover, CNG resource is more evenly distributed
with air (K) throughout the world in comparison to oil and it has lower vulnerability
to price fluctuation [55]. The natural gas price advantage over gasoline
and diesel has been regarded as the most significant factor in attracting
3. Natural gas consumers and encouraging the change from traditional fuel to CNG
[56–60].
3.1. CNG Used as a fuel Retail prices in the top 15 CNG user countries during the 2011–2012
fiscal year have been compared and illustrated in US Dollars in Table 3.
Natural gas vehicle usage is the same as is employed for heating and It can be seen that the pumping price of CNG is 50% lower than the
cooking in the domestic sector [47]. To produce CNG, natural gas diesel and gasoline price on average in the majority of countries with
(which is mostly made up of methane –CH4) is compressed to below 1% successful NGV penetration. The rapid pace with which the numbers of
of the volume it occupies at standard atmospheric pressure. A rigid CNG vehicles have increased in the past decade, particularly in the
container with 200–248 bar (2900–3600 psi) pressure is used for Asia-Pacific area, is mostly due to the lower price of CNG compared to
storing and distributing it; this is often in the form of a metallic cy- gasoline and diesel [28]. The economic metrics for running a vehicle on
linder. The physiochemical properties of gasoline, propane and hy- CNG, as opposed to operating it on diesel or petrol, have been calcu-
drogen are compared with those of CNG (CH4) in Table 2. lated based on the 2011–2012 fiscal year's average global fuel price.
The number of natural gas vehicles in the world is increasing at a The results of these calculations are illustrated in Fig. 3 and Table 4.
fast pace, which is why consistent information on their quantity is not Based on the reports of the US Department of Energy's Alternative
available. But, based on the latest authentic sources, Iran is (currently) Fuel Comparison for Jan-Mar 2011, CNG was one-third less expensive
the leader in NGVs with as many as 4.07 million [28,52]. China follows in comparison to gasoline. According to the U.S. Energy Information
Iran closely with 3.99 million NGVs. Based on Fig. 1, the NGV popu- Agency's reports, CNG costs 42% less on average in comparison to
lation has rapidly increased globally, with a 24% annual growth rate. diesel (on an energy equivalent basis); it is expected to reach 50% by
The Latin American and Asia-Pacific regions were the biggest con- 2035. In a similar vein, the Republic Services, which is the USA's second
tributors (see Fig. 2). This trend is expected to continue until 2030 with largest waste management services company, has managed to reduce its
a 3.7% annual growth rate, and non-OECD countries are expected to fuel cost by 50% with the effective deployment of CNG across various
contribute the greatest portion of the growth. Currently, over 18 million fleets [61]. In recent years, the US Department of Energy has carried
natural-gas vehicles are functioning in over 86 countries worldwide, out a survey on the subject of “alternative transportation fuels” and has
with the majority being concentrated in Iran, China, Pakistan, Argen- discovered that using CNG, instead of conventional gasoline as the fuel
tina, India, Brazil, Italy and Colombia [52]. Most (93%) of the CNG of the transportation fleet, will result in a 50% cost reduction [28]. A
vehicles are commercial vehicles and light-duty cars. The number of comparative assessment of the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit
CNG refueling stations in the world is 26,677 [28]. Authority (WMATA) operated transit buses’ emissions was conducted
Early in 1930, CNG was used as a vehicular fuel in Italy for the first by the USA's NREL (National Renewable Energy competition) in 2004.
time [53]. However, notable activity began in the 1970s when natural The results of the study showed that besides the CNG buses’ emission
gas was regarded as a potential fuel as a result of the oil crisis after- benefits, CNG buses had remarkable fuel economy outputs in compar-
math. The CNG vehicle market attracted further attention after the rise ison to diesel buses [62]. Clear strategies have been explicitly estab-
in oil prices in the late 1970s and early 1980s. But the years up until lished to ban the usage of diesel in city buses (for instance in India) or to
2000 have been a challenging period for CNG to be established as a preserve CNG's cost benefits compared to diesel (for instance in Paki-
vehicle fuel [28]. However, with the sharp increase in oil prices after stan) in the areas within which the government plans to replace diesel
the 2000s, the CNG vehicle market became more attractive as CNG with CNG [63–69].
received the chance to prove itself as the cleanest and cheapest fuel.

326
H.A. Alrazen, K.A. Ahmad Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 324–342

Fig. 1. Worldwide NGVs growth [28].

Fig. 2. Worldwide NGVs growth by region [31].

Fig. 3. Cost advantage of CNG fuel over gasoline and diesel [28].
Table 3
Retail fuel prices (US $) in top 15 CNG user countries [28].
Table 4
Rank Country Gasoline Diesel CNG per liter CNG per liter
Cost comparison of CNG vs other fuel [28].
gasoline Diesel
equivalent equivalent
Description CNG Gasoline Diesel
1 Iran 0.42 0.17 0.30 0.34
Vehicle type Bus Bus Bus
2 Pakistan 1.02 0.79 0.72 0.80
km travelled per annum per vehicle 80,000 80,000 80,000
3 Argentina 1.44 1.44 0.33 0.39
Total annual consumption of fuel in liters (consider 36,184 39,400 32,000
4 Brazil 1.72 1.11 0.92 1.05
unit of ‘Nm3’ in case of CNG)
5 China 1.05 0.98 0.56 0.63
Retail fuel price per liter US $ (consider unit of 0.52 1.02 0.92
6 India 1.38 0.85 0.60 0.69
‘Nm3’ in case of CNG)
7 Italy 2.03 1.85 0.85 0.95
Annual fuel cost (US $) 18,816 40,188 29,440
8 Colombia 1.31 0.96 0.80 0.92
% Fuel cost saving CNG vs gasoline 113%
9 Uzbekistan 1.03 0.98 0.30 0.34
% Fuel cost saving CNG vs diesel 57%
10 Thailand 1.25 1.06 0.27 0.32
11 Bolivia 0.83 0.66 0.30 0.29
12 USA 1.02 1.12 0.60 0.68
13 Armenia 1.31 1.19 0.49 0.56 like carbon dioxide (CO2) and molecular nitrogen (N2) [14]. Table 5
14 Bangladesh 0.79 0.56 0.27 0.29 shows the average natural gas composition in different countries. NG
15 Egypt 0.33 0.20 0.07 0.09 also contains other hydrocarbon species and sulphur compounds. The
Average 1.13 0.93 0.49 0.56
level of these species is greatly influenced by the time of year, the
geographical source, and the treatment used during the transportation
3.3. Natural gas composition and production stages [32,70–73]. Thus, it can be said that NG does not
have a narrow range of traits nor does it refer to a single kind of fuel.
Natural gas is composed of deferent hydrocarbon molecules. The Fig. 4 shows the common composition of NG in percentage terms.
composition of commercial natural-gas differs from 85% methane to In comparison to traditional liquid fuels like gasoline and diesel, NG
96%. In addition, NG is comprised of heavier hydrocarbons like ethane can be described as a clean-burning fuel. Its high level of octane makes
(C2H6), propane (C3H8) and butane (C4H10) along with inert diluents it an appropriate choice for engines whose compression ratios are

327
H.A. Alrazen, K.A. Ahmad Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 324–342

Table 5
Average natural gas composition in different countries.

No. Composition Formula Mole Mole Mole Mole Mole Mole Mole
% % % % % % %

1 Methane CH4 92.69 82.2 94 94.42 80.00 76.4 99.5

2 Nitrogen N2 2.18 7.7 0 0.44 0 1.8 0
3 Carbon CO2 0.52 0.2 1 0.57 19.05 13.4 0
Dioxide
4 Ethane C2H6 3.43 6.1 4 2.29 0 6.3 0.3
5 Propane C3H8 0.71 2.4 1 0.03 0 2.1 0
6 Isobutene I-C4H10 0.12 1 0 0 0 0 0
7 n-butane N-C4H10 0.15 0.4 0 0.25 0 0 0
8 n-pentane C-C5H12 0.09 0 0 0 0 0 0
9 Hexane C6H14 0.11 0 0 0 0 0 0
10 Others H2 O 0 0 0 2 0 0 0
11 oxygen O2 0 0 0 0 0.95 0 0
Sum 100 100 100 100 100 100 99.8
Country Nigeria [74] India [75] U.A.E. [76] Malaysia [77] China [78] Thailand [79] Norway [80]

discovered hydrogen in 1766 in England and Lavoisier named the atom

[88]. Hydrogen is one of the crucial elements of water and more than
60% of the surface of the earth is covered in it. Hydrogen can be found
in hydrocarbons and fossil fuels (like propane, natural gas and me-
thanol), and in biomass, organic compounds, and water [46,89].
However, hydrogen in its elemental form is not naturally available. In
normal pressure and temperature conditions, hydrogen is a flammable
gas that is tasteless, odourless, and colourless.

4.1. Hydrogen production

Various sources and methods can be used for manufacturing hy-

Fig. 4. Typical natural gas composition by volume.
relatively high. The self-ignition temperature of NG is high, which
therefore enables combustion needing an intense energy source like
pilot liquid fuel, a spark plug or a glow plug. It can be mixed with air at
a fast pace and creates a homogenous air fuel mixture inside the en-
gine's cylinder for efficient combustion and significant decrease of
harmful emissions [31,47,81]. Some of the available studies in the lit-
erature have examined the use of NG in CI and SI engines. By making a
comparison between the emissions of diesel and NG engines, it was
discovered that the emission of particulate matter (PM), nitrogen oxides
(NOx), and hydrocarbon (THC) from SI engines fueled with NG is
substantially less than from the engines fueled with diesel. Moreover,
based on the results of another research study, SI engines fueled with
NG have the potential to successfully reduce their emission of non-
methane hydrocarbon, carbon monoxide (CO), CO2 and NOx whereas
gasoline engines lack this capability [82–86]. The number of NG ve-
hicles is consistently growing, with old vehicles being converted to
natural gas using an engine modification. Around 15.2 million vehicles
are powered by NG throughout the world. Natural gas vehicles (NGVs)
that are fueled with CNG are suitable for high-mileage, centrally-fueled
vehicles that work in a limited region [87]. The physiochemical char-
acteristics of gasoline, propane and hydrogen are compared with those
of CNG (CH4) in Table 2.
drogen gas. Due to the lightness of the hydrogen molecules, the grav-
itational forces of the Earth have difficulty in retaining hydrogen gas
within the atmosphere. This is why hydrogen can only be found in
compound with other elements, e.g. several types of organic material,
various types of hydride, hydrocarbons, and water. Thus, to use hy-
drogen as a fuel, it has to be manufactured and produced from other
materials that contain hydrogen like biomass, water, fossil fuels or
other biological sources. Hydrogen has been manufactured and em-
ployed for industrial usage for many years. Currently, approximately
90% (45 billion kg) of hydrogen is produced from fossil fuels [90–93].
Direct production of hydrogen from fossil fuels is possible through
using processes such as coal gasification (CG), partial oxidation (POX),
thermo-cracking (TC), and methane reforming (SMR). Thermochemical
and biochemical processes are the main ways of manufacturing hy-
drogen from biomass. Moreover, hydrogen can be manufactured
through photo-biological processes, water thermolysis (WT) (also
known as thermochemical water splitting), photoelectrolysis (PHE) or
photolysis (also known as photocatalytic water splitting or photoelec-
tron chemical), and dissociating water with electrolysis (HE) [1].
The storage and production of hydrogen gas have been issues which
prevent adoption of hydrogen thus far. Currently processes used to
produce hydrogen require high energy typically coming from conven-
tional fuels, negating the environmental benefits of the otherwise pol-
lution-free fuel and carbon-free.
4.2. Hydrogen storage

4. Hydrogen
Hydrogen (H) is the lightest of all the elements with an atomic
weight of 1.00794 a.m.u. and an atomic number of Z = 1. The name
hydrogen was made by combining two Greek words - “hydro” and
“geinomai” - with the former meaning ‘water’ and the latter meaning ‘to
bring forth’ as in “the element that brings forth water”. Cavendish
Prior to any potential usage, the issue of a cheap system for storing
hydrogen, which is both efficient and safe, remains a major problem.
Moreover, risks of leaks or explosions and expensive tanks are prevent
on face of storing hydrogen as liquid or compressed gas because they
require extremely high pressures. It would be regrettable if this problem
were to hinder the creation of a clean, renewable energy system, which
is necessary for the safe survival of animals, plants and human beings in
the long-run [94]. At 293 K temperature and 20 MPa pressure, gaseous

