Drying Technology

An International Journal

ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ldrt20

Novel approaches based on ultrasound for spray

drying of food and bioactive compounds

Rajeshree A. Khaire & Parag R. Gogate

To cite this article: Rajeshree A. Khaire & Parag R. Gogate (2020): Novel approaches based
on ultrasound for spray drying of food and bioactive compounds, Drying Technology, DOI:
10.1080/07373937.2020.1804926

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/07373937.2020.1804926

Published online: 13 Aug 2020.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 22

View related articles

View Crossmark data

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=ldrt20
DRYING TECHNOLOGY
https://doi.org/10.1080/07373937.2020.1804926

Novel approaches based on ultrasound for spray drying

of food and bioactive compounds
Rajeshree A. Khaire and Parag R. Gogate
Chemical Engineering Department, Institute of Chemical Technology, Mumbai, India

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Ultrasound assisted spray drying has been extensively used in the food and pharmaceutical Received 24 March 2020
industries for increasing the stability of variety of compounds involved in different applica- Revised 15 June 2020
tions, especially for drying sensitive compounds in the case of pharmaceutical industries. Accepted 9 July 2020
The use of ultrasonic spray drying has shown promising results in pharmaceutical sector
KEYWORDS
though the application in food industries is still in the development stage possibly due to Food products and
the absence of suitable designs, lower throughput values, and scale of operations. bioactive compounds;
Considering these aspects, the current review focuses on the analysis of ultrasound-assisted ultrasound; spray drying;
spray drying for the food products and bioactive compounds so as to provide a better per- encapsulation; microspheres
ception for the use in food processing industries. A detailed study into the diverse applica-
tion of ultrasound in spray drying for encapsulation, microsphere generation, etc. in food
industry and the enhancement into such applications using ultrasonic nozzle has been pre-
sented. Along with this, guidelines for the operating conditions involved in ultrasonic atom-
ization for suitable applications with desired outputs and a detailed comparison with other
nozzles have also been presented. Several advantages of ultrasonic spray drying over con-
ventional method such as better size distribution, no nozzle clogging, lower velocity atom-
ization, etc. have also been discussed. The low velocity spray generation using ultrasonic
atomizers eliminates the requisite for large drying chambers thus, contributing to the com-
pact designs. Overall, it has been clearly demonstrated that ultrasound offers lots of promise
for improving the operations mainly with reduced processing times, enhanced production
rates, and product quality.

1. Introduction proteins, milk, etc. at commercially established appli-

Spray drying is the phase transition process in which
a fluid stream is sprayed and dried to form solid par-
ticles. It is a unique operation in which the dispersion
of fluid occurs called as atomization to facilitate the
drying process through higher evaporation rates based
on the formation of fine sprays. Additional advantage
is the generation of free-flowing powder with narrow
particle size distribution through controlling the oper-
ation parameters involved. Typically, the drying time
is substantially shorter for spray drying process com-
pared to other conventional drying methods.[1] Also,
the temperature of the end product is lower due to
the evaporation effect as compared to the other drying
methods. In view of the benefits associated, spray dry-
ing has been widely used in many industrial applica-
tions especially in food and pharmaceutical sectors.
Spray drying has been extensively used for the prepar-
ation of food powders such as tea, coffee, whey
cation levels. Apart from simply drying food materials,
spray drying has also been evolved as a versatile tech-
nique for specific objectives including microencapsula-
tion, microbial inactivation, preservation, improved
product characteristics, etc. However, several short-
comings are associated with this process including
high temperature requirement which is not feasible
for heat sensitive materials such as volatile, bioactive
compounds, etc.[2] The physical properties of dried
particles are greatly affected by the temperature to
which these sprayed materials are exposed. In the case
of application of conventional spray drying, most of
the heat sensitive or probiotic materials lose their
activity after drying or after only few weeks of storage.
This effect was attributed to the stress associated with
the temperature and phase changes during drying pro-
cess eventually damaging the cell membranes and the
relative proteins.[3] Along with thermal degradation,

CONTACT Parag R. Gogate pr.gogate@ictmumbai.edu.in Chemical Engineering Department, Institute of Chemical Technology, Matunga, Mumbai
400 019, India
ß 2020 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
2 R. A. KHAIRE AND P. R. GOGATE
the sensory properties of spray dried material can also
be affected leading to a low-quality product. It has
also been reported that the thermal and shear stress
generated using conventional spray nozzles affects the
biological and physical properties of macromole-
cules[4] and thus, careful selection of process parame-
ters during spray drying is necessary. Freeze drying is
an alternative method that evades the high tempera-
ture requirement and helps to maintain the functional
properties and quality of product.[5] However, the cost
accompanying such processes is comparatively higher
and the time required is excessive. Thus, it appears
that there is a need for developing a better method
comprising the advantages of basic spray drying; also
overcoming the drawbacks involved such as use of
higher temperatures which can be achieved through
the use of ultrasound. The use of ultrasonic vibrations
for spray formation does not need any high-pressure
fluid and thus, affects the energy cost and space favor-
ably as well. Besides, it has also been established that
ultrasonic atomizer offers other benefits like low vel-
ocity spray, low temperature operation, smaller par-
ticle size, high evaporation rates, and low mechanical
stress[6] compared to conventional spray drying and
narrow size distribution which are some of the key
requirements in the food sector.
The food industry is growing expeditiously world-
wide, adapting new trends and correlating the food
and health from consumer’s perspective. The compre-
hension related to functional foods is expanding con-
sidering the allied substantial health benefits[7] and
thus the quality and nutrition are becoming more
imperative in food industries. Ultrasonic atomization
helps to maintain the biological activity of bioactive
compounds which are constituents of such functional
foods, preserving the nutritional benefits and also the
narrow size distribution of particles facilitates the
desired application. The cavitation phenomena of
ultrasound have been also found to have positive
effects for microbial inactivation and emulsification in
the preparation of food materials. Mainly, the physical
effects associated with cavitation such as shear stress
provide the necessary effect at micro level for
enhanced mass and heat transfer. Ultrasonic spray
drying has application in the food processing, but still
has not been successfully used at the industrial scale
due to low throughput values, heat generated at large
scale and the complexity associated.[8] Even in the
dairy sector, the use of ultrasonic spray drying is lim-
ited due to the complex makeup of liquid concen-
trates, equipment designs, heat generation, etc and
also the fine particles generated using this process
might adversely affect the rehydration properties, thus
finally constraining its use to laboratory scale.
Nevertheless, the uniform particle size produced using
ultrasonic atomizer is of great importance in process-
ing industries including food industries where applica-
tions such as encapsulation and microparticle
generation are essential for quality and desired
characteristics.
The present article focuses on providing review on
the ultrasound application in spray drying for food
and bioactive compounds considering the confined
exploration of ultrasonic atomization in food process-
ing, unlike pharmaceutical sector, where it is already
widely in practice in microencapsulation as well as in
drug administration showing evidencable benefits.
Despite several advantages, the use of ultrasonic spray
drying in food processing is limited at commercial
levels due to the lack of suitable reactor designs for
large-scale operations and unfavorable economic fac-
tors.[9] Several studies have been published on this
theme highlighting the use of ultrasonic atomization
in the food and pharmaceutical sector,[10] the different
uses of ultrasound in food drying,[11] and the applica-
tion of different atomizers in drying as well.[12] But, a
dedicated comprehensive analysis of ultrasonic spray
drying of food and bioactive compounds emphasizing
on the approach has not been studied. With regards
to the constrained use of ultrasound in spray drying
in the food sector, a detailed study on the ultrasonic
atomizer designs, the parameters influencing the pro-
cess, and the applications so far using ultrasonic spray
drying in the relevant field is considered to be need of
the hour. Such a study will facilitate the understand-
ing of the possible application of ultrasonic spray dry-
ing in the food industry in enhancing the productivity
as well as the quality of end product and hence the
importance of the current review is clearly established.
2. Theory of spray drying using ultrasound
As described by Lang,[13] the ultrasonic atomization
can be achieved through vibrating a liquid layer using
ultrasound transmission into liquid which is attained
using a piezoelectric crystal vibrating at a high fre-
quency. An electromechanical device consisting of two
piezoelectric disks which are tightened by a support
element and a mechanical amplifying element typically
constitute an ultrasonic atomizer as depicted schemat-
ically in Figure 1.[14] When a thin film of liquid is
formed on the atomization surface, the vibrations
caused due to ultrasound generates capillary waves
depending on the ultrasound parameters such as