328
H.A. Alrazen, K.A. Ahmad
Table 6
Comparison of on-board hydrogen storage [92].
Fuel Total Energy (MJ)
5 gal. gasoline 662
Liquid hydrogen (20 k) 662
1.2 wt% H2 stored in FeTi metal hydride 662
Compressed hydrogen (207–690 bar) 662
hydrogen has a density which is five-times lower than the density of
liquid hydrogen [95–103]. Therefore, compared to liquid hydrogen, a
tank with approximately 5.5 times greater volume is required [94].
Different onboard options of hydrogen storage have been summarised
in terms of the weight requirements in Table 6 (It has to be noted that
5 gal. of the gasoline was used as a reference. With this amount, a ve-
hicle can drive up to 300 miles distance).
5. Using of CNG and H2 blend in SI engine
5.1. CNG/hydrogen mixtures
Hydrogen can be employed as a fuel in various ways; it can be
employed as an only fuel in the presence of air or as an addition in a
mixture of hydrocarbon. If hydrogen is to be introduced commercially,
it can be employed in hydrocarbon mixtures at low density and with a
minimum need for adaptations and adjustments in IC engines
[104–111]. The enrichment of hydrogen in fuel made of hydrocarbons
is encouraged as a strategy to boost the performance, along with en-
hancing the emissions, of combustion engines. Similarly, a number of
researchers have tested the performance of SI engines using H2-CNG
[112,114,115] and H2-gasoline fuels [112,113]. Moreover, these in-
vestigators have reported that hydrogen is a good choice for enhancing
performance in SI engines. This is due to the increase in the ratio of the
hydrocarbon in the fuel and this reduces the duration of combustion.
This is because hydrogen has a high flame speed compared to other
fuels [116,117].
Even though NG mainly consists of methane, the precise composi-
tion differs regionally and seasonably. Instead of NG, pure methane
(with 99.5% purity) was employed to ensure comparability. Three
variations of premixed-fuels were employed which are methane with
25 vol% hydrogen, CH4 with 15 vol% H2, and CH4. Methane-hydrogen
mixtures, and the stoichiometric and calorific properties are illustrated
in Fig. 5. The LHV per volume of stoichiometrically mixed fresh gas is
quantified by the heating value of the stoichiometric intake mixture
[18]. The higher is this amount, the greater is the chemical energy that
can be delivered to the PFI engine that is naturally aspirated in WOT
circumstances. Pure hydrogen's stoichiometric intake mixture heating
value is reduced by approximately 6% in comparison to pure methane.
By comparison, with the addition of 15 or 25 vol% H2 to CH4, the
heating value of the stoichiometric intake mixture reduces by just 0.3%
and 0.6%, respectively [18]. This creates the expected result, which is
that the WOT torque is not significantly affected by the addition of
relatively small amounts of hydrogen.
Fig. 5. Calorific and stoichiometric properties of methane-hydrogen mixtures [18].
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 324–342
Fuel Weight (kg) Tank Weight (kg) Total Fuel System Weight (kg) Volume (gal.)
14 6.4 20.4 5
4.7 18.6 23.3 47
4.7 549.3 554 50
4.7 63.6–86.3 68.3–91 108–60
5.2. Onboard HCNG storage
Storing hydrogen in high-strength steel tanks involves the issue of
hydrogen embrittlement, where the crystal structure of the steel is pe-
netrated by the hydrogen atoms resulting in elasticity deterioration
[118]. With the increase of hydrogen's partial pressure and steel alloy's
strength yield, this condition becomes more notable. High-carbon steels
are especially susceptible. Therefore in high-strength steel tanks, which
are generally employed in the low-cost storage of CNG at the 250 bar
standard pressure on board vehicles, a high density of hydrogen must
not be permitted. Even though hydrogen embrittlement can be achieved
with HCNG, the hydrogen partial pressure is lower than that of pure
hydrogen. For instance, the hydrogen partial pressure will be only 7.5
in a 30% HCNG mixture in a 250-bar storage tank. HCNG-converted
F150 trucks were demonstrated in a long-term exhibition carried out by
the Arizona Public Service Company. OEM fibre-reinforced 4130 steel
was used as the storage tank. A destructive test was conducted on these
tanks after they finished 1 year of service in which no trace of hydrogen
embrittlement could be found [119,120]. If the objective is to com-
pletely remove the risk of hydrogen embrittlement, aluminum and
composite construction tanks must be alternatively employed since they
are not susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement. Composite tanks also
have the advantage of being lighter; however, their cost is almost twice
as much as their high-strength steel counterparts. With the current
developments in materials and the increasing volumes across the hy-
drogen and CNG markets, their price is decreasing. Based on successful
field experiences, it is possible for all other parts - like engine fuel
systems, regulators, valves, sensors, and plumbing - to be identical to
the generally used standard of CNG 250 bar [120].
5.3. Effects of HCNG on the combustion of SI engines
5.3.1. In cylinder pressure
In cylinder pressure has been measured with some parameters by
Luigi et al. [23]. Their study was tested with two blends of NG/H2 with
respect to the NG case. For H2, a shorter combustion results in a higher
pressure rise (Bar/CAD). The H2 content will lead to a decreased in-
cubation time and main combustion duration. For NG/H2 20%, the
main combustion was up to 5% shorter. Moreover, for NG/H2 40%, it
was about 10–15% shorter. As such, for NG/H2 40%, a 30–40% higher
maximum rate of pressure rise was measured; and with NG/H2 20%,
there was a 5–15% higher rise. It is evident that there is a peak pressure
increase and it switches from NG to NG/H2 40% as a result of the partly
faster heat release [23]. Hora and Agarwal [119] carried out work at
different BMEP for baseline CNG and HCNG mixtures. Their outcomes
showed that an increase in BMEP will result in a peak cylinder pressure
increase. The peak cylinder pressure will be increased by a higher fuel
quantity generated at a higher engine load. The crank angle position
matches the peak pressure for a given fuel. It shifts towards TDC, as a
result of the decreased combustion duration with an increase in BMEP.
This improved fuel use, therefore, leads to a BTE increase. With an
increase in the hydrogen percentage in the HCNG, the peak cylinder
pressure shifts towards TDC at a given BMEP. This is as a result of the
higher flame speeds with HCNG, which makes the combustion duration
shorter and results in the comparatively earlier start of combustion
(SOC). At the same BMEP, a rather higher peak cylinder pressure is
329
H.A. Alrazen, K.A. Ahmad
Fig. 6. Peak cylinder pressure vs. engine speed and equivalence ratio [15]. (b) Methane-
hydrogen (a) Gasoline-hydrogen.
delivered by HCNG [121]. On the other hand, if the hydrogen content
in HCNG increases, the knock's tendency would increase due to an in-
crease in the rate of burning. Untypical combustion features, such as
knocking, backfire or pre-ignition, can be caused by the higher hy-
drogen content of the test fuel. Moreover, the engine efficiency will be
reduced due to the higher hydrogen content of the test fuel. However,
in the fuel-air mixture, an optimum hydrogen content would bring
about higher thermal efficiency in comparison to CNG. This is caused
by hydrogen's lower ignition energy need, which decreases the ignition
delay as well. In the case of higher speeds, loads and compression ra-
tios, the influence of hydrogen knocking would be influential. Ac-
cording to Flekiewicz et al. [122] knocking happens when adding hy-
drogen beyond 40%.
Many researchers have challenged themselves with solving the
problem of knocking and the undesired characteristics of the engine.
Kamil and Rahman [15] performed a research study to determine the
profiles of in cylinder pressure with engine speeds under the stoichio-
metric condition for various hydrogen-gasoline and hydrogen-methane
fractions. For gasoline-hydrogen blends, the different peak cylinder
pressures with engine speed are illustrated in Fig. 6(a). The reduction in
the peak pressure of the cylinder is noticed. This reduction is not de-
sired because of the inherent dependence of the acquired work on the
pressure inside the cylinder. When 20% hydrogen is added, there is a
decrease of 4.6 bars at 5000 rpm. In the engine speed area, the max-
imum cylinder pressure's trend caused by methane-hydrogen combus-
tion is shown in Fig. 6(b). Based on this figure, when hydrogen fractions
are added, the peak cylinder pressure reduces. However, compared to
the decrease of gasoline-hydrogen blends, this reduction is small [15].
This is due to the fact that hydrogen, as well as methane, are gaseous
fuels and the distinction among their energy densities is very small
330
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 324–342
compared to gasoline. The profiles of pure methane and the 5% hy-
drogen appear to be identical. The maximum decrease in the peak
pressure at 7000 rpm was 2.6 bars. This shows only 4% of the peak
pressure in the base methane engine [15]. Studies by Ceper et al. [123]
and Kahraman et al. [124] show that the highest peak pressure values
are acquired when 30% (by volume) of hydrogen is added to the mix-
ture of methane-air. The focus of their studies was on examining the
pollutant emissions when hydrogen fractions (by volume) were added.
Friction, the gases flowing to the exhaust and the heat transfer to the
cylinder walls caused the loss of a significant part of the energy released
from the combustion of the blends. The major part increases the pres-
sure to perform the work of use. The energy content is reduced when
hydrogen gas is added to methane or gasoline as a result of its low
energy content. This decrease results in the reduction of the peak
pressure [125]. Moreover, the presence of the hydrogen fractions
causes the fix spark timing (at the MBT) to move from its place. The
combustion is accelerated due to the presence of the methane-air or
gasoline-air mixture. Moreover, the related crank angle for the highest
pressure is advanced as a result of the presence of the methane-air or
gasoline-air mixture. In this situation, the expected highest pressure
occurs in a larger cylinder volume place, which causes the pressure to
disappear and decreases its peak [124].
Meanwhile Lim et al. [25] reported that the excess air ratio affected
the boost pressure. Also they reported that at the same compression
ratio (CR), no pressure distinction could be found. However, when the
CR was altered to 11.5 with the same excess air ratio and fuel, the
pressure reduced. This reduction in the boost pressure can be due to
improved thermal effectiveness. The boost pressure is directly matched
with the throttle valve's opening. Since for a CR of 11.5 with the same
power output, less air and fuel were required, the throttle value was
opened with a CR of 10.5 [25]. An increase in CR results in the decrease
in the volumetric efficiency [126,127]. The decrease in the boost
pressure can be controlled and abated for the purpose of extending the
limit of lean operation with a low pumping function. As such, the excess
boost capability from the improved thermal efficiency can cause the
alteration in the surplus air ratio that displayed the better efficiency
with an 11.5 CR [25]. In the meantime, the boost pressure can be
limited by the reduction of exhaust gas temperature under the full load
situation [128]. The decrease in the exhaust gas energy linked to the
rise in the TE can cause the limitation of the boost pressure.
5.3.2. Heat release rate
The difference in the heat release rate is affected by blending hy-
drogen with natural gas during combustion. Tangöz et al. [129] in-
vestigated the alteration in the heat release rate with the increase of the
compression ratio and the hydrogen fraction in the blends. The increase
in hydrogen and CR leads to the advance of the heat release's rate.
According to their outcomes, the highest rates of heat release of 84,
88.19, 85.18 and 78.06 J/0 CA are obtained at 17.0, 15.3, 13.4 and
11.6 CA, as well as ATDC at λ = 1.01 for 9.6 CR. Moreover, the values
of 89.56, 102.06, 90.69 and 80.36 J/0 CA are achieved at 13.4, 13.4,
11.3 and 9.8 CA, as well as ATDC at λ = 1.0 for 12.5 CR for CNG,
HCNG5, HCNG10 and HCNG20, respectively [129]. This is due to the
fact that an increase in the CR and adding hydrogen can cause the
blend's burning velocity to be increased, which makes the phase of
ROHRMAX level with the reach of the top dead center [130–132]. In
this context, Hora and Agarwal [123] also examined HRR under dif-
ferent ratios of HCNG fuels with various BMEPs. As shown in Fig. 7,
they reported that higher engine loads inducted a higher fuel quantity.
It will burn quickly and this results in higher HRR. An increase in the
engine load can cause the HRR curve peak to move towards TDC. For
HCNG, the heat release rate was higher. This was due to the higher
flame speed caused by adding hydrogen. For 6.18 bar BMEP, the
highest HRR acquired for CNG, 10HCNG, 20HCNG and 30HCNG were
59.3 J/°CA, 69.2 J/°CA, 72.4 J/°CA and 77.7 J/°CA, with the matching
crank angle places for the HRR peak being at 8.5°, 5°, 2.5° and 0.5°
H.A. Alrazen, K.A. Ahmad
Fig. 7. Variations in HRR for HCNG mixtures [121].
ATDC respectively [121]. The HRR trends, which were perceived at
various hydrogen contents and BMEPs at broad open bottle, were much
the same as found by Moreno et al. [133]. This was noted at various
speeds and equivalence ratios, together with the results of Xu et al.
[130], at a part throttle (10%) engine state. According to Wang et al.
[134] and Mariani et al. [135], the HRR will be increased by enhancing
the hydrogen fraction in HCNG with direct HCNG injection technology,
in comparison with the showed port HCNG injection. The findings of
different studies have shown that the burning speed (heat release rate)
of HCNG can be increased through adding hydrogen to CNG, which
leads to a shorter combustion duration. Therefore, earlier in the ex-
pansion stroke, a large fraction of chemical energy was released as heat
and this was lower after burning occurred.
Combustion stability corresponds to combustion duration. The cycle
by cycle differences are decreased by shorter combustion phases and
shorter ignition delay. Biffiger and Soltic [18] stated that the combus-
tion event can be divided into three phases, which are shown in Fig. 8.
Phase one is the period between 5% of the fuel mass burnt and ignition.
Phase two refers to the period from 5% to 50% of the fuel mass burnt.
Phase three refers to the period from 50% to 90% of the fuel mass
burnt. Biffiger and Soltic [18] determined that the turbulent kinetic
energy and the charge stratification at the ignition's moment are in-
creased by direct injection. Based on the HR analysis, the direct injec-
tion direction and injection time affect the early phase of combustion,
whereas fuel composition and global stoichiometry affect mainly the
late stage of combustion (phase 3). Methane's combustion in
331
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 324–342
Fig. 8. Combustion durations of a hypothetical fuel mass fraction burned curve [18].
stoichiometric situations is not slower than H2-enriched CH4, while the
effect of H2 at surplus 1.3 air ratio is considered to be quite strong. The
early combustion phases are affected strongly by hydrogen's direct in-
jection into port-injected methane through changing the injection di-
rection and time. When the injection is put towards the spark plug,
particularly at higher surplus air ratios, the maximum effect can be
seen. In these situations, later injection results in shorter combustion
durations with the exception of EOI at 50° CA before TDCF in which the
mixing time is expected to be too short [18]. A minor dependence on
the injection timing and direction is shown in the combustion of phases
2 and 3. This is due to the fact that the influences of stratification and
turbulence have already degraded. Phase 3 demonstrates that the in-
fluence of adding hydrogen is inclined to decrease when using late
injection. Methane direct injection's behaviour into premixed methane
is considered to be interesting. As demonstrated by various authors, the
direct injection of 9% (i.e., energy, mass, volume) of CH4 is capable of
accelerating the combustion to the same degree as by adding H2.
Adding methane and hydrogen affect the early phase of combustion
significantly. A Phase 1 prolongation can be seen by adding hydrogen,
which is through setting the injection timing from 70° CA to 50° CA EOI
before TDCF. This behaviour cannot be seen when methane is added
[18]. Therefore, it can be concluded that the best method of accel-
erating the early combustion phase is through delaying the direct in-
jection of CH4 towards the spark plug.
5.3.3. In cylinder temperature
The influence of cylinder peak temperature on the creation of un-
desired emission, particularly NOx, and on the losses of heat transfer is
the basis of its importance [136,137]. Kamil and Rahman [15] con-
ducted a comparison between gasoline and gasoline-hydrogen, as well
as between methane and methane-hydrogen, in SI engines, in order to
examine the effect of peak temperature under different engine speeds.
The peak cylinder temperature's variation for the considered hydrogen
fractions is shown in Fig. 9. Fig. 9(a) shows the trends of the gasoline-
hydrogen blends. The peak temperature is increased through adding 5%
hydrogen. The reports show an increase of 34 °C with this fraction at
6000 rpm. The peak temperature will not be increased through adding
more hydrogen (10%). Nonetheless, the peak temperature is still more
than that of the base gasoline engine (the difference is now 28 °C at
6000 rpm). The peak temperature will be back and become identical to
that of the base engine when a 15% fraction is added. Therefore, the
temperature will be reduced to below that of the base engine with any
further enrichment. A temperature decrease to 25 °C at 6000 rpm is in
order to go with the 20% fraction. This behaviour continues for the
whole speed range reviewed [15]. Similar trends can be observed for
methane-hydrogen blends which are illustrated in Fig. 9(b). The peak
temperature will be increased by the hydrogen's adiabatic flame tem-
perature. The quick flame speed of hydrogen plays a part in increasing
H.A. Alrazen, K.A. Ahmad Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 324–342

Fig. 10. Peak combustion temperature in K for both CNG and HCNG idle operations in
various EARs with spark ignition timing sweep [139].
Fig. 9. Peak cylinder temperature vs. engine speed and equivalence ratio [15]. (a) Ga-
soline-hydrogen (b) Methane-hydrogen.
adding hydrogen, brake thermal efficiencies are enhanced slightly. This
also varies easily with the surplus air ratio, which shows that adding
the peak temperature as well. This is because the enriched mixture is
hydrogen caused the engine lean burn ability to be improved effectively
capable of burning much faster than pure gasoline or methane, which
[13]. The engine performance correlative surplus air-fuel ratio (λ) to-
signifies that the combustion is increased after adding hydrogen [138].
gether with the exhaust gas temperature (EGT) at various loads (BMEP)
Lee et al. [139] also made a comparison of peak in-cylinder com-
for 4 different structures of HCNG mixtures was examined by Hora and
bustion temperatures between CNG and HCNG idle operations. It is
Agarwal [121]. The overall chemical energy's conversion efficiency of
shown very clearly in Fig. 10 that the peak temperature was kept at less
fuel into mechanical energy, which is accessible at the engine shaft, is
than 1500 K for both cases. This was due to idle's near-zero load con-
displayed in Fig. 11. In comparison with HCNG mixtures, CNG dis-
dition and the larger portion of residual gas in the cylinder. Despite the
played a lower brake thermal efficiency. An increase in the hydrogen
general perception that the highest combustion temperature of H2 en-
content in HCNG leads to an increase in BTE at all loads as a result of
riched fuel is increased by the higher adiabatic temperature of H2, the
the higher combustion stability and higher combustion efficiency.
final level of the peak combustion temperature in HCNG operations was
25.7% BTE was shown by CNG at 5.3 bar BMEP, whereas 27.2%, 28.1%
lower than in CNG operations [80,139,140]. This is due to the fact that
and 28.5% BTE values were shown by 10HCNG, 20HCNG and 30HCNG
the amount of fuel provided for a stable idle was much lower in the
respectively. Likewise, BTE values of 28%, 28.6%, 29.3% and 29.7%
HCNG engine operation in comparison with CNG. A decrease in the in-
were shown by CNG, 10HCNG, 20HCNG and 30HCNG respectively at
cylinder pressure throughout the combustion procedure was brought
about by less fuel and finally the lower peak combustion temperature
was induced. Much the same trend occurred when the spark ignition
timing was delayed towards TDC for each air/fuel ratio. The peak
temperature was increased due to the enhanced fuel consumption rate
close to TDC. The increase in EAR for each timing spark ignition caused
the combustion temperature to be decreased due to the increased in-
fluence of surplus air dilution. Therefore, for both fuels, the maximum
peak combustion temperature occurs at the lower right corner [139].

5.4. Effects of HCNG on performance of SI engine

Engine thermal efficiency is important for assessing an engine's

economics and its general performance. Optimising the fuel properties
Fig. 11. Variation in thermal efficiency with engine load [121].
or the combustion system can lead to its improvement. Moreover, after

332
H.A. Alrazen, K.A. Ahmad Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 324–342

Fig. 12. Evolution of the thermal efficiency as a function of λ and the fuel composition at
Fig. 13. Evolution of the engine brake torque as a function of λ and the fuel composition
full load, 4200 rpm and optimum spark advance [141].
at full load, 3400 rpm and optimum spark advance [141].

6.18 bar BMEP [121]. Based on the findings, an increase in BMEP led to
the consumption of a greater fuel quantity for the purpose of producing
a higher power output. This reduced the excess air–fuel ratio (λ) and
caused the fuel-air mixture to become quite rich (Fig. 11). Similar
power can be generated at lower BMEP using a leaner mixture of
HCNG-air in comparison with the CNG-air mixture, whereas a richer
mixture of fuel-air was needed at a higher BMEP. This showed that the
CNG operation's lean limit increases as a result of adding hydrogen to
the CNG. The engine is going to operate very near to the stoichiometric
condition (λ 1.01, 1.02, 1.01 and 1.0 for CNG, 10HCNG, 20HCNG and
30HCNG respectively) at 5.3 bar BMEP [121].
The ratio between the fuel heating power and the effective power,
as studied by Diéguez et al. [141], corresponds to the thermal efficiency
as shown in Fig. 12. They conducted their test at 4300 rpm, optimum
spark advance and full load. Based on their findings, when the air-to-
fuel ratio is enhanced up to 2.5, the efficiency decreases from 34–35%
to 28–30% for λ values of 1.6–2.0. Their results also showed that an
increase in the methane content of the fuel causes a trend towards
lower efficiencies. The effect of the operating conditions on the me-
chanical efficiency can be described concerning the combustion tem-
Fig. 14. Evolution of the adiabatic flame temperature as a function of the air-to-fuel ratio
perature's effect for the engine torque [13,15,121,141]. An increase in (λ) and the methane molar fraction (η) of the fuel [141].
the methane content of the fuel causes the combustion temperature to
decrease. Therefore, the maximum efficiencies are achieved when pure
of λ [141]. From another point of view, combusting methane at the
hydrogen is utilised. Likewise, as the fuel mixture comes to be leaner,
stoichiometric condition (λ = 1) will cause no problems. As such, from
the combustion temperature reduces. Therefore, as λ increases, the
the engine performance perspective, adding methane to hydrogen has
mechanical efficiencies decrease.
the positive influence of enabling a more fuel rich operation, which
Engine thermal efficiency can be improved by an increase in the
leads to an increase in the engine torque [141]. HCNG mixtures have a
mixture burning speed [142]. The hydrogen-CH4 mixture has an ex-
higher brake thermal efficiency compared to CNG. Bauer and Forest
tended flame limit and faster burning velocity compared to CH4, due to
[113] showed much the same trend at various BMEP and HCNG blends
the large flame speed of hydrogen which is five times larger than that of
at lower engine speeds (700 rpm and 900 rpm) and equivalence ratios.
CH4, and also the wide flammability range of hydrogen which is much
Specific fuel consumption (BSFC) refers to the ratio of the mass fuel
greater than CH4, which can lead to more complete burning and a
consumption to the break power [8,143]. According to Açıkgöz et al.
shorter burning duration [13]. Concerning the hydrogen methane
[13], as the surplus air ratio, a decrease in the BSFC and an increase in
mixtures, the fuel composition at full load, 3400 rpm, the brake torque
the BTE were noticed through an enhancement of the hydrogen fraction
as a function of λ and the optimum spark advance are shown in Fig. 13.
in the fuel blends of more than 20%. Adding hydrogen was not useful
As can be seen, the brake torque changes with fuel composition to a
for improving the efficiency when the excess air ratio was less than 1.4
certain extent. However, it obviously reduces as the air-to-fuel ratio
[13]. As shown in Fig. 15, the influences of spark timing together with
enhances. This behaviour can be explained concerning the influence of
the air/fuel ratio on the rate of fuel consumption for CNG and HCNG
combustion temperature as it is much the same as the adiabatic flame
idle operations were examined by Lee et al. [139]. In their study, HCNG
temperature's evolution, as shown in Fig. 14. Diéguez et al. [141] ex-
was compared with CNG. They found that the utilisation of HCNG had a
amined the brake torque connected to the gases’ power cycle in the
lower rate of fuel consumption for all λ and spark timing conditions. A
cylinder, which in turn is based on the engine speed, spark advance,
more than 25% reduction in energy consumption was obtained
load, and fuel nature. Hydrogen combustion carries the risks of back-
throughout HCNG operations [139]. Low cyclic variation and closer-to
firing and knocking, which are an impedance to operation at low values