Figure 1. Schematic representation of ultrasonic atomizer.
frequency of ultrasound and power supplied.[13] The
liquid viscosity, density, concentration, surface ten-
sion, also play a role in determining the capillary
wavelength which ultimately decides the size of drop-
let formed through ultrasonic atomization. Typically
during the operation, the liquid is introduced into the
feed capillary and then on the resonant surface (at the
tip of the nozzle) where the formation of a thin liquid
film occurs. Ultrasonic vibrations are introduced into
the liquid medium when the liquid comes in contact
with the surface of the piezoelectric disks. When the
vibrations produced are sufficiently higher than the
liquid surface tension, atomization occurs. In the pro-
cess, a square wave pattern forms when the vibrating
frequency reaches the resonance frequency, beyond
which liquid drops emerge, leaving the tip of ultra-
sonic nozzle and resulting in a low velocity aerosol
like structure.[12]
It would be worthwhile to compare the operations
of the conventional pneumatic and ultrasonic nozzle.
A typical pneumatic nozzle and ultrasonic nozzle are
shown in Figure 2.
Distinct to the conventional nozzles, which rely on
the pressure energy for dispersing a liquid into drop-
lets, the ultrasonic nozzles are simply based on the
vibrational energy generated by the device. The con-
ventional nozzles, thus, produce high velocity flow on
account of impart of kinetic energy delivering wider
distribution of droplets. On the contrary, the ultra-
sonic nozzles are successful in achieving low velocity
spray resulting in much narrow droplet distribution,
also producing more mono-sized particles.[15] The low
velocity flow also concedes the use of much shorter
dimension drying chamber due to reduced overspray
conditions facilitating the use of ultrasonic atomizers
for laminar flow cabinet or isolators.[14] The uniform
size distribution and small sized droplets generation
carry benefits like better evaporation rates and shorter
residence time in drying chamber thus evading the
DRYING TECHNOLOGY 3
Figure 2. Two fluid pressure nozzle (Jay Instruments Pvt. Ltd.,
India) and ultrasonic nozzle, on the right (40 kHz, Oscar
Ultrasonics, Model no – PR40N).
possible adverse effects on the material due to any
unfavorable process conditions. Also, the ultrasound
atomizer offers the advantage of use of large sized
aperture of the nozzle tip making it nearly clogging
free,[16] facilitating the cleaning and maintenance.
Typically in the case of conventional approach, in
order to maintain the particle size, the production
rate is found to be substantially lesser which could
negatively affect the economics.[17] Pressure nozzles
show low throughput values where the inlays of noz-
zle need to be changed for changing the flowrate and
can operate flowrate only up to 400 L/h. Pneumatic
nozzles can operate at as high as 1000 L/h and provide
better control over the flowrate using peristaltic
pumps delivering ultimately better throughput values
and thus, can process small liquid flowrates which
make these nozzles ideal for lab scale application. For
large-scale applications however, this method is highly
energy intensive due to high flowrate requirement of
pressurized gas. Similarly, rotary disk atomizers show
better throughput values and can handle large capacity
with flowrate up to 200 ton/h, but delivers poor par-
ticle size distribution and product quality.[8,18] For
ultrasonic nozzles, the feed rate is dependent on the
ultrasonic nozzle design and frequency. It is advised
not to operate below the critical flowrate as it could
lead to larger droplet size which is also obtained at
flowrate above the critical value but with higher
4 R. A. KHAIRE AND P. R. GOGATE
Figure 3. Illustration to the formation of droplets using ultrasonic atomization.
throughput values. Also, the flowrate should not be
operated above the volumetric displacement rate of
the vibrating surface as dripping might occur and
therefore, for efficient ultrasonic atomization, the
volumetric displacement rate depending on the design
is the maximum allowable rate of throughput.[19]
Overall, it can be said that ultrasonic nozzle offers
better control over the processing flow rates and the
particle size distribution as compared to the conven-
tional nozzles.
2.1. Mechanism of ultrasonic atomizer and
quantitative predictions for droplet size
Wood and Loomis[20] first described the phenomenon
of fog formation from an ultrasonic fountain and fur-
ther reported the mechanism of atomization and con-
firmed the major role of cavitation.[13] The ultrasonic
atomization has been explained by two hypotheses as
capillary wave theory and cavitational theory. As
reported by Lang,[13] under strong exciting vibrations
the capillary waves build up in amplitude until the
point of instability where they break from the bulk
liquid ejecting as fine droplets or mist as shown in
Figure 3.[21]
For capillary waves generated through ultrasound,
the Kelvin’s equation used for determining the wave-
length of capillary waves is as follows:
 1
8pr 3
k¼
qf 2
where k is the wavelength, r is the surface tension, q
is the density of liquid and f is the excitation
sound frequency.
Experimental data can be used to correlate the
capillary wavelength with the number-median particle
size of ultrasonic atomized particles and typically the
particle size is an approximate constant fraction of the
capillary wavelength as per the equation below:
 1
8pr 3
dp ¼ ak ¼ a (2)
qf 2
where dp is the number-median particle diameter and
a is the constant.
For very low atomized rates, Lang determined the
constant as 0.34 for ultrasound range of 10–800 kHz
which was further modified as 0.96 for MHz range
ultrasound by Yasuda et al.[22]
For high liquid flowrates, higher particle size was
observed by Lang which was attributed to the fact
that the particles agglomerate shortly after ejecting
from the surface. An improved empirical equation for
high liquid flowrates was subsequently proposed as
follows:[19]
 0:354
r
dp ¼ 31:7 g0:303 Q0:139 (3)
q
where g is the liquid viscosity and Q is the volumetric
flowrate. However, this correlation ignores the fre-
quency and the amplitude oscillation parameters and
thus, could deliver unsatisfactory results. A universal
correlation was developed by Rajan and Pandit[19]
(1) which accounted for all the relevant physicochemical
properties of the liquid to be atomized and the ultra-
sonic atomizer parameters. The equation for the droplet
diameter in SI units is given as:
Table 1. Comparison of rotary, pneumatic, and pressure nozzle with ultrasonic nozzle in terms of different operating parameters, advantages, and disadvantages.[8,12,18,19,36,37]
Parameters
Atomization energy
Maximum feed rate
Feed composition
Nozzle operating
parameter
Type of spray
Particle size range
Uniform Particle size distributionPoor
Shear stress on feed
Main advantages
Main disadvantages
Pneumatic nozzle atomizer
Kinetic energy
1000 L/h
Can handle high
viscous fluid
Pressure
250–10,000 psi
Medium coarse and
poor homogeneous
5–200 mm
High
 Suitable for pilot scale operation due to
limitations of other nozzles for
large-scale operation
 Better control over droplet size though
at higher energy requirements
 Finer and homogeneous spray than
pressure nozzles
 Good efficiency
 Need of Compressed air which increases 
the operating cost
 Low particle density due to high
occluded air content in dried particles 
 Introduces extra cold air in the chamber 
which reduces the gradient between the 
hot air and the generated droplets
 Low heat transfer efficiency between
droplet and drying air
 High gas flowrates are used which
causes the downstream turbulence
where the fine particles are carried away 
to the atmosphere with the gas.
 High maintenance and
expensive cleaning
Pressure nozzle atomizer Rotary atomizer Ultrasonic Nozzle Atomizer
Pressure energy Centrifugal energy Vibrational energy
400 L/h 200 ton/h Depend on the nozzle design parameters
Low viscous feed Can handle abrasive Only low viscous Newtonian fluids
feed material
Pressure Rotating disk speed 5000–60,000 rpm Frequency
250–10000 psi  30 kHz to 2.5 MHz
Coarse and less homogeneous Fine/coarse/medium Fine
20–600 mm 10–200 mm 10 nm–100 mm
Poor Good Excellent
High High Low
 Higher dried particle density with good  Low pressure operation possible  Smaller droplets can be achieved with
flowability  High feed capacity handling low flowrate to the nozzle
 Air free droplets without clogging  Uniform and fine particles are produced
 Easy cleaning and maintenance  Change in liquid flowrate possible resulting in narrow size distribution
 Low cost and low energy requirement without change in droplet size  Good particle density
compared to rotary disk nozzle.  Use of short and large diameter  Large aperture can be used to
 Possible orientation using several nozzles chamber allows the particle flow in avoid clogging
increases the capacity without horizontal direction before making  Better control over droplet size
agglomeration contact with the wall, thus reduces the  Relatively energy efficient
 Narrow drying chamber can be used wall deposition  Low velocity spray allows the use of
 High efficiency small diameter chambers, thus reducing
cost of equipment
 Better retention of quality of bioactive
compounds due to shorter particle
residence time
 Can be installed in a laminar flow
cabinet or isolator due to shorter
dimensions of chamber
 Easy maintenance and operation
 Operation at reduced temperatures is
possible due to increased surface area of
particles and increased contact of
particles with drying air
Non uniform spray  High waste is generated and thus not  Not suitable for high viscous and non-
 Nozzle clogging due to small nozzle recommended for high value Newtonian feed
orifice diameter added products  Driving force for evaporation is the
Rapid wear and tear  Low particle density due to high reduced pressure due to low velocity
Maximum capacity per nozzle is limited occluded air content in dried particles spray and thus requires large quantity of
Orifice enlargement due to Corrosion  Horizontal and small diameter chambers hot air
and erosion causes changes in spray cannot be used  Industrial scale operation is limited due
characteristics  Not suitable for highly viscous feed to low throughput, heat generation and
 Coarser and less homogeneous spray  High cost lack of suitable large-scale designs
compared to rotary nozzle at high
feed rates
Not suitable for highly viscous feed
DRYING TECHNOLOGY
5
6 R. A. KHAIRE AND P. R. GOGATE
 0:4
0:66 0:274
dp ¼ 1600 f 0:207
Q r
0:11
q g
0:166
(4)
Also, the threshold amplitude for capillary waves
(Amcrit Þ to break into droplets for spray formation was
given in the same work as:
  