333
H.A. Alrazen, K.A. Ahmad
Fig. 15. Fuel consumption rate in kw for both CNG and HCNG idle operations in various
EARs with spark ignition timing sweep [139].
constant volume combustion were the reasons for these improvements.
The flame propagation speed of the HCNG/air mixture was much faster
in comparison with the speed of the in-cylinder volume change through
changing the position at idle and as a result it comes to be closer to
constant volume combustion due to adding H2 [144]. Based on the
findings, the fuel consumption rate reached the lowest level at roughly
λ = 1.1 (for CNG) and between 1.1 and 1.2 (for HCNG) for each spark
ignition timing. For higher λ, when the flame propagation speed re-
duces, the combustion duration increases, which eliminates the effi-
ciency advantages of lean operation and increases the fuel consumption
rate. As shown in Fig. 15, the fuel consumption rate will decrease when
the spark ignition timing increases [139]. This decrease will continue
till idle stability significantly worsens.
The compression ratio and the air-fuel ratio also affected the BSFC
with different HCNG mixtures. Tangöz et al. [129] found that the values
of BSFC decrease when the value of CR increases from 9.6 to 12.5. Next,
the values of BSFC are enhanced at 15 of CR. Besides, the lowest values
of BSFC are acquired at low λ for pure CNG rather than HCNG blends
and all CR. For example, the lowest values of 207, 210, 215 and 247 g/
kW h are achieved at λ = 1.1, λ = 1.15, λ = 1.22 and λ = 1.27,
sustained by CNG, HCNG5, HCNG10 and HCNG20 for 15 CR, respec-
tively [129]. The poor lean-burn ability of CNG together with the low
flame speed caused the CNG to be considered as a preferable fuel at the
stoichiometric state [145]. Moreover, HCNG is regarded as the desir-
able fuel at lean mixtures as a result of hydrogen's high flame speed and
high flame temperature [26,145,146]. The observation of the author
shows that an increase of the hydrogen fraction in natural gas for CRs of
15 and 12.5 leads to an increase in BSFC. The combined influences of
volumetric efficiency and the reduction of the volumetric heat value are
334
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 324–342
Fig. 16. Fuel consumption in MJ/km over NEDC and ARTEMIS driving cycles [135].
the reasons behind this. But that said, the values of BSFC decrease after
adding hydrogen to CNG above λ = 1.1 out of HCNG20 for 9.6 CR
[129]. Mariani et al. [135] tested different lower heating values and
mixing fuels of HCNG and reported that (as Fig. 16 shows) the influence
of the fuel on engine efficiency can be determined, taking into account
the fuel consumption in MJ/km. There were no significant variations
among HCNG15 and CNG, whereas a decrease has been seen when
fueling the engine with HCNG30. The SFC that was achieved with this
blend was 2.33 MJ/km for the NEDC. This was 6% lower than CNG. For
urban, road and motorway, the SFC values were 3.41, 2.04 and 1.86
MJ/km for the Artemis cycles. They were 6%, 3% and 7% lower than
CNG [135]. Faster combustion move up through adding hydrogen is the
reason behind the enhancement of the engine's average efficiency for
HCNG30 with respect to natural gas. The air-fuel ratio's estimation was
enabled by exhaust gas analysis. This caused close to stoichiometric
values for the whole of the conditions of operating.
5.5. Effects of HCNG on the emissions of an SI engine
5.5.1. Hydrocarbon emissions (HC)
Incomplete combustion can lead to the production of unburned
hydrocarbon. Due to a big valve overlap angle, CH4 is the source of THC
(Total Hydrocarbon) emission for the HCNG engine. Moreover, hydro-
carbon emission can be caused by both misfire and abnormal com-
bustion. The wall quenching influence and incomplete combustion are
the main sources of HC emission for the combustion procedures [147].
The unburned HC emission was decreased as a result of adding hy-
drogen, signifying improved combustion efficiency [13]. The decrease
of heat transfer as a result of the fast burn speed can be eliminated
through the higher in-cylinder temperature, together with the shorter
quenching distance induced by adding hydrogen, can be the reasons
behind this phenomenon [143,148]. Lima et al. [25] did a comparison
between CNG and HCNG30 with two compression ratios to test the
emissions of THC and CH4. As shown in Fig. 17, the emission of THC
with HCNG30 and CR of 11.5 reduced in comparison with 10.5 CR and
HCNG30 in the lean combustion condition. The THC emissions with a
high temperature of combustion are reduced by the high efficiency
combustion. From the other point of view, CR in the CNG case did not
affect the THC emission. Fig. 18 shows that the increment in CR at the
same air ratio leads to a decrease of CH4 emission with HCNG30. CNG
shows the same trend. Nevertheless, the decrease in the CH4 emission
was greater than that of the THC emissions with 11.5 CR [25]. Hu et al.
[149] found much the same result in lean premixed CH4-H2-air flames
at enhanced temperatures and pressures. The results of Hu et al. [149]
were similar to this for lean premixed CH4-H2-air flames at high tem-
peratures and pressures. Based on their findings, the dominant chain
branching reaction was (R38), whereas the chain recombination reac-
tion in the combustion of HCNG was (R52) and (R35).
H+O2 ↔ O + OH (R38)
H.A. Alrazen, K.A. Ahmad
Fig. 17. THC in relation to excess air ratio for each fuel/CR [25].
Fig. 18. CH4 emission in relation to excess air ratio for each fuel/CR [25].
H+O2 + H2 O ↔ HO2 + H2 O
H + CH3 + (M)↔CH 4 + (M)
Based on the findings of the research, the recombination reactions
are considered to be pressure sensitive and the reactions of chain
branching are temperature-sensitive. The division of CH4 into various
radicals is promoted by the increase in the combustion temperature. As
such, the decrease in CH4 emission when CR is increased can be asso-
ciated with the chain branching reaction, which a high combustion
temperature activates, instead of an enhancement in the pressure [25].
Lee et al. [139] studied in idle operations and stated that the re-
sidual gas fraction can be described as high and the combustion tem-
perature as low that lead to the production of a high level of THC
emissions which means that it is not easy to fulfill the emission rules. As
such, each operation's THC emission against spark timing and air/fuel
ratio are compared in their study. For HCNG engine operations, the
overall level of THC emissions was much lower than that of CNG op-
erations. This was due to the low carbon content in HCNG together with
the outstanding combustion features of H2. At first, the emission of THC
reduced with an increase in λ (until λ almost = 1.1), then it increased
for both fuels. THC emissions were enhanced for CNG as well as HCNG
operations with an increase in the spark ignition timing. This enhanced
the in-cylinder pressure; therefore, there was an increase in the charge
density captured in the crevice volume. An increase in THC levels is
caused by high spark retardation in CNG operation due to bulk
quenching close by the wall throughout the expansion procedures.
Therefore, the spark timing for the lowest level of THC emissions
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 324–342
occurred at 2 CAD, BTDC for λ = 1, 8 CAD, BTDC for λ = 1.5 and
among these values for 1.1 ≤ λ ≤ 1.4. However, since spark timing
was set back toward TDC in HCNG operations, there was a high pos-
sibility of oxidising the HC released from the crevice volume
throughout the early step of the expansion procedure. This happened
due to the smaller quenching zone and shorter combustion duration.
Therefore, when λ was less than 1.3, the emission of THC continued to
decrease [139].
5.5.2. Carbon monoxide emissions (CO)
Carbon monoxide is formed as a result of the fuel's incomplete
burning in the engine. Incomplete burning happens when the com-
bustion cannot be completed as a result of insufficient oxygen
[16,150,151]. Based on the studies of Gharehghani et al. [154], with
the decrease of the equivalence ratio, the CO emission is reduced and
then it began to increase rapidly after a minimum value as a result of a
misfire in the huge lean mixture. The addition of hydrogen did not have
a significant effect on the formation of CO before the misfiring limita-
tion for pure CNG (Ф ~ 0.6); however after this, adding hydrogen re-
sulted in a greater decrease of CO, and on the basis of estimated out-
comes, misfiring was delayed [152]. The engine's operating range could
be extended to that of a leaner mixture with no impact on the CO
concentration through enhancing the percentage of hydrogen. The
differences in the engine's CO emissions at various engine speeds and
different fuel mixtures were investigated by Açıkgöz et al. [13]. The
entirety of the fuel cannot be burned by the engine even though there is
excess air in the cylinder to complete the combustion. The hydrogen
fueled engine was expected to have zero CO emission. A small amount
of CO could still be found in the results. This resulted from the burning
of the lubricating oil film inside the engine cylinder. CO emission di-
minishes with the increase of the engine speed. The addition of hy-
drogen increases the CO emission when the excess air ratio is almost
stoichiometric; however it decreases when hydrogen is added under
lean conditions. The oxidation reaction of CO into CO2 is stimulated by
the enhanced in-cylinder temperature after the addition of hydrogen
[13]. The in-cylinder CO mass fraction distribution for different hy-
drogen fractions with an equivalence ratio of 0.625 at EVO is shown in
Fig. 19. The fuel's incomplete combustion within the combustion
(R35) chamber results in CO emission. The incomplete combustion is highly
dependent on the blend's combustion temperature. Gharehghani et al.
(R52) [152] believed that, based on the observation, the CO emissions pro-
duced at 30% and 50% hydrogen fractions were insignificant in com-
parison to pure natural gas fuel combustion.
Diéguez et al. [141] accomplished a research study which tested the
air-fuel ratio at full load, 3400 rpm engine speed and optimum spark
advance as shown in Fig. 20. They reported that there is a high increase
in the emission of CO with λ. For instance, for η = 0.10 (10 vol%
methane) the CO emissions at λ = 2.5 (3.6 g/kW h) are almost 7 times
higher than when λ = 1.6 (0.5 g/kW h) [141]. This unexpected out-
come can be explained by the fact that despite the decrease of the air/
fuel mixture's carbon content with the increase of λ, a greater decrease
in the power is produced which results in the increase of specific
emissions. This is in line with the findings of Moreno et al. [153] where
a similar trend was found in a naturally aspirated two-cylinder SI en-
gine, which was fueled with methane and hydrogen mixtures at full
load, in its specific CO2 emissions. Diéguez et al. [141] also reported
that the specific CO emissions for η = 0.20 under stoichiometric con-
ditions and at λ = 2 are almost coincident (about 2.2 g/kW h) and 3
times higher than at λ = 1.6 (about 0.8 g/kW h). Based on this, stoi-
chiometric conditions are unfavourable for minimum carbon monoxide
emissions in this situation because there is not enough oxygen avail-
able. Therefore, the level of CO emission is notably lower than that
generated at the intermediate λ value of 1.6, compared with λ = 1 or 2
[141]. Hora and Agarwal [121] examined CO emissions with BMEP.
They stated that with the increase of BMEP, the CO emission decreases
since the higher peak cylinder temperature at higher BMEP is
335
H.A. Alrazen, K.A. Ahmad Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 324–342

Fig. 19. CO mass fractions for various hydrogen fractions for Ф = 0.625 at EVO [152].

limits, and CNG [155]. The flame propagation speed of hydrogen is

high and its ignition energy is low, which makes it easier to work with
leaner blends compared to natural gas. The lean air-fuel mixtures have
a limit, which if reached, causes the combustion to become incomplete
and unstable. The combustion speed decreases and the air-fuel mix-
ture's ignition energy increases when operating close to this limit. This
results in cycle-by-cycle variations which decreases the thermal effi-
ciency. Navarro et al. [155] investigated the effect of hydrogen addition
and air/fuel ratio on CO2 emissions at various engine speeds as shown
in Fig. 21. It can be observed from the figure that there is a decrease in
particular CO2 emissions when there is an increase in the crankshaft
rotational speed, when there is an increase in the air/fuel ratio, and
when the employed fuel mixtures have increasing hydrogen content
[155]. The reduction of specific CO2 emissions and the increase of H2
content in the fuel mixture can be caused by the progressive reduction
of the carbon content and the combustion process’ advancement. Var-
ious aspects have to be considered in explaining this behaviour of CO2
emissions, which is observed with an increase in the air/fuel ratios.

Fig. 20. Evolution of the specific CO emissions as a function of λ and fuel composition at
5.5.4. Nitrogen oxides emissions (NOx)
full load, 3400 rpm and optimum spark advance [141].
Coal burning creates nitrogen oxides (NOx), which are essentially
nitrogen dioxide (NO2) or nitric oxide (NO), and are generally referred
favourable for CO to CO2 oxidation. The CO emission of HCNG blends is to as NOx. NOx is created by ignition and is comprised of NO (90–95%)
less than baseline CNG since the HCNG mixtures’ C/H ratio is lower, along with lesser (5–10%) amounts of NO2 [46]. Nitric oxide's ar-
and they have higher peak cylinder temperatures which is in favour of rangement in the burning zone results from two elements which are the
CO oxidation. According to the study, a higher CO emission was ob-
served at 6.18 bar BMEP because the blend in the combustion chamber
was richer and lower levels of oxygen were available for combustion
[121]. Ma et al. [154] observed similar trends for the discussed emis-
sion at various BMEP for wide open throttle from HCNG mixtures at
various ignition timings and Xu et al. [130] observed it at part throttle
conditions.

5.5.3. Carbon dioxide emissions (CO2)

When the degree of hydrocarbon fuel's combustion has been com-
pleted, this is indicated by the engine exhaust's CO2 formation. Lower
CO and higher CO2 indicate the efficient utilisation of fuel and better
combustion quality. HCNG has a low emission of CO2 because the C/H
ratio decreases with the increase of the hydrogen content [33,121,150].
To investigate the impact of adding hydrogen and the effect of the air/
fuel ratio on the emission of CO2, various mixtures of natural gas and
hydrogen were examined including HCNG with hydrogen fractions Fig. 21. CO2 emissions as a function of the relative air/fuel ratio, fuel composition and
crankshaft rotational speed [155].
from 10% to 90%, with an air/fuel ratio within reasonable operating

336
H.A. Alrazen, K.A. Ahmad
prompt system (Fenimore system) and the thermal system (Zeldovich
system). High-temperature ignition, i.e. the point at which the burning
temperature is above 1400 K, sets up the development of thermal NO.
With the increase of the burning temperature, the development rate of
the NO increases rapidly, and with the decrease of the burning tem-
perature, the development rate decreases in this component [151]. The
brief development of NO occurs within the rich, low-temperature
burning zones where a reasonable amount of dynamic radicals can be
accessed [150,156,157]. Because of the dominant impact of tempera-
ture, the formation of NOx is favoured by fuel-rich mixtures (with low
values of λ) [133,158–160]. However, by controlling the spark advance
(SA), the temperature and, as a result, the combustion temperature that
is reached within the cylinders, can be modified. Wang et al. [161] have
studied the impact ignition timing on the lean combustion limit in the
cases where natural/hydrogen gas is used as a fuel.
Diéguez et al. [141] performed a research study to examine the
spark advance and molar fraction of methane (η) in the HCNG mixture
as a function, with the specific NOx emissions at full load, λ of 1.6 and
speed of 3400 rpm. Spark advance increases the emission of particulate
NOx, while the methane content decreases it significantly because of the
combustion temperature decrease. This is one of the positive impacts of
the addition of methane to hydrogen fuel. As illustrated in Fig. 22,
when the spark advance is optimal, only the air-to-fuel ratio governs the
specific emission and it is fairly unaffected by fuel composition at a
specific value of λ in the limits set by their study. In stoichiometric
conditions (λ = 1), the fuel mixture that has the maximum methane
content (η = 0.20) can only be combusted. The other fuels, like pure
hydrogen, demonstrated a tendency to knock which prevented the use
of a λ value less than 1.6. In stoichiometric conditions, the emission of
NOx was high and reached 3.05 g/kW h, despite the significantly low
availability of oxygen. The emissions were near 1 g/kW h when λ = 1.6
was used and when the air-to-fuel was enhanced to 2–2.5, it decreased
to 0.3–0.4 g/kW h [141].
HCNG mixtures have relatively higher NOx emissions, the formation
of which is dependent on the oxygen content and the combustion
temperature. This results from a comparatively higher in-cylinder
temperature caused by the addition of hydrogen to CNG, which favours
the formation of NOx. There was an increase in the flame-front tem-
perature when the hydrogen fraction of the HCNG mixtures increased
[25]. Diluting the mixture with exhaust gases or excess air is a typical
method employed in decreasing the peak temperature of combustion
and, consequently, the NOx emission. Biffiger and Soltic [18] accom-
plished work under various excess air ratios and injection strategies in
Fig. 22. Evolution of the specific NOx emissions as a function of λ and fuel composition at
full load, 2000 rpm and optimum spark advance [141].
337
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 324–342
the case of premixed combustion vs NOx emissions. They reported that
at higher excess air ratios, the NOx was decreased. Likewise, they re-
ported that when the excess air ratios are higher, there is a less notable
decrease in the split injection. Furthermore, in methane into methane
cases, there is an increase in the emission. This can be regarded as a
better understanding of employing charge stratification. Since pre-
mature direct injection is more like the premixed combustion case, less
NOx is shown at lean combustion while late rejection results in charge
stratification. The mixture that is nearer to the spark plug becomes
heterogeneous in a stratified combustion and prompts a higher flame
temperature and consequently a higher NOx emission [18].
Hora and Agarwal [121] tested the NOx emissions with different
BMEP and various HCNG mixtures. They reported that when the BMEP
is low and is at 2.98 bar, an insignificant difference in the formation of
NOx was found in the entirety of the tested fuels. This resulted from
comparatively lower peak cylinder temperatures and the leaner fuel-air
mixtures which were outside the NOx formation window. According to
Wang et al. [135], less NOx is formed when HCNG is injected directly;
however, insignificant differences were reported due to the addition of
hydrogen at BMEPs. But there was a change in this pattern at higher
loads when there was a higher formation of NOx. With an increase in
BMEP and the enhancement of the hydrogen fraction within HCNG
mixtures, the brake specific NOx emission and raw emissions increase
[121]. Based on the report of Diéguez et al. [141], who also reported at
various engine speeds, the specific NOx emissions were found to in-
crease when the engine speed increased. For instance, at λ = 2, full
load, η = 0.2 and optimum spark advance, the emissions increased
from 0.32 to 0.39 and finally 0.47 g/kW h when the engine speed in-
creases from 3400 to 4200 and finally 5000 rpm [141]. The turbulence
intensifies with the increase in the speed of the engine, which results in
higher NOx emissions and combustion temperatures, and enhanced
mixing. Despite this, the effect of the engine speed on the emission of
nitrogen oxides is significantly less notable than that of the spark ad-
vance or air-to-fuel ratio.
Tangöz et al. [129] have examined the compression ratio (CR) in a
diesel engine fueled by different mixture ratios of HCNG. The NOx
emissions at various CR and HCNG are illustrated in Fig. 23. Because of
hydrogen's high flame speed and high flame temperature, increasing
the hydrogen fraction of HCNG results in an increase of the mixture's
temperature as well as the residence time of air in the hot zone. Thus,
adding hydrogen to CNG increases the NOx [145]. The maximum NOx
values obtained at λ = 1.15 for 9.6 CR fueled by CNG, HCNG5,
HCNG10 and HCNG20 are 18, 19.8, 21.5 and 25.5 g/kW h respectively.
In a similar fashion, the maximum values obtained at λ = 1.16 and =
1.21 for 12.5 and 15 CR fueled by the same fuels are 18.4, 19.1, 20.7
and 22.1 g/kW h and 18, 19.2, 21.7 and 25.8 g/kW h respectively. It
can be observed from the figure that with an increase in the CR, the
emission values reach maximum values at higher λ. Furthermore, these
NOx values are greater than the Euro VI standard (0.4 g/kWh) [162] for
a gas engine. Thus, in order to reach the Euro VI standard, the NOx
values need to be reduced. It can be noticed in the figure that with
excess air ratios, the emission values of NOx reach a maximum level and
then decrease. The NOx emission values gained at λ of 0.96, 1.15 and
1.3 for 9.6, 12.5 and 15 CR fueled by HCNG10 are 4, 21.5 and 16.7 g/
kW h; 4, 20.5 and 17 g/kW h; 3.7, 21 and 18.6 g/kW h respectively
[129]. As a matter of fact, the oxygen environment is close to lambda
1.1 and the combustion temperature is high in the cylinder. Thus it can
be said that with the gradual lean out of the engine, there is a rapid
increase in the NOx emission which reaches a peak and then experi-
ences a rapid decrease to a fairly small value. The high combustion
temperature is aided by the growth of the compression ratio. Thus, NOx
emission worsens with an increase in the compression ratio [163].
The emission can be reduced through various methods, which in-
clude internal engine measures like various injections, exhaust after-
treatment, and EGR or water treatment. On the basis of an engine op-
eration strategy, either the conventional 3-way catalysts or the lean
H.A. Alrazen, K.A. Ahmad
Fig. 23. The NOx emission values versus excess air ratio using different compression ratios and HCNG blends [129].
NOx must be used [46,164,165]. With regards to NOx, in spite of the
promising outcomes such that the emission level was reached by 3-way
catalysts, various studies have tried to elaborate on and investigate the
lean NOx after treatment systems. This was due to the fact that for the
actual operation of 3-way catalysts, particular stoichiometric conditions
were required which resulted in a great decrease of the engine's effi-
ciency in comparison to the lean mode. Methods that were employed in
decreasing the NOx emissions consisted of 3-way catalysts, selective
catalytic reduction (SCR) and a lean NOx trap. There have also been
patents of concepts where the additional injection of the decreasing
agent in the exhaust was prevented through altering the operation
procedure from lean to fuel-rich using EGR in purifying the lean NOx
trap [165–167]. Moreover, the measurements to decrease the engine's
internal nitrogen oxide emissions include reducing the temperature
inside the cylinder using water injection and EGR [168]. Water injec-
tion decreased the NOx emissions significantly and had little negative
effect on the efficiency of the engine [169,170]. Even though water
injection is regarded as a suitable process for decreasing the NOx
emissions, its functional application is based on an effective way of
providing the liquid (for instance, through restoring and liquefying it
from the engine exhaust) [171,172].
6. Challenges of HCNG utilisation
To use HCNG as an engine fuel, hydrogen/natural gas ratio opti-
misation is the most challenging. This is due to abnormal combustion
behaviour, such as pre-ignition and knock, and backfire for imbalanced
ratios of the two mixtures. This means that it is important to adjust the
spark timing and the fuel-air ratios to within the acceptable ranges. The
hydrogen percentage is directly proportional to the lean operation
limit, while at the same time it is inversely proportional to the max-
imum brake torque (MBT). From here, a relationship among the three
(of hydrogen fraction, excess air ratio and ignition timing) can be im-
proved, the determination of which means solving the hurdle to finding
the optimum ratios.
In order to specify whether or not a fuel is a suitable alternative fuel,
the most important parameter to be considered is the emission level,
which mostly refers to NOx emissions. In the case of CNG, the excessive
hydrogen causes an enhancement in the NOx levels while it reduces the
emissive hydrocarbons. Due to this contrast, the hydrogen ratio needs
to be adjusted in such a way as to keep both the NOx and hydrocarbon
emissions as low as possible. Such a challenge is a huge limitation to
extending new-fuels applications on a broader scale. On the other hand,
like other gaseous fuels, both hydrogen and natural gas are lighter than
air; they thus disperse quickly granted adequate ventilation, which is
problematic in the case of leakage. Last but not least, as hydrogen is
more expensive than natural gas, producing HCNG will not be cost ef-
fective.
338
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 324–342
7. Conclusions
High emissions were produced from the engine-operated petroleum
and this problem is still a challenge to researchers. Natural gas, which
in turn generally includes methane, gives considerable monetary as
well as environmental advantages, including much better productivity
and availability, as well as lower emissions. However, the weak lean-
burn ability, the low flame speed and the ignitability of methane de-
mand deep studies for its usage in an IC engine. When using natural gas
in SI engines, there is an engine efficiency sacrifice at low loads and a
higher level of some of the emissions such as HC/CO, which cannot be
solved without using the after-treatment equipment. This equipment,
however, is expensive. Therefore, an additional fuel can enhance the
characteristics of combustion of NG - which could be used in the intake