2g q 0:333
Amcrit ¼ (5)
q rf p
Sollner[23] suggested the dominance of cavitational
theory for atomization of liquids and experimentally
showed the analogous behavior of emulsification and
atomization using cavitation for dispersing liquids.
Considering the significance of both these theories, a
conjunction theory was suggested, deliberating the
impact of these mechanisms in an interrelated way.
The conjunction theory proposed the enhanced break-
ing of capillary waves by shockwaves generated
through cavitation. Further, the significance of both
these mechanisms was experimentally proved thereby,
insinuating that the conjunction theory should be
pondered upon for further exploration in ultrasonic
atomization.[24] It is also important to note that using
a proper control on the operating parameters, it is
indeed possible to have controlling actions of the con-
tributing mechanisms suitable for the specific
applications.
2.2. Advantages of ultrasonic spray drying
1. Very fine particle size up to few nanometers
could be achieved using ultrasonic spray drying
which increases the available surface area for the
final product. As most of the physical and chem-
ical processes are constrained by the availability
of surface area, fine droplet size is most useful as
lesser the size, more will be the surface area
thus contributing to enhanced mass transfer and
diffusion in the desired application.
2. Narrow size distribution can be obtained with
very fine droplet size in several micrometers to
nanometer range with reduction in span values
up to 1, compared to the conventional two fluid
nozzle with span value of 1.9[17] and disk atom-
izer with span value of 5.38.[25]
3. Pressurized fluid is not required, thus reducing
the energy cost required for pressurizing fluid and
space for additional equipment.
4. Low velocity atomization reduces the required
diameter of drying chamber. As the velocity will
be low, the liquid flow spread throughout the dry-
ing chamber will be lesser and thus the atomized
Power flow will occupy lesser volumes reducing the need
Area for large sized drying chambers. Low velocity
spray also has an advantage of lesser material loss
due to particle sticking at chamber wall.
5. Low shear and thermal stress compared to con-
ventional nozzles, maintaining the chemical and
physical integrity of the product.
6. Higher evaporation rates due to smaller par-
ticle size.
7. The particle density can be easily controlled
which is necessary to produce micro to nanosized
particles required in encapsulation of
food materials.
8. Also, large size aperture can be used in ultrasonic
atomizers as a solution to the nozzle clog-
ging problem.
2.3. Disadvantages of ultrasonic spray drying
1. The use of ultrasonic spray is restricted to the
Newtonian fluids with low viscosities only, as the
phenomena is also affected by the fluid properties
. The cavitation effectiveness is much lower for
liquids with higher viscosity.
2. The ultrasonic spray heads require large quantities
of hot air for the evaporation purpose as the key
driving force for moisture evaporation is the
reduced pressure .
3. The volume handling capacity of high frequency
atomizers is small due to their smaller design, low
area of vibrating surface, and thus not advisable
for industrial scale operations.
2.4. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) for
ultrasonic atomizer and comparing results
with conventional operation
Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) provides infor-
mation about the energy and material flow which is
useful to understand the material flow through atom-
izer, the heat distribution in the drying chamber and
any possible dead zones. Application of CFD for spray
drying provides an efficient design of spray drying
chambers and also the three dimensional analysis of
flow pattern of particles.[26,27] In the case of ultrasonic
atomizer, Lixin et al.[15] studied the CFD of ultrasonic
spray drying using the correlations provided by Rajan
and Pandit[19] for properties of liquid and operating
conditions of the ultrasonic atomizer. Further, the
results were also compared with the conventional
spray drying. Systematic model validation through