charge. H2 is an efficient gas for enhancing the flame rate regarding
combustion in an SI-CNG engine, together with decreasing the COV and
increasing engine stability. Tiny amounts of H2 improve performance
and reduce exhaust emissions. Thus, many investigators have per-
formed research studies on SI engines with different ratios of HCNG.
Many studies have found that the combustion characteristics of HCNG
engine are strongly dependent on the conditions of the engine. The air-
fuel ratio, the time of injection, the compression ratio and the speed
play a major role when blending HCNG in an SI engine. Adding hy-
drogen to natural gas increases cylinder pressures and temperatures.
These increments were obtained due to enhancing the rate of heat re-
lease (the burning speed) of HCNG, leading to a shortened combustion
duration. For this, a large proportion of chemical energy was emitted
before the power stroke because of heat production and comparatively
less after-burning happened. With stoichiometric operation, the com-
bustion of natural gas is not significantly slower when compared with
hydrogen-enriched CNG, although the effect associated with hydrogen
from air-fuel (λ) of 1.3 is pretty strong. Additionally, the injection of
hydrogen into port-injected CNG affects the early combustion stages of
development rather highly through diverse injection timing along with
position. The largest impact is usually noted if the injection can be
pointed to approach the spark plug, particularly from higher excess air
percentages. In most of these conditions, shortened combustion dura-
tions result from later injection. The authors have shown that the early
combustion phases are accelerated when the method of direct injection
is delayed towards the spark plug.
Using HCNG fuel confirms a reduced energy consumption rate for
all excess air and spark timing conditions. In particular, an greater than
25% reduction in fuel consumption was obtained when using HCNG
blends compared to CNG. This specific development was assigned to
closer-to constant volume combustion along with minimal cyclic dif-
ferences. However, some authors observed that when the hydrogen
fraction is increased in natural gas with different CRs, the BSFC is ad-
vanced. This is a result of the combined consequences of volumetric
H.A. Alrazen, K.A. Ahmad
effectiveness as well as the lowering of volumetric heat worth.
Regarding brake thermal efficiency and power, CNG showed a lower
BTE compared to the HCNG blend. At all loads, the power and BTE were
enhanced when improving the hydrogen particles with HCNG, due to
the somewhat larger combustion efficiency and remarkable combustion
stability. The increment in the burning velocity of the mixture has an
optimistic relation to improving the TE of the engine. Because the flame
speed regarding H2 is 5 times greater than that regarding CNG and the
inflammability selection of H2 is quite broad compared to CNG, the
particular H2–CNG mixture can have a quicker ignition and also a de-
layed flame control compared to CNG, which can mean a quicker
burning and a fairly complete combustion.
The level of THC emissions with regards to the HCNG engine has
been reduced, compared to that involving the CNG engine, due to the
lower carbon formation inside HCNG, along with the exceptional
combustion of hydrogen. As engine speed and loads increase, CO/CO2
emissions tend to minimise. However, CO emission improves along
with hydrogen improvement if the air-fuel ratio is stoichiometric, but it
reduces with the help of H2 beneath the lean-condition. The elevated in-
cylinder temperature after the enrichment of hydrogen likewise is en-
gaged to revitalise the particular oxidation reaction of CO into CO2. HC
and CO emissions are usually a direct result of the incomplete com-
bustion associated with the fuel inside the combustion chamber and are
also powerfully dependent on the mixture temperature. It is noticed
that each of the 30% and 50% hydrogen fraction cases makes minimal
CO/HC/CO2 emissions in comparison to natural gas combustion.
NOx emissions, whose formation are determined by the combustion
temperature and air formation, are comparatively larger for HCNG
blends. This is on account of the comparatively larger temperatures in
the cylinder due to the hydrogen supplement helping CNG, which often
meant desired NOx formation. The temperature of the flame front im-
proved with the addition of hydrogen in the HCNG blends. Also the air-
fuel ratio, the loads and the engine speed affect NOx emissions with the
HCNG blend. It has been discovered that the particular NOx emissions
improve with changing engine speeds and loads. When the engine
speed rises, the turbulence tends to be enhanced resulting in improved
mixing and higher combustion temperatures, in addition to NOx emis-
sions. On the other hand, the impact of the engine speed on the NOx
emissions is much less noticeable as compared to that on the air-fuel
percentage or even the sparks timing. So we can see that as the engine
tends to lean operation, NOx formation expands quickly until it reaches
its highest value, and afterwards it diminishes to a comparatively low
value. With increasing compression ratio, the temperature of combus-
tion will also be high, thus a higher compression ratio produces greater
NOx emission. A typical approach is to diminish the top ignition tem-
perature, and in this way likewise the NOx outflows to weaken the
blend with abundant air or with exhaust gaseous. Also the increment of
NOx could be managed by numerous injections, exhaust after-treatment
as well as exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) or water injection. However,
hydrogen ignition exhibits the dangers of reverse knock and backfire
that prevent working at low estimations of λ and using a high value of
it.
8. Future work suggestions
HCNG is a well-known technology emerging from the wide appli-
cations of CNG in engines and its existing production facilities. In this
part, those advantages of HCNG which make it a suitable alternative
fuel for the future have been reviewed. HCNG technology deploys the
hydrogen market before it is consumed by hydrogen fuel cells for ap-
plication in hydrogen fuel infrastructures. As the H2 concentration in
HCNG increases, the fuel storage density decreases which allows a
higher onboard energy storage density. This privilege widens the HCNG
on-board energy storage applications for IC engine vehicles and small
fueling infrastructures such as local transportation, in comparison to
hydrogen fuel cells. However, HCNG storage has limitations for fuel cell
339
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 324–342
powertrains and short range IC powertrains at larger scales such as
airport shuttles and local delivery trucks.
The second advantage is the overall cost effectiveness of HCNG. The
optimum H2 value to deploy the maximum usage from both the range
and the emissions point of view is 30% H2. Utilising this value, the
methane combustion will be close to complete, meaning that the after
combustion exhausts are near to zero. This leads to not only a reduction
of after-treatment exhaust equipment costs, but also a reduction of
space and design complexity as well as weight considerations. Due to
this reduced amount of H2 the hydrogen energy content is equal to
11%, which makes it easier for renewable sources to meet the emerging
HCNG market demands. This is as the applications of fuel cell vehicles
increase, and the hydrogen price lowers, from which HCNG could
benefit.
As for the challenges HCNG is facing, a number of topics can be
discussed. In terms of GHG, another alternative for hydrogen could be
biogas. There is a possibility that by adding locally derived biogas to
CNG, its performance could improve in such a way as to be considered a
better treatment over adding hydrogen. As for the engine's compat-
ibility, the engine should be designed in such a way as to operate on
both HCNG and CNG as per necessity in the case of HCNG fueling
system breakdown. Although the HCNG-fueling station is much more
expensive than either of the CNG or hydrogen fueling stations, devel-
oping an HCNG flex-fuel system is more affordable based on current
price and availability as it will enable the combustion of any mixture of
any of the named gases even on a random basis. Such flexi-fuel
equipment will therefore make it possible to utilise hydrogen from all
sources, thus expanding the hydrogen market. From the other side, any
expansion of HCNG relies on the expansion of current international
standards for receptacle and nozzle design for more HCNG blends. The
standards would consist of different mixing ratios of HCNG blends such
as 20% and 30% or any other percent. Promoting such standards will
motivate manufacturers to produce dispensing products to match the
requirements of HCNG engines.
Acknowledgments
The authors gratefully acknowledge the Universiti Putra Malaysia
which provided the facilities to complete this work.
References
[1] Alazemi J, Andrews J. Automotive hydrogen fuelling stations: an international
review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2015;48:483–99.
[2] Midilli A, Dincer I. Key strategies of hydrogen energy systems for sustainability. Int
J Hydrog Energy 2007;32:511–24.
[3] NPC. Advancing technology for America's transportation future. Washington:
National Petroleum Council; 2012.
[4] Fotache C, Kreutz T, Law C. Ignition of hydrogen-enriched methane by heated air.
Combust Flame 1997;110:429–40.
[5] Sastri M. Hydrogen energy research and development in India—an overview. Int J
Hydrog Energy 1987;12:137–45.
[6] Colin RF, Allen T. Internal combustion engine. New York: John W iley & Sons;
2001.
[7] Das L. Hydrogen-oxygen reaction mechanism and its implication to hydrogen en-
gine combustion. Int J Hydrog Energy 1996;21:703–15.
[8] Heywood JB. Internal combustion engine fundamentals. New York: Mcgraw-hill;
1988.
[9] D'Andrea T, Henshaw P, Ting D. The addition of hydrogen to a gasoline-fuelled SI
engine. Int J Hydrog Energy 2004;29:1541–52.
[10] Kahraman E, Ozcanlı SC, Ozerdem B. An experimental study on performance and
emission characteristics of a hydrogen fuelled spark ignition engine. Int J Hydrog
Energy 2007;32:2066–72.
[11] Padiyar S. Properties of hydrogen, Proceedings of summer school of hydrogen
energy, IIT Madras, Chennai, India; 1985.
[12] Wang S, Ji C, Zhang J, Zhang B. Comparison of the performance of a spark-ignited
gasoline engine blended with hydrogen and hydrogen–oxygen mixtures. Energy
2011;36:5832–7.
[13] Açıkgöz B, Çelik C, Soyhan HS, Gökalp B, Karabağ B. Emission characteristics of an
hydrogen–CH 4 fuelled spark ignition engine. Fuel 2015;159:298–307.
[14] Lu X, Han D, Huang Z. Fuel design and management for the control of advanced
compression-ignition combustion modes. Prog Energy Combust Sci
2011;37:741–83.
H.A. Alrazen, K.A. Ahmad
[15] Kamil M, Rahman M. Performance prediction of spark-ignition engine running on
gasoline-hydrogen and methane-hydrogen blends. Appl Energy 2015;158:556–67.
[16] Alrazen Hayder A, Abu Talib AR, Ahmad KA. A two-component CFD studies of the
effects of H2, CNG, and diesel blend on combustion characteristics and emissions
of a diesel engine. Int J Hydrog Energy 2016;41:10483–95.
[17] Zaker K, Askari MH, Jazayeri A, Ebrahimi R, Zaker B, Ashjaee M. Open cycle CFD
investigation of SI engine fueled with hydrogen/methane blends using detailed
kinetic mechanism. Int J Hydrog Energy 2015;40:14006–19.
[18] Biffiger H, Soltic P. Effects of split port/direct injection of methane and hydrogen
in a spark ignition engine. Int J Hydrog Energy 2015;40:1994–2003.
[19] Hu E, Huang Z, Zheng J, Li Q, He J. Numerical study on laminar burning velocity
and NO formation of premixed methane–hydrogen–air flames. Int J Hydrog Energy
2009;34:6545–57.
[20] Raviteja S, Kumar G. Effect of hydrogen addition on the performance and emission
parameters of an SI engine fueled with butanol blends at stoichiometric conditions.
Int J Hydrog Energy 2015;40:9563–9.
[21] Kumar MS, Jaikumar M. Studies on the effect of hydrogen induction on perfor-
mance, emission and combustion behaviour of a WCO emulsion based dual fuel
engine. Int J Hydrog Energy 2014;39:18440–50.
[22] Rahman M, Hamada KI, Aziz ARA. Characterization of the time-averaged overall
heat transfer in a direct-injection hydrogen-fueled engine. Int J Hydrog Energy
2013;38:4816–30.
[23] De Simio L, Gambino M, Iannaccone S. Experimental and numerical study of hy-