literature comparison for velocity and temperature
fields was also reported. It was reported that the evap-
oration rate and extent of evaporation were found to
be higher for droplet diameters below a critical value
and the unit energy consumption per unit evaporation
found to be lower at higher evaporation rates. At
droplet diameter above the critical value, for narrow
size distribution, ultrasonic atomizer showed better
drying performance indicating that the optimization
of droplet size is necessary to achieve desired evapor-
ation rates. Furthermore, it was reported that different
evaporation rates result in different wall temperatures
and thus varied heat loss. However, a higher heat loss
from the wall could also be result of higher heat
transfer coefficient values. Overall, the CFD of ultra-
sonic spray drying suggests the need for optimization
of droplet size and size distribution for better evapor-
ation performance through ultrasonic atomizer.
3. Parameter selection for ultrasonic spray
drying
3.1. Frequency of ultrasonic atomizer
The frequency of ultrasonic atomizer greatly affects
the size of the droplets. As the ultrasound frequency
has an important role in providing desired cavitational
effects, the frequency of atomizer is important in
determining the threshold amplitude of atomization
for desired droplet size. The increase in frequency
results in lower wavelength and thus, the atomizing
liquid undergoes large number of compression cycles
ultimately reducing the droplet size. This phenom-
enon was reported by Sindayihebura et al.,[28] where
increased frequency resulted in decreased droplet size
with increased rate of droplet ejection from the sur-
face. Also, with an increase in frequency, the available
surface area for droplet formation decreases due to
decreased droplet size thus increasing the threshold
flow rate to cover the atomizing area. Generally, a
high frequency ultrasound is considered as a favorable
approach for high throughput values. Figure 4[29]
shows the effect of frequency of ultrasonic nozzle on
the particle diameter for pure water. The size distribu-
tion of mist generated was measured using a wide
range particle spectrometer (WPS) consisting of a
laser particle counter (LPC), a condensation particle
counter (CPC) and a differential mobility analyzer
(DMA). dN is the total number concentration of par-
ticles in each width of diameter range and dlogDp is
the log difference in the unit width of particle diam-
eter whereas, dN/dlogDp is the normalized particle
concentration. It was observed that the peak diameters
DRYING TECHNOLOGY 7
Figure 4. Effect of frequency on particle size.
did not change with respect to the height of sampling
point and thus, the number concentrations of nano-
sized mist measured, clearly indicated the decrease in
mean particle size with frequency and also a corre-
sponding increase in the number concentration of
particles.[29]
As shown in Figure 4, the frequency used in the
range of 200 to 2400 kHz showed considerable
improvement in the size distribution of particles with
an increase in frequency. However, the minimum
droplet size values were in a closed range of several
nanometers at lower frequencies which suggests the
high frequency operation provides better control over
the droplet size distribution along with minimum
droplet size. It was also reported that the number con-
centrations of droplets increased with frequency,
clearly depicting the increase in extent of breaking of
liquid into droplets and thus increase in number of
droplets is observed with an increase in frequency
which can also be correlated with the critical ampli-
tude equation discussed earlier. Kudo et al.[29] also
studied the dependency of the mist produced using
cavitation phenomenon in a liquid water column with
the frequency operated. It was reported that, at higher
frequencies, surface area of water column produced is
higher and eventually the evaporation and condensa-
tion rate around the water column reaches equilib-
rium, generating continuous stable nanosized mist
which is not possible in the case of low frequency
ultrasound due to smaller capillary waves and higher
size of mist. Overall, the range 200–2400 kHz was
considered as an effective range of frequency for ultra-
sonic atomization with lower frequency enough to
provide better throughput values and higher frequency
enough to certain the cavitational effect in producing
the smaller droplets along with better droplet size dis-
tribution, and number of droplets as well compared to
lower frequencies.
8 R. A. KHAIRE AND P. R. GOGATE
Sugondo et al.[30] studied the droplet formations at
different ultrasound frequencies ranging from 50 kHz
to 200 kHz using CFD and reported an increase in
number of droplet formation and increase in area for
droplet formation with an increase in frequency. It
was also reported that droplet size reduced with an
increase in the frequency. The CFD results for gener-
ation of capillary waves and liquid disintegration phe-
nomena at different vibrating frequencies indicated
that the increased number of capillary waves with an
increase in frequency was contributing to more drop-
lets and lower size. It was also reported that around
40%, 20%, and 5% decrease in droplet size was
obtained with an increase in frequency from 50 kHz
to 100 kHz, 100 kHz to 150 kHz, and 150 kHz to
200 kHz, respectively. The reported trends also con-
firm that at higher frequencies, frequency does not
have much impact on the size of droplet. However, it
should also be considered that, the upper limit flow-
rate at which the dripping occurs will be lower for the
higher frequency operation limiting the range of oper-
ational flowrates. Also, the power requirement for
higher frequency will be higher. These drawbacks
make the selection of frequency more inclined toward
the optimum frequency mode with an advantage of
easy operation and desired droplet size based on
proper selection of other operating parameters includ-
ing the feed flowrate. Overall a specific optimization
of frequency based on the design and operating condi-
tions for desired application is recommended.
3.2. Feed flowrate
The flowrate is also important in deciding the droplet
size. Typically, with an increase in flowrate, the droplet
size increases. If the flowrate is higher, more liquid is
accumulated on the atomizer surface at a given time
forming a thick layer resulting in lower cavitation near
the film surface forming large droplets with higher size
distribution as the cavitation influences the capillary
waves in random manner or in certain cases dripping of
liquid may occur.[31,32] Indeed in one of the studies, it
was reported that higher droplet size is observed at
higher flowrates and a difference in droplet size of about
40 mm was observed with an increase in flowrate from
1  107 to 4  107 m3/s for 40 kHz frequency.[32] In
another illustration, it was reported that the particle size
substantially increased from 118 to 143 mm with an
increase in feed rate from 5.63  107 to
9.38  107 m3/s using a 20 kHz frequency atomizer.[31]
Again, the effect was attributed to the higher liquid film
thickness with increasing flowrate contributing to larger
droplets insinuating the role of feed flowrate in deciding
the particle size of end product.
3.3. Atomization power
As discussed in the previous section, if cavitation affects
the droplet size and distribution then, ultrasound power
is another important parameter to be considered in the
operation. With an increase in power supplied to the
atomizer, the droplet size increases. This effect can be
attributed to the increased vibrational amplitude with
an increase in atomization power. As the increased
vibrational amplitude results in increased height of
capillary waves and eventually increases the volume of
atomizing liquid leading to higher droplet size.[31] An
increase in particle size from 100 to 116 mm with an
increase in vibrational amplitude from 60% to 90% was
reported by Wisutmethangoon et al.[31] This effect of
power was also substantiated on the basis of change in
shape of liquid flow from the surface of atomization. It
was reported that the radially outward flow of liquid
changes to conically downward at higher ultrasonic
power readily available to eject from the surface instead
of spreading on the surface as converse to the lower
power condition. This exceptional behavior has also
been confirmed by Ramisetty et al.[32] where a cone like
outflow was clearly reported at higher ultrasound
power. Increasing power also led to an increase in drop-
let size with maximum droplet size being reported at
higher flow rates and higher power. Freitas et al.[14] also
reported similar trends for the microencapsulation of
BSA particles using ultrasonic atomizer at different
atomization power. With an increase in power from
30% to 90%, substantial decrease in yield and increase
in droplet size was reported which was attributed to the
lack of fluid spreading on the atomization surface at
higher power levels.
Kudo et al.[29] studied the pure water mist gener-
ated through ultrasound at various power densities.
Figure 5 shows the different liquid column like struc-
tures formed at power densities of 14.2 and
75.4 W/cm2.
It can be clearly observed that a sharper water col-
umn was obtained at lower surface diameters with vis-
ible mist generated at the base. For higher surface
diameters, that is, at low power density, the mist was
only formed at the tip of the water column. It was also
observed that the number concentration of the formed
mist was higher for higher power densities. The study
clearly confirmed the change in droplet size with the
change in power densities based on changing the surface
area. It is also important to note that changing the

Figure 5. Image of the liquid (pure water) column formed by 75.4 W/cm2 (left) and 14.2 W/cm2 (right) ultrasonic oscillators of
2.4 MHz frequency.
power densities can be based on two approaches of
changing power or surface areas. Generally, varying
power will be preferred as it is an operational parameter
compared to the surface area being the equipment
characteristic.
3.4. Dryer design
Ultrasonic nozzle produces low velocity and uniform
spray, thus the spray trajectory is smaller compared to
the conventional nozzle spray. This reduces the wall
deposition and facilitates the design of low diameter
drying chamber for the spray drying operation. Also,
the smaller sized particles produced allow faster evap-
oration due to increased surface area contributing to
the requirement of shorter dryer design. Further, the
ultrasonic nozzle can be operated in horizontal and
vertically downward or upward direction which
increases the possible configurations of drying cham-
bers suitable for the operation.[33] Additionally, the
use of ultrasonic nozzle evades the requirement of
compressed air and thus, the gradient between atom-
ized droplets and hot air in the chamber is maintained
that results in better evaporation. It has also been
reported that, the small droplets may bounce off the
chamber wall, while the large droplets may stick to
the wall and increase the deposition on the wall con-
tributing to losses. Similarly, it has also been observed
that smaller particles are less prone to wall deposition
due to low inertia and greater impact of air flow on
small sized particles compared to larger particles.[34]
DRYING TECHNOLOGY 9
Thus, ultrasonic nozzles could be an effective solution
to the wall deposition problem. However, it was
observed by Lebedev et al.[35] that the low velocity
spray in the range of 1–4 m/s, produced using ultra-
sonic atomization is not enough to dry all the par-
ticles in the chamber leading to agglomeration in the
collection flask. The drying air used was at 80  C with
relative humidity of 0.2% and the moisture content of
particle reduced with increased spray velocity.
Therefore, large velocities of drying air was needed in
the case of ultrasonic nozzle to produce particles with
negligible moisture content which would in turn affect
the drying chamber design to some extent. A detailed
comparison of different nozzles with ultrasonic nozzle
is provided in Table 1.[8,12,18,19,36,37]
4. Application of ultrasound in processing of
food and bioactive compounds
4.1. Microbial inactivation
Spray drying is commonly used as the preservation
technique for certain foods and bioactive compounds
with an objective of obtaining long shelf life along
with retaining the activity for reconstituted use or dir-
ect intake. Microbial activation is one of the problems
in fruits due to their high-water content which affects
their availability and activity of components as well.
Conventional spray drying is generally used to dry
materials such as fruits or even juices, syrups, etc.
Ultrasound has been proven highly effective in reduc-
ing the microbial load in several food materials, both
10 R. A. KHAIRE AND P. R. GOGATE
Figure 6. Configurations studied in the treatment of juices.
liquid and solid, based on its cavitation effect. Donnell
et al.[38] studied the microbial inactivation in grape
juice and Prabhuzyante et al.[39] studied the microbial
inactivation in whey using ultrasound irradiation and
reported no adverse effect on the bioactive compo-
nents. For more lethal effects the ultrasound treatment
can be further combined with other processes such as
thermal treatment[40] and UV treatment,[41] though it
also becomes important to optimize the conditions so
that no negative effect is obtained on the properties.
Antonio-Guti
errez et al.[42] proposed the use of ultra-
sonic atomization along with UV which could
enhance the contact between the juice and UV light
as spraying will generate droplets and ultimately will
increase the surface area available for the contact. The
inactivation of Saccharomyces cerevisiae in grapefruit
juice and tangerine juice was studied using this com-
bination and the effect on physicochemical properties
was also investigated.
An ultrasonic atomizer with 20 kHz frequency was
used for this study[42] with a feed flowrate of 1.1 mL/s
and different arrangements (as shown in Figure 6) of
UV and ultrasonic nozzle were used to determine the
optimum approach for maximum inactivation. The
combined effect showed significant inactivation of
microorganisms compared to individual effect without
any negative effect on the quality of juices. It should
be noted that though the combination of UV and
ultrasound appears promising, a detailed study into
the effect of configuration, size of droplets, and energy
consumption is necessary for developing an econom-
ical and optimized process for industrial practice.
Ultrasound influences the viability of microorgan-
isms during spray drying. With this objective,
Khmelev et al.[43] studied the spray drying of sour
milk products using ultrasound at reduced tempera-
ture to maintain the vitality of the dry sour milk
products. As the droplet size is reduced, the contact
area between the particle and the drying area
increases, thus allowing the operation at reduced
temperature at the same time yielding required
degree of inactivation. Ultrasonic nozzle of 60 kHz
frequency was used for the operation, the tempera-
ture at the outlet was maintained at 78  C with max-
imum air flow of 340 m3/h and drying productivity
of 4.4 l/h. The mean size of particles generated using
the ultrasonic nozzle was reported as 31 mm. It was
also reported that the ultrasonic spray drying tech-
nique reduced the microbial content by 10 times
more than the conventional spray drying which was
attributed to the local high pressure, high tempera-
ture, and the shockwave generated as a result of cavi-
tation. Thus, ultrasonic spray drying was
recommended for the thermolabile compounds such
as plant extracts and medicines. It was also reported
that ultrasonic spray drying was proved to be effi-
cient at low temperatures for moisture evaporation
due to increased diffusion coefficient as a result of
reduced droplet size which in turn increased the sur-
face area of the droplets.