drogen addition in a natural gas heavy duty engine for a bus vehicle. Int J Hydrog
Energy 2013;38:6865–73.
[24] Lim G, Lee S, Park C, Choi Y, Kim C. Effect of ignition timing retard strategy on NO
x reduction in hydrogen-compressed natural gas blend engine with increased
compression ratio. Int J Hydrog Energy 2014;39:2399–408.
[25] Lim G, Lee S, Park C, Choi Y, Kim C. Effects of compression ratio on performance
and emission characteristics of heavy-duty SI engine fuelled with HCNG. Int J
Hydrog Energy 2013;38:4831–8.
[26] Akansu SO, Dulger Z, Kahraman N, Veziroǧlu TN. Internal combustion engines
fueled by natural gas—hydrogen mixtures. Int J Hydrog Energy 2004;29:1527–39.
[27] Deng J, Ma F, Li S, He Y, Wang M, Jiang L, Zhao S. Experimental study on com-
bustion and emission characteristics of a hydrogen-enriched compressed natural
gas engine under idling condition. Int J Hydrog Energy 2011;36:13150–7.
[28] Khan MI, Yasmin T, Shakoor A. Technical overview of compressed natural gas
(CNG) as a transportation fuel. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2015;51:785–97.
[29] Werner AK, Vink S, Watt K, Jagals P. Environmental health impacts of un-
conventional natural gas development: a review of the current strength of evi-
dence. Sci Total Environ 2015;505:1127–41.
[30] Kakaee A, Paykani A, Ghajar M. The influence of fuel composition on the com-
bustion and emission characteristics of natural gas fueled engines. Renew Sustain
Energy Rev 2014;38:64–78.
[31] Kakaee A, Paykani A. Research and development of natural-gas fueled engines in
Iran. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2013;26:805–21.
[32] Korakianitis T, Namasivayam A, Crookes R. Natural-gas fueled spark-ignition (SI)
and compression-ignition (CI) engine performance and emissions. Prog Energy
Combust Sci 2011;37:89–112.
[33] Cho HM, He B. Spark ignition natural gas engines—A review. Energy Convers
Manag 2007;48:608–18.
[34] Hairuddin AA, Yusaf T, Wandel AP. A review of hydrogen and natural gas addition
in diesel HCCI engines. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2014;32:739–61.
[35] Singh S, Jain S, Venkateswaran P, Tiwari AK, Nouni MR, Pandey JK, Goel S.
Hydrogen: a sustainable fuel for future of the transport sector. Renew Sustain
Energy Rev 2015;51:623–33.
[36] Salvi B, Subramanian K. Sustainable development of road transportation sector
using hydrogen energy system. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2015;51:1132–55.
[37] Verhelst S. Recent progress in the use of hydrogen as a fuel for internal combustion
engines. Int J Hydrog Energy 2014;39:1071–85.
[38] Gahleitner G. Hydrogen from renewable electricity: an international review of
power-to-gas pilot plants for stationary applications. Int J Hydrog Energy
2013;38:2039–61.
[39] Sun Z, Liu F, Liu X, Sun B, Sun D. Research and development of hydrogen fuelled
engines in China. Int J Hydrog Energy 2012;37:664–81.
[40] White C, Steeper R, Lutz A. The hydrogen-fueled internal combustion engine: a
technical review. Int J Hydrog Energy 2006;31:1292–305.
[41] Sherif SA, Barbir F, Veziroglu T. Wind energy and the hydrogen economy—review
of the technology. Sol Energy 2005;78:647–60.
[42] Goyal P, Sharma SK. Review on opportunities and difficulties with HCNG as a
future fuel for internal combustion engine. Adv Aerosp Sci Appl 2014.
[43] Arat HT, Aydin K, Baltacioğlu E, Yaşar E, Baltacioğlu MK, Conker Ç, Burgaç A, A
review of hydrogen-enriched compressed natural gas (HCNG)-fuel in diesel en-
gines.
[44] Mariani A, Unich A, Morrone B. A review of hydrogen-natural gas blend fuels in
internal combustion engines. INTECH Open Access Publisher; 2012.
[45] Akansu SO, Kahraman N, Çeper B. Experimental study on a spark ignition engine
fuelled by methane–hydrogen mixtures. Int J Hydrog Energy 2007;32:4279–84.
[46] Alrazen HA, Talib AA, Adnan R, Ahmad K. A review of the effect of hydrogen
addition on the performance and emissions of the compression–ignition engine.
Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2016;54:785–96.
[47] Gür TM. Comprehensive review of methane conversion in solid oxide fuel cells:
prospects for efficient electricity generation from natural gas. Prog Energy
Combust Sci 2016;54:1–64.
[48] Das L. Hydrogen engines: a view of the past and a look into the future. Int J Hydrog
Energy 1990;15:425–43.
340
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 324–342
[49] Halstead M, Pye D, Quinn C. Laminar burning velocities and weak flammability
limits under engine-like conditions. Combust Flame 1974;22:89–97.
[50] White C, Steeper R, Lutz A. The hydrogen-fueled internal combustion engine: a
technical review. Int J Hydrog Energy 2006;31:1292–305.
[51] Saravanan N, Nagarajan G, Dhanasekaran C, Kalaiselvan K. Experimental in-
vestigation of hydrogen port fuel injection in DI diesel engine. Int J Hydrog Energy
2007;32:4071–80.
[52] Worldwide NGV Statistics. 〈http://www.ngvjournal.com/worldwide-ngv-
statistics〉, NGV J; (May13).
[53] Yeh S. An empirical analysis on the adoption of alternative fuel vehicles: the case
of natural gas vehicles. Energy Policy 2007;35:5865–75.
[54] Ehsan M. Effect of spark advance on a gas run automotive spark ignition engine. J
Chem Eng 2006;24:42–9.
[55] Prati MV, Mariani A, Torbati R, Unich A, Costagliola MA, Morrone B. Emissions
and combustion behavior of a bi-fuel gasoline and natural gas spark ignition en-
gine. SAE Int J Fuels Lubr 2011;4:328–38.
[56] Khan MI, Yasmin T. Development of natural gas as a vehicular fuel in Pakistan:
issues and prospects. J Nat Gas Sci Eng 2014;17:99–109.
[57] Dondero L, Goldemberg J. Environmental implications of converting light gas
vehicles: the Brazilian experience. Energy Policy 2005;33:1703–8.
[58] Gwilliam KM. The role of natural gas in the transport sector; 2000.
[59] Matic D. Global opportunities for natural gas as a transportation fuel for today and
tomorrow, IGU study group—natural gas for vehicles; 2006.
[60] Zhao J, Melaina MW. Transition to hydrogen-based transportation in China: les-
sons learned from alternative fuel vehicle programs in the United States and China.
Energy Policy 2006;34:1299–309.
[61] Experiences with compressed natural gas in Colorado vehicle fleets case study
analysis, Colorado Energy Office, USA; 2012.
[62] Melendez M, Taylor J, Zuboy J, Wayne WS, Smith D. Emission testing of
Washington metropolitan area transit authority (WMATA) natural gas and diesel
transit buses. 2005.
[63] Sonia Y. An empirical analysis on the adoption of alternative fuel vehicles: < br/
> the case of natural gas vehicles. Energy Policy 2007;35:5865–75.
[64] BP Statistical Review of World Energy. 〈http://www.bp.com/en/global/
corporate/about-bp/energy-economics/statistical-review-of-world-energy〉,
(September 14, 2014).
[65] Natural Gas in the World. 2014 edition; CEDIGAZ: France; 2014.
[66] International Energy Agency. World Energy Outlook. OECD/IEA; 2011.
[67] Annual Energy Outlook 2014: with projections to 2040. US Energy
Information Administration (EIA); 2014, 〈http://www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/pdf/
0383(2014).pdf〉, (October 5 2014).
[68] Jahirul MI, Masjuki HH, Saidur R, Kalam MA, Jayed MH, Wazed MA. Comparative
engine performance and emission analysis of CNG and gasoline in a retrofitted car
engine. Appl Therm Eng 2010;26:2219–26.
[69] Khan MI YT. Development of natural gas as a vehicular fuel in Pakistan: issues and
prospects. J Nat Gas Sci Eng 2014;17:99–109.
[70] Wang-Helmreich H, Lochner S. The potential of natural gas as a bridging tech-
nology in low-emission road transportation in Germany. Therm Sci
2012;16:729–46.
[71] Richards G, McMillian M, Gemmen R, Rogers WA, Cully S. Issues for low-emission,
fuel-flexible power systems. Prog Energy Combust Sci 2001;27:141–69.
[72] McTaggart-Cowan G, Reynolds C, Bushe W. Natural gas fuelling for heavy-duty on-
road use: current trends and future direction. Int J Environ Stud 2006;63:421–40.
[73] Shamekhi AH, Khatibzadeh N, Shamekhi A. A comprehensive comparative in-
vestigation of compressed natural gas as an alternative fuel in a bi-fuel spark ig-
nition engine. Iran J Chem Chem Eng Vol 2008;27.
[74] Aslam M, Masjuki H, Kalam M, Abdesselam H, Mahlia T, Amalina M. An experi-
mental investigation of CNG as an alternative fuel for a retrofitted gasoline vehicle.
Fuel 2006;85:717–24.
[75] Nwafor O. Effect of advanced injection timing on emission characteristics of diesel
engine running on natural gas. Renew Energy 2007;32:2361–8.
[76] Das L, Gulati R, Gupta PK. A comparative evaluation of the performance char-
acteristics of a spark ignition engine using hydrogen and compressed natural gas as
alternative fuels. Int J Hydrog Energy 2000;25:783–93.
[77] Selim MY, Radwan M, Saleh H. Improving the performance of dual fuel engines
running on natural gas/LPG by using pilot fuel derived from jojoba seeds. Renew
Energy 2008;33:1173–85.
[78] Zuo C, Qian Y, Tan J, Xu H. An experimental study of combustion and emissions in
a spark-ignition engine fueled with coal-bed gas. Energy 2008;33:455–61.
[79] Wannatong K, Akarapanyavit N, Siengsanorh S, Chanchaona S. Combustion and
knock characteristics of natural gas diesel dual fuel engine; 2007.
[80] Bysveen M. Engine characteristics of emissions and performance using mixtures of
natural gas and hydrogen. Energy 2007;32:482–9.
[81] Paykani A, Saray RK, Shervani-Tabar M, Mohammadi-Kousha A. Effect of exhaust
gas recirculation and intake pre-heating on performance and emission character-
istics of dual fuel engines at part loads. J Cent South Univ 2012;19:1346–52.
[82] Ibrahim A, Bari S. A comparison between EGR and lean-burn strategies employed
in a natural gas SI engine using a two-zone combustion model. Energy Convers
Manag 2009;50:3129–39.
[83] Hesterberg TW, Lapin CA, Bunn WB. A comparison of emissions from vehicles
fueled with diesel or compressed natural gas. Environ Sci Technol
2008;42:6437–45.
[84] Cho HM, He B. Combustion and emission characteristics of a natural gas engine
under different operating conditions. Environ Eng Res 2009;14:95–101.
[85] Jahirul MI, Masjuki H, Saidur R, Kalam M, Jayed M, Wazed M. Comparative en-
gine performance and emission analysis of CNG and gasoline in a retrofitted car
H.A. Alrazen, K.A. Ahmad
engine. Appl Therm Eng 2010;30:2219–26.
[86] Liu Y, Yeom J, Chung S. A study of spray development and combustion propa-
gation processes of spark-ignited direct injection (SIDI) compressed natural gas
(CNG). Math Comput Model 2013;57:228–44.
[87] Natural gas vehicle statistics: NGV count – international association for natural gas
vehicles; 2012.
[88] Vanysek P. Handbook of chemistry and physics, DR Lide (Editor-in-Chief); 1994.
[89] Tyagi R, Ranjan R. Effect of hydrogen and gasoline fuel blend on the performance
of SI engine. J Pet Technol Altern Fuels 2013;4:125–30.
[90] Yilanci A, Dincer I, Ozturk H. A review on solar-hydrogen/fuel cell hybrid energy
systems for stationary applications. Prog Energy Combust Sci 2009;35:231–44.
[91] Kruse Bjørnar, Grinna Sondre, Buch Cato. Hydrogen. Belona Foundation; 2002.
[92] Nikolaidis Pavlos, Poullikkas Andreas. A comparative overview of hydrogen pro-
duction processes. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2017;67:597–611.
[93] Pellegrino Sandro, Lanzini Andrea, Leone Pierluigi. Greening the gas network–The
need for modelling the distributed injection of alternative fuels. Renew Sustain
Energy Rev 2017;70:266–86.
[94] Gupta RB. Hydrogen fuel: production, transport, and storage. CRC Press; 2008.
[95] Ioannatos GE, Verykios XE. H 2 storage on single-and multi-walled carbon nano-
tubes. Int J Hydrog Energy 2010;35:622–8.
[96] Wang Y, Deng W, Liu X, Wang X. Electrochemical hydrogen storage properties of
ball-milled multi-wall carbon nanotubes. Int J Hydrog Energy 2009;34:1437–43.
[97] Zhang H, Fu X, Chen Y, Yi S, Li S, Zhu Y, Wang L. The electrochemical hydrogen
storage of multi-walled carbon nanotubes synthesized by chemical vapor deposi-
tion using a lanthanum nickel hydrogen storage alloy as catalyst. Phys B: Condens
Matter 2004;352:66–72.
[98] Dodziuk H, Dolgonos G. Molecular modeling study of hydrogen storage in carbon
nanotubes. Chem Phys Lett 2002;356:79–83.
[99] Reddy ALM, Ramaprabhu S. Hydrogen adsorption properties of single-walled
carbon nanotube—nanocrystalline platinum composites. Int J Hydrog Energy
2008;33:1028–34.
[100] Rather S, Hwang SW, Kim AR, Nahm KS. Room temperature hydrogen uptake of