Figure 7. Co-current ultrasonic spray drying system.
4.2. Microencapsulation and microspheres
Microencapsulation is a process through which an
active ingredient can be entrapped or encapsulated at
microscale within another substance which acts as a
coating material to protect the ingredient from
adverse environmental conditions and thus, enhancing
its shelf life and maintaining the activity as well.
Microencapsulation has been widely used in the
pharmaceutical industries and has gradually found its
way into the food sector. Microencapsulation has sev-
eral advantages with its application for food ingre-
dients including reduced oxidation, enhanced stability,
and improvement in the sensory properties as well in
some cases. The basic steps for microencapsulation
consist of the incorporation of bioactive compounds
into core, droplet formation, removal of solvent, har-
vesting microparticles followed by drying.[14,44] In
order to intensify the encapsulation process, ultrasonic
atomizers are currently applied considering the low
energy associated with it as compared to conventional
atomizers as well as owing to the low velocity
spray formation.
With an objective to provide a low-cost spray dry-
ing process against the expensive commercial models
of spray dryers, Luz et al.[9] studied the ultrasonic
spray drying of dextrin solution to generate micropar-
ticles. The design of the spray drying equipment con-
sisted of two heating zones in a tubular bendable
furnace as a drying chamber (shown in Figure 7)
where, an ultrasonic atomizer of 1.66 MHz frequency
(NevoniV) was attached at one end for spraying the
R
fluid which was dried in the next chamber. A micro-
pored cellulose membrane, which was supported on a
sintered plate, was used as a filter medium to collect
dried particles. The equipment was connected to a
vacuum pump to separate the dried particles from air
DRYING TECHNOLOGY 11
and a filter flask was used to collect the condensed
vapor. The spray dried particles collected over the
membrane surface were analyzed for morphological
characterization using scanning and transmission elec-
tron microscopy (SEM and TEM). The particle size
was measured using laser light scanning technique
(Zetasizer). The inlet temperature of operation was
280  C and the outlet temperature was 275  C. From
the SEM images, it was confirmed that the dried par-
ticles were spherical in shape. Similarly, the thermal
analysis proved that the properties of dextrin did not
change throughout the process of formation. The
design showed 60% efficiency in obtaining dried
material as a final product with particle size in the
range of 0.2–2.6 lm and was clearly demonstrated as
an inexpensive effective approach for dextrin
microencapsulation.
In another study, it was also reported that the spray
nozzles with two or three fluid channels facilitate the
flow of core and shell material separately to the tip of
the nozzle as shown in Figure 8 where they meet
evading the need for emulsion preparation for encap-
sulation process reducing the possibility of oxida-
tion.[45] Due to the vibration of atomizer, a double
layered film of liquids is formed on the surface of
atomizer tip producing large number of droplets
emerging as a smooth coaxial jet with shell and core
structure. The process can also be described as the
collision among droplets followed by the coales-
cence.[45] This method was also studied by Legako
et al.[46] for the fish oil encapsulation in whey protein
using different spraying techniques. 2-channel ultra-
sonic nozzle (120 kHz) was used for the process and
the obtained encapsulated product was compared with
that obtained using two and three fluid pressure noz-
zle spray drying and freeze drying as well. Twenty
percent (20%, w/w) whey protein was used as a shell
material and the fish oil to protein ratio was kept at
1:2. During freeze drying the emulsions were dried at
80  C, whereas for spray drying with two fluid noz-
zle, the drying was performed using nitrogen gas at
inlet temperature of 180  C and the outlet temperature
was obtained as  90  C. For three fluid nozzle, the
shell and core material were directly pumped into the
nozzle using peristaltic pump with 2.75 mL/min flow-
rate and the temperature conditions were kept similar
to the two fluid nozzle operation. In the case of ultra-
sonic nozzle as well, the temperature conditions were
similar to conventional spray drying process.
Although there was no significant change in the mois-
ture content in all microencapsulated samples (3–4%),
the water activity which is a significant parameter to
12 R. A. KHAIRE AND P. R. GOGATE
Figure 8. Principle of coaxial ultrasonic nozzle.
determine the shelf life and quality of food was found
to be lowest in the case of sonic and two fluid pres-
sure nozzle. Ultrasonic nozzle was also reported to be
very successful in delivering uniform size and shape
of encapsulated powder with very narrow size distri-
bution. The average particle diameter was obtained as
56.2 mm using freeze drying, 7.3 mm using two fluid
nozzle, 12 mm using three fluid nozzle, and 11.3 mm
for ultrasonic nozzle. The size distribution was found
to be narrower in case of ultrasonic nozzle followed
by two fluid, three fluid nozzle, and freeze drying.
The difference in particle size in the case of ultrasonic
nozzle and the two fluid nozzle was not that signifi-
cant and thus, in terms of uniform size along with
small sized particles ultrasonic nozzle was considered
as an optimum approach. However, it was also
reported that the ultrasonic nozzle had low oil encap-
sulating efficiency in comparison to the pressure noz-
zles and freeze-drying process. Although, the
ultrasonic nozzle has been known for its anticlogging
feature, the reason for low encapsulation efficiency in
this study was attributed to the nozzle clogging after a
certain point during spray drying which might be the
case for certain feed materials owing to their change
in properties during spraying. This clearly indicated
the need for further optimization of parameters such
as core to wall ratio for better microencapsulation effi-
ciencies and developing an effective solution to the
nozzle clogging problem which is generally dependent
on the feed concentration and feed material.
Dalmoro et al.[47] described the selection criteria
for the coaxial ultrasonic nozzle and the design of a
single pot bench scale apparatus for microencapsula-
tion of polymer. A 25 kHz frequency ultrasonic nozzle
with dual feed design and conical atomizing surface
with 11.68 mm tip diameter, orifice size of 1.016 mm,
and internal diameter of 0.406 mm was installed. A
maximum flowrate of 0.3 mL/s and median drop
diameter of 55 mm were obtainable using the atomizer.
The feed circuits consisted of two separate pipelines
carrying the shell and core liquids. The feed line of
core was directed to the inner channel and the shell
feed line was directed toward the outer channel in the
dual channel atomizer. Both the solutions come in
contact at the exit of the channel at the nozzle tip
where they get nebulized toward the hardening solu-
tion. The process was applied to polymer and 100%
microencapsulation was observed along with better
energy efficiency. As a solution to the long process
times, energy requirement and different processing
steps, Dalmoro et al.[47] suggested the use of ultra-
sonic atomizer coupled with microwave drying. Barba
et al.[48] studied the coaxial ultrasonic atomization
and microwave drying for the microencapsulation of
Liposoluble vitamin in sodium alginate. The core and
shell solutions were supplied to the dual feed ultra-
sonic atomizer (SonoTek Corp.) of 25 kHz frequency
using peristaltic pump. The feed flowrate of core fluid
was varied in the range of 0.6–1.1 mL/min while the
flowrate of shell fluid was kept constant at 4.2 mL/
min. The obtained sprayed particles were dried using
two methods, conventional tray oven drying at 45  C
and microwave drying using microwave oven at two
varying power dissipation as 230 and 630 W. The
 DRYING TECHNOLOGY 13

Figure 9. Scanning electron microscopic (SEM) photographs blueberry juice and bluberry extract microspheres synthesized with
conventional nozzle (C-J and C-E), ultrasonic nozzle (U-J and U-E) and freeze dryer (F-J and F-E) (magnification 1500).

particle size analysis was performed using optical microwave drying enhanced energy transfer and dry-
microscope. It was reported that microparticles in the ing rate along with reduced process time as well as
range of 5.8–6.6 mm were obtained using ultrasonic preserving the activity of microencapsu-
atomizer. It was also observed that the low power lated components.
microwave drying reduced the drying time and also Turan et al.[49] studied ultrasonic spray drying (60 kHz,
showed 100% recovery of the product. Ultimately, the 1–15 W) for microencapsulation of bioactive compounds
combination of coaxial ultrasonic atomizer and with an objective of producing microspheres with
14 R. A. KHAIRE AND P. R. GOGATE
enhanced physicochemical properties. Anthocyanins,
proanthocyanidins, and some other flavonoids are major
bioactive constituents of blueberry fruits but their shorter
shelf life is a major problem considering their use in agri-
culture and food industries. Thus, the encapsulation of
such bioactive compounds is necessary in order to protect
from high temperature and other adverse conditions
ultimately improving their bioavailability. The conven-
tional spray drying was performed using a two fluid pneu-
matic nozzle with 125  C as inlet temperature of drying air
and 30% feed pump rate using a mini spray dryer. For
ultrasonic spray drying, the ultrasonic nozzle with 60 kHz
frequency was used with same inlet temperature of drying
air and 8% feed pump rate which was performed in the
same spray drying chamber. The microspheres produced
using ultrasonic nozzle, conventional nozzle, and freeze
drying are shown in Figure 9. It was reported that all these
methods resulted in products having very similar antioxi-
dant activity values and total phenolic content.
It was clearly demonstrated that the microspheres
produced using ultrasonic nozzle are uniform in size
and shape as compared to the freeze-dried and con-
ventional spray-dried microspheres for both blueberry
juice and blueberry extract samples. The particle size
using conventional spray dryer was found to be simi-
lar compared to the ultrasonic spray drying with no
significant difference (p > .05) in the particle size.
Furthermore, the loss of phenolic compounds after
storage in ultrasonic spray dried samples was around
20% lower than the conventional spray drying. The
properties of the obtained products as well as the
mean sizes typically depend on the operating condi-
tions. For example, according to the optimization
study, inlet air temperature as 125  C, ultrasonic
power of 9 W, and pump rate of the feed as 8% were
reported to be the optimized parameter values for
enhanced physicochemical properties.[50] It was also
reported that the physicochemical properties increased
with increasing the ultrasonic power and decreasing
the inlet air temperature.
Candia-Mu~ noz et al.[51] studied the ultrasonic spray
drying of blueberry juice and compared the results
with microwave vacuum drying. A laboratory spray
dryer of 1–20 L/h processing capacity was developed
for this study. The drying chamber cylinder was made
of steel with dimensions of 5 mm thickness, 2000 mm
height, 900 mm diameter with 80–300  C temperature
range control. The system was fabricated to operate at
slight vacuum conditions in the inner dryer which
was thermally insulated using alumina wool. The
ultrasonic nozzle was situated at the top of the cham-
ber and the drying conditions were maintained at
inlet temperature of 150  C and outlet temperature of
70  C with feed flowrate of 1.6 l/h. Blueberry juice was
spray dried using ultrasonic atomizer at 17 kHz fre-
quency whereas, the fresh blueberry fruit was dried
using microwave vacuum drying and the dried prod-
ucts were compared for the content of active agents
and antioxidant activity. The content of polyphenols,
anthocyanins as well as the antioxidant activity was
found to be lower in the case of ultrasonic spray dried
samples compared to the microwave vacuum dried
fruit which might be because of the high temperature
processing, encapsulating agent, and dilution.
However, these values were higher compared to fresh
fruit except for the anthocyanins content. Ultrasonic
spray drying was also found to be improving the fla-
vor, color, and rheological properties. The obtained
spray dried powder was found to have better narrow
size distribution with more spherical particles and flu-
idity compared to the commercial blueberry powders.
The higher content of bioactive compounds and anti-
oxidant activity was attributed as the result of intro-
ducing vacuum in the drying process.
Further, for temperature sensitive materials,
ultrasonic spray freeze drying (USFD) process was
considered as an effective approach for microencapsu-
lation[1,52,53] and it was reported that the combination
of ultrasonic atomization with spray freeze drying
(SFD) resulted in an enhanced control over the par-
ticle properties.[54] To understand the thermal stability
of microencapsulated products, Isleroglu and
Turker[55] studied the microencapsulation of transglu-
taminase using ultrasonic SFD. Transglutaminase has
found wide applications in the dairy and bakery
industries as a binding agent, to enhance the proper-
ties of cheese and to improve the texture of bakery
products as well.[56,57] Ultrasonic nozzle of 48 kHz fre-
quency was used for atomization of feed solution at a
feed flowrate of 6.83 mL/min, 7 cm above the surface
of liquid nitrogen for rapid freezing. The remaining
liquid nitrogen was evaporated and the resulting pellet
was stored at 35  C temperature in a freeze dryer.
The frozen product was further dried for 12 h at
1 mbar pressure followed by drying for 4 h at
0.01 mbar pressure and 30  C shelf temperature. The
results were compared with conventional spray drying
and freeze drying. In the case of spray drying, same
feed solution was sprayed at the same flowrate in a
laboratory scale spray dryer with inlet temperature of
150  C and outlet temperature of 79  C. Similarly, in
the case of conventional freeze drying approach, the
solution was frozen for 4 h at 80  C and then trans-
ferred to the same freezer following the same steps of

drying as USFD. It was clearly demonstrated that bet-
ter thermal stability is obtained using USFD. Overall,
USFD was reported to be a better technique providing
high thermally stable dried microencapsulated par-
ticles with lower processing times than the conven-
tional freeze-drying approach.
4.3. Drying probiotics
Probiotics are microorganisms which are added in
functional foods to improve the microbial balance in
intestine. Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterial microorgan-
isms are the commonly used species in food consider-
ing the health benefits associated with the ingestion of
these probiotics. The probiotics are generally freeze
dried or spray dried for extended storage conditions
for food applications although, spray drying is fre-
quently used considering the lower energy consump-
tion compared to freeze drying. However, the high
temperatures and extreme conditions associated with
such processes are not favorable for survival of these
microorganisms easily susceptible to dehydration as
well as mechanical, thermal, and oxygen stresses.[3,16,58]
Ultrasonic vacuum spray drying (USVD) helps to
decrease the thermal, mechanical, and oxidative stresses
resulting in better sustainability of probiotics during
drying. Additionally, ultrasonic vacuum spray drying
could lead to further increase in microbial survival
rates owing to the shorter residence times and use of
low temperature and vacuum conditions.[14] Indeed,
Semyonov et al.[16] demonstrated same trends for ultra-
sonic vacuum spray drying of highly viable probiotic
Lactobacillus embedded in maltodextrin and trehalose.
The ultrasonic atomizer was operated in vacuum con-
dition delivering narrow size distribution of droplets in
vacuum drying chamber operating at low temperature.
Also, with smaller particle size it is plausible to imagine
higher oxidation due to increased surface area expos-
ure. But, in this study, using vacuum conditions the
oxidation was reduced and further, the use of low oxy-
gen level gas (N2) also reduced the degree of oxidation
and increased the viability of cells for longer period.
Effects of different parameters such as drying tempera-
ture, feed concentrations, matrix composition, etc. on
the physical properties and viability of probiotics were
investigated. It was clearly showed that USVD process
helped to achieve the embedded matrix at glassy state
much faster which resulted in higher survival of
probiotics.[16]
DRYING TECHNOLOGY 15
4.4. Whey protein powder
Chegini and Tahiri[59] reported the effect of different
spray drying operating conditions and parameters on
final recovered whey powder which can be a useful
resource for detailed perception regarding the role of
spray drying in whey proteins. Spray drying offers
several advantages such as reduced drying time, con-
tinuous operation, and large throughput, though it
also offers major drawback as whey protein denatur-
ation in addition to lower control over the size distri-
bution. The size distribution and particle size are of
great importance for whey proteins as it affects the
functional properties, activity, and rehydration proper-
ties which is the key requisite in such applications.
Ultrasonic atomizer could be a better approach for
achieving these vital physicochemical properties of
whey proteins.[60] The uniform distribution of particle
size using ultrasonic spray drying is commendable
which helps to obtain improved protein properties
thus making the product much more favorable for its
end use.
The use of ultrasonic nozzle (40 kHz) for spray dry-
ing of whey proteins recovered from whey was studied
by Prabhuzantye et al.[39] The inlet temperature was
kept at 120  C and outlet temperature was 65  C with
feed rate of 1.5 mL/min and aspirator rate changed
from 1350 to 2800 rpm. It was reported that the par-
ticle size reduced to 152.8 nm using ultrasonic nozzle
from around 340 nm as obtained using pneumatic
nozzle. A narrow size distribution was also reported
however, the yield obtained using ultrasonic nozzle
was substantially lower than that obtained using pneu-
matic nozzle. The reason for the lower yield was
attributed to the smaller particle size produced
through ultrasonic nozzle as most of the particles
were dragged with the air flow toward the exhaust.
This arises the need for further optimization of spray
drying parameters such as air pressure, feed concen-
tration, and feed flowrate for obtaining higher yield
values. A comprehensive list of case studies of applica-
tion of ultrasonic atomization in different food and
bioactive compounds, and the effect on particle size is
presented in Table 2.
5. Analysis of ultrasonic spray drying vs SFD
SFD is a method which combines the spray drying
and freeze drying and has found major application in
probiotic encapsulation and drying volatile com-
pounds to retain their functional properties due to
low temperature processing.[1] SFD is found to be bet-
ter than freeze drying as it involves the spraying of
 16

Table 2. Different applications of ultrasound in spray drying in food processing.