carbon nanotubes promoted by silver metal catalyst. J Alloy Compd
2009;475:L17–21.
[101] Shaijumon M, Ramaprabhu S. Studies of yield and nature of carbon nanostructures
synthesized by pyrolysis of ferrocene and hydrogen adsorption studies of carbon
nanotubes. Int J Hydrog Energy 2005;30:311–7.
[102] Sankaran M, Viswanathan B. The role of heteroatoms in carbon nanotubes for
hydrogen storage. Carbon 2006;44:2816–21.
[103] Panella B, Hirscher M, Roth S. Hydrogen adsorption in different carbon nanos-
tructures. Carbon 2005;43:2209–14.
[104] Bysveen M. Engine characteristics of emissions and performance using mixtures of
natural gas and hydrogen. Energy 2007;32:482–9.
[105] Saravanan N, Nagarajan G, Narayanasamy S. An experimental investigation on DI
diesel engine with hydrogen fuel. Renew Energy 2008;33:415–21.
[106] Ganesh RH, Subramanian V, Balasubramanian V, Mallikarjuna J, Ramesh A,
Sharma R. Hydrogen fueled spark ignition engine with electronically controlled
manifold injection: an experimental study. Renew Energy 2008;33:1324–33.
[107] Mohammadi A, Shioji M, Nakai Y, Ishikura W, Tabo E. Performance and com-
bustion characteristics of a direct injection SI hydrogen engine. Int J Hydrog
Energy 2007;32:296–304.
[108] Martinez-Martinez S, Sanchez-Cruz F, Riesco-Avila J, Gallegos-Munoz A, Aceves S.
Liquid penetration length in direct diesel fuel injection. Appl Therm Eng
2008;28:1756–62.
[109] Masood M, Mehdi S, Reddy PR. Experimental investigations on a hydrogen-diesel
dual fuel engine at different compression ratios. J Eng Gas Turbines Power
2007;129:572–8.
[110] Masood M, Ishrat M, Reddy A. Computational combustion and emission analysis of
hydrogen–diesel blends with experimental verification. Int J Hydrog Energy
2007;32:2539–47.
[111] Szwaja S, Bhandary K, Naber J. Comparisons of hydrogen and gasoline combustion
knock in a spark ignition engine. Int J Hydrog Energy 2007;32:5076–87.
[112] Ghazal OH. A comparative evaluation of the performance of different fuel in-
duction techniques for blends hydrogen–methane SI engine. Int J Hydrog Energy
2013;38:6848–56.
[113] Bauer C, Forest T. Effect of hydrogen addition on the performance of methane-
fueled vehicles. Part I: effect on SI engine performance. Int J Hydrog Energy
2001;26:55–70.
[114] Das L. Utilization of hydrogen-cng blend in internal combustion engine. Hydrog
Energy Prog 1996;2:1513–36.
[115] Rakopoulos C, Giakoumis E. Second-law analyses applied to internal combustion
engines operation. Prog Energy Combust Sci 2006;32:2–47.
[116] Antunes JG, Mikalsen R, Roskilly A. An experimental study of a direct injection
compression ignition hydrogen engine. Int J Hydrog Energy 2009;34:6516–22.
[117] Szwaja S, Grab-Rogalinski K. Hydrogen combustion in a compression ignition
diesel engine. Int J Hydrog Energy 2009;34:4413–21.
[118] Das L. On-board hydrogen storage systems for automotive application. Int J
Hydrog Energy 1996;21:789–800.
[119] Karner D, Brayer R. Hydrogen and hydrogen/natural gas station and vehicle op-
erations-2006 summary report. 2006.
[120] K.C. J.R. Anstrom, Blended hydrogen–natural gas-fueled internal combustion en-
gines and fueling infrastructure; 2016.
[121] Hora TS, Agarwal AK. Experimental study of the composition of hydrogen en-
riched compressed natural gas on engine performance, combustion and emission
characteristics. Fuel 2015;160:470–8.
[122] Flekiewicz B, Flekiewicz M, Kubica G. Identification of Optimal CNG-Hydrogen
341
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 324–342
Enrichment Ratio in the Small SI Engines; 2012.
[123] Ceper BA, Akansu SO, Kahraman N. Investigation of cylinder pressure for H 2/CH
4 mixtures at different loads. Int J Hydrog Energy 2009;34:4855–61.
[124] Kahraman N, Çeper B, Akansu SO, Aydin K. Investigation of combustion char-
acteristics and emissions in a spark-ignition engine fuelled with natural gas–hy-
drogen blends. Int J Hydrog Energy 2009;34:1026–34.
[125] Ji C, Wang S. Experimental study on combustion and emissions performance of a
hybrid hydrogen–gasoline engine at lean burn limits. Int J Hydrog Energy
2010;35:1453–62.
[126] Costa RC, Sodré JR. Compression ratio effects on an ethanol/gasoline fuelled en-
gine performance. Appl Therm Eng 2011;31:278–83.
[127] Mehdi S, Reddy D, Reddy A. Energy conservation in two-stroke spark ignition
engines by varying the compression ratio. Energy Sustain Dev 2000;4:53–7.
[128] Park C, Kim C, Choi Y. Power output characteristics of hydrogen-natural gas blend
fuel engine at different compression ratios. Int J Hydrog Energy 2012;37:8681–7.
[129] Tangöz S, Akansu SO, Kahraman N, Malkoç Y. Effects of compression ratio on
performance and emissions of a modified diesel engine fueled by HCNG. Int J
Hydrog Energy 2015.
[130] Xu J, Zhang X, Liu J, Fan L. Experimental study of a single-cylinder engine fueled
with natural gas–hydrogen mixtures. Int J Hydrog Energy 2010;35:2909–14.
[131] Zheng J, Wang J, Wang B, Huang Z. Effect of the compression ratio on the per-
formance and combustion of a natural-gas direct-injection engine. Proc Inst Mech
Eng Pt D: J Automob Eng 2009;223:85–98.
[132] Huang Z, Wang J, Liu B, Zeng K, Yu J, Jiang D. Combustion characteristics of a
direct-injection engine fueled with natural gas–hydrogen blends under different
ignition timings. Fuel 2007;86:381–7.
[133] Moreno F, Arroyo J, Muñoz M, Monné C. Combustion analysis of a spark ignition
engine fueled with gaseous blends containing hydrogen. Int J Hydrog Energy
2012;37:13564–73.
[134] Wang J, Huang Z, Fang Y, Liu B, Zeng K, Miao H, Jiang D. Combustion behaviors
of a direct-injection engine operating on various fractions of natural gas–hydrogen
blends. Int J Hydrog Energy 2007;32:3555–64.
[135] Mariani A, Prati MV, Unich A, Morrone B. Combustion analysis of a spark ignition
ic engine fuelled alternatively with natural gas and hydrogen-natural gas blends.
Int J Hydrog Energy 2013;38:1616–23.
[136] Reitz RD, Duraisamy G. Review of high efficiency and clean reactivity controlled
compression ignition (RCCI) combustion in internal combustion engines. Prog
Energy Combust Sci 2015;46:12–71.
[137] Saxena S, Bedoya ID. Fundamental phenomena affecting low temperature com-
bustion and HCCI engines, high load limits and strategies for extending these
limits. Prog Energy Combust Sci 2013;39:457–88.
[138] Thurnheer T, Soltic P, Eggenschwiler PD. SI engine fuelled with gasoline, methane
and methane/hydrogen blends: heat release and loss analysis. Int J Hydrog Energy
2009;34:2494–503.
[139] Lee S, Kim C, Choi Y, Lim G, Park C. Emissions and fuel consumption character-
istics of an HCNG-fueled heavy-duty engine at idle. Int J Hydrog Energy
2014;39:8078–86.
[140] Weinrotter M, Kopecek H, Tesch M, Wintner E, Lackner M, Winter F. Laser ignition
of ultra-lean methane/hydrogen/air mixtures at high temperature and pressure.
Exp Therm Fluid Sci 2005;29:569–77.
[141] Diéguez P, Urroz J, Marcelino-Sádaba S, Pérez-Ezcurdia A, Benito-Amurrio M,
Sáinz D, Gandía L. Experimental study of the performance and emission char-
acteristics of an adapted commercial four-cylinder spark ignition engine running
on hydrogen–methane mixtures. Appl Energy 2014;113:1068–76.
[142] Swain MR, Yusuf MJ, Dülger Z, Swain MN. The effects of hydrogen addition on
natural gas engine operation; 1993.
[143] Gokalp B, Soyhan HS, Saraç Hİ, Bostan D, Şengün Y. Biodiesel addition to standard
diesel fuels and marine fuels used in a diesel engine: effects on emission char-
acteristics and first-and second-law efficiencies†. Energy Fuels 2008;23:1849–57.
[144] Ji C, Zhang B, Wang S. Enhancing the performance of a spark-ignition methanol
engine with hydrogen addition. Int J Hydrog Energy 2013;38:7490–8.
[145] Ma F, Li S, Zhao J, Qi Z, Deng J, Naeve N, He Y, Zhao S. Effect of compression ratio
and spark timing on the power performance and combustion characteristics of an
HCNG engine. Int J Hydrog Energy 2012;37:18486–91.
[146] Ilbas M, Crayford A, Yılmaz I, Bowen P, Syred N. Laminar-burning velocities of
hydrogen–air and hydrogen–methane–air mixtures: an experimental study. Int J
Hydrog Energy 2006;31:1768–79.
[147] Naeve N, He Y, Deng J, Wang M, Ma F. Waste Coke Oven Gas Used as a Potential
Fuel for Engines; 2011.
[148] Ma F, Wang Y, Liu H, Li Y, Wang J, Zhao S. Experimental study on thermal effi-
ciency and emission characteristics of a lean burn hydrogen enriched natural gas
engine. Int J Hydrog Energy 2007;32:5067–75.
[149] Hu E, Huang Z, He J, Miao H. Experimental and numerical study on lean premixed
methane–hydrogen–air flames at elevated pressures and temperatures. Int J
Hydrog Energy 2009;34:6951–60.
[150] Alrazen HayderA, Ahmad KA. A review study of diesel and natural gas on CI en-
gine with focusing to emissions, Conf. ICCMEH; 2015.
[151] Park SH, Lee CS. Combustion performance and emission reduction characteristics
of automotive DME engine system. Prog Energy Combust Sci 2013;39:147–68.
[152] Gharehghani A, Hosseini R, Mirsalim M, Yusaf TF. A computational study of op-
erating range extension in a natural gas SI engine with the use of hydrogen. Int J
Hydrog Energy 2015;40:5966–75.
[153] Moreno F, Muñoz M, Arroyo J, Magén O, Monné C, Suelves I. Efficiency and
emissions in a vehicle spark ignition engine fueled with hydrogen and methane
blends. Int J Hydrog Energy 2012;37:11495–503.
[154] Ma F, Liu H, Wang Y, Li Y, Wang J, Zhao S. Combustion and emission
H.A. Alrazen, K.A. Ahmad
characteristics of a port-injection HCNG engine under various ignition timings. Int
J Hydrog Energy 2008;33:816–22.
[155] Navarro E, Leo TJ, Corral R. CO 2 emissions from a spark ignition engine operating
on natural gas–hydrogen blends (HCNG). Appl Energy 2013;101:112–20.
[156] Karim GA. A review of combustion processes in the dual fuel engine—the gas
diesel engine. Prog Energy Combust Sci 1980;6:277–85.
[157] Carlucci A, De Risi A, Laforgia D, Naccarato F. Experimental investigation and
combustion analysis of a direct injection dual-fuel diesel–natural gas engine.
Energy 2008;33:256–63.
[158] Mariani A, Morrone B, Unich A. Numerical evaluation of internal combustion
spark ignition engines performance fuelled with hydrogen–natural gas blends. Int
J Hydrog Energy 2012;37:2644–54.
[159] Knop V, Benkenida A, Jay S, Colin O. Modelling of combustion and nitrogen oxide
formation in hydrogen-fuelled internal combustion engines within a 3D CFD code.
Int J Hydrog Energy 2008;33:5083–97.
[160] Tinaut F, Melgar A, Giménez B, Reyes M. Prediction of performance and emissions
of an engine fuelled with natural gas/hydrogen blends. Int J Hydrog Energy
2011;36:947–56.
[161] Wang X, Zhang H, Yao B, Lei Y, Sun X, Wang D, Ge Y. Experimental study on
factors affecting lean combustion limit of SI engine fueled with compressed natural
gas and hydrogen blends. Energy 2012;38:58–65.
[162] Regulation (EC) No 595/2009 of the European parliament and of the council.
Brussels: Official Journal of the European Union; 2009.
[163] Zhao J, Ma F, Xiong X, Deng J, Wang L, Naeve N, Zhao S. Effects of compression
342
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 82 (2018) 324–342
ratio on the combustion and emission of a hydrogen enriched natural gas engine
under different excess air ratio. Energy 2013;59:658–65.
[164] Rottengruber H, Berckmueller M, Elsaesser G, Brehm N, Schwarz C. Operation
strategies for hydrogen engines with high power density and high efficiency; 2004.
[165] Verhelst S, Wallner T. Hydrogen-fueled internal combustion engines. Prog Energy
Combust Sci 2009;35:490–527.
[166] Verhelst S, Sierens R. A quasi-dimensional model for the power cycle of a hy-
drogen-fuelled ice. Int J Hydrog Energy 2007;32:3545–54.
[167] Saxena P, Williams FA. Testing a small detailed chemical-kinetic mechanism for
the combustion of hydrogen and carbon monoxide. Combust Flame
2006;145:316–23.
[168] Konnov AA. Remaining uncertainties in the kinetic mechanism of hydrogen
combustion. Combust Flame 2008;152:507–28.
[169] Verhelst S, Sierens R. A two-zone thermodynamic model for hydrogen-fueled SI
engines; 2008, 773-778.
[170] Zhu Lei, et al. In-cylinder thermochemical fuel reforming (TFR) in a spark-ignition
natural gas engine. Proc Combust Inst 2017;36.3:3487–97.
[171] Shi Weibo, et al. Effect of spark timing on combustion and emissions of a hydrogen
direct injection stratified gasoline engine. Int J Hydrog Energy
2017;42.8:5619–26.
[172] Nabgan Walid, et al. Renewable hydrogen production from bio-oil derivative via
catalytic steam reforming: an overview. Renew Sustain Energy Rev
2017;79:347–57.