Material Application/purpose Method Atomizer system Operating parameters Product particle size
Juices and other Blueberry[51] Dry powder Ultrasonic spray drying Lab scale (customized) Frequency – 40 kHz
health drinks Universidad de Santiago Temp – 150  C inlet ,70  C 34–38.6 mm
de Chile outlet,
feed flowrate – 1.6 L/h
Tatar Turan[49] Micro-encapsulation Ultrasonic spray drying Model B-290 mini spray- Frequency – 60 kHz
dryer (Buchi Corporation, Temp – 125  C inlet 10 mm for juice and
Flawil, Switzerland) Feed pump rate – 8% 8 mm for
Air flowrate – 601 L/h bioactive compounds
Grape fruit juice[42] Microbial Inactivation Ultrasonic spray Lab scale ultrasonic Frequency – 20 kHz
drying þ UV treatment atomizer, VCX 130, Sonics UVC lamp – 24 cm  2.5 cm 90 mm
& Materials, CT, USA Feed flowrate – 1.1 mL/s
Honey[58] Dry powder Ultrasonic vacuum Lab scale Ultrasound Not mentioned
R. A. KHAIRE AND P. R. GOGATE

Frequency – 28 kHz, 40 kHz,

Dairy products Sour milk products[43]
Whey proteins[39]
Probiotics Probiotic microorganism
(Lactobacillus brevis)[16]
Probiotic microorganism
(Lactobacillus brevis)[63]
Microbial transglut-aminase[55]
spray drying system 68 kHz
Kemeida Ultrasound Vacuum – 99 kPa, Temp –
Apparatus Co., Ltd., 50  C, Feed flowrate –
Shenzhen, 9 mL/min
China
Dry powder Ultrasonic spray drying Lab scale (Customized) Frequency – 60 kHz
Biysk Temp – 78  C 10–35 mm
Technological Institute Drying Productivity  4.4 L/h
%
Air flowrate– 340 m3/h
Dry powder Ultrasonic spray drying Lab scale spray dryer- Jay Frequency – 40 kHz
Instruments Pvt. Ltd. Temp – 120  C inlet, 65  C 152.8–178.6 nm
India, Ultrasonic nozzle- outlet
Oscar Ultrasonics, Model Feed flowrate – 1.5 mL/min
no – PR40N Aspirator rate –
1350 rpm–2800 rpm
Micro-encapsulation Ultrasonic vacuum Pilot scale Ultrasonic Frequency – Not mentioned
spray drying Vacuum Spray Dryer Vacuum – 2.27 kPa/3.33 kPa, 20–50 mm
(UVSD) Nanosol, Israel. Temp – 20  C 30  C, Feed
flowrate – 9 mL/min
Micro-encapsulation Ultrasonic spray drying Lab scale SonoDry 750, Frequency – 120 kHz, 1.7 W
Sonotek, USA power, Temp – 130  C inlet, 47.54 mm
feed flowrate – 2.5 mL/min,
Air flowrate – 80 m3/h
Dry powder Ultrasonic spray Ultrasonic nozzles Frequency – 48 kHz and
freeze drying -SonoTek Inc., USA, 120 kHz 47–184 mm for 48 kHz
ultrasonic generator- Liquid nitrogen drying and 15.31–86.56 mm
ECHO, SonoTek Inc., USA followed by vacuum drying at for 120 kHz
1 mbar for 6 h. Storage at
30  C under 0.01 mbar
vacuum,
Feed flowrate – 2–8 mL/min
Bioactive compounds Squalene[52] Micro-encapsulation Ultrasonic spray Lab scale ZJS-100 Frequency – 100 kHz
freeze drying ultrasonic atomizer , Drying temp – 30  C 10 mm
Hangzhou Success followed by vacuum drying at
Ultrasonic Equipment 60  C and
Co., Ltd. 1–100 Pa
Blueberry bioactive Micro-encapsulation Ultrasonic spray drying Model B-290 mini spray- Frequency – 60 kHz
compounds-Anthocyanine[49] dryer, Buchi Corporation, Temp – 125  C inlet 8 mm
Flawil, Switzerland feed pump rate – 8%
Air flowrate – 601 L/h
BSA[14] Micro-encapsulation Ultrasonic vacuum Lab scale, Frequency – 100 kHz
spray drying US1, Lechler, Metzingen, Vacuum – 20 mbar, Temp – 17.5–30 mm
Germany 20  C ,
Feed flowrate – 20 mL/min
Liposoluble vitamin[48] Micro-encapsulation Ultrasonic spray using Lab scale Ultrasonic Frequency – 25 kHz
coaxial ultrasonic Nozzle dual liquid feed Temp – 45  C (tray oven)/ 5.8–6.6 mm
atomizer and probe, Sono-Tek 025- 230 W and 690 W
convective/ 00010, Sono-Tek Corp. (microwave)
microwave drying feed flowrate – core –
0.6–1.1 mL/min, shell –
4.2 mL/min
Oils Fish oil[53] Micro-encapsulation Ultrasonic spray Lab scale Frequency – 40 kHz, 130 W
freeze drying Ultrasonic atomizer Model power 0.8–14.1 mm
CPX134PB; Cole-Par- Temp – 80  C
mer instruments, Vernon
Hills, IL,
Fish oil[46] Micro-encapsulation Ultrasonic spray drying Lab scale Frequency – 120 kHz
with two B-290 spray dryer Sono- Temp – 180  C inlet, 11.3 mm
channel-nozzle Tek, Milton, NY, USA 90  C outlet
Feed flowrate – core/shell –
2.75 mL/min
DRYING TECHNOLOGY
17
18 R. A. KHAIRE AND P. R. GOGATE
solution at low temperatures which enhances the mass
and heat transfer during the freeze-drying process and
thus reduces the time required for the operation.[61]
Thus, SFD has advantage over conventional freeze
drying in terms of reduced drying times, cost, and
better control of product characteristics.[62] As ultra-
sonic atomization provides better control over the
particle size and has been proven as an effective
method in spray drying of sensitive products, the
comparison of both these methods will provide a dif-
ferent angle to the drying of volatile compounds and
retention of active ingredients. Since the particle size
distribution and the size of particles are better con-
trolled using ultrasound atomization, the mass and
heat transfer is enhanced compared to conventional
spray drying. Now, for comparing other properties of
spray dried material using these two methods, micro-
encapsulation of probiotic microorganisms has been
considered as a suitable example.
Semyonov et al.[16] studied the microencapsulation
of Lactobacillus paracasei using SFD method for high
viability. Different solutions of L. paracasei were pre-
pared for encapsulation in different concentrations of
maltodextrin and trehalose solutions (1:0, 1:1, 1:2, 2:1,
0:1) with total solid concentration as 20% and 30%
w/v. The solution was pumped through syringe pump
and then sprayed directly into liquid nitrogen using
pneumatic nozzle (diameter 0.41 mm) which allowed
rapid cooling of the droplets. The obtained
droplets were then transferred to the freeze dryers in
liquid nitrogen. The microcapsules in the range of
400–1800 mm were obtained and it was observed that
the air flow considerably affected the size of the
particles as compared to the feed flow. The spraying
of solution did not affect the viability of cells which
suggests the shear stress at the applied air flowrates
were negligible to cause any adverse effect on the cell
structure. In combination with the freezing step, the
thermal and osmotic stress applies and affects the pro-
biotic viability but not much as freeze drying alone.
Highest cell viability was obtained around 89% for
particles in the range of 1000–1400 mm while, the
particles with lower diameter found to have lesser
survival rate which might be because of the lower
concentration of trehalose and maltodextrin in lesser
diameter particles reducing the thickness of the shell.
Ultrasonic spray drying was demonstrated for the
microencapsulation of Lactobacillus brevis by Both
et al.[63] In this study, the bacterial solution was
encapsulated using sodium alginate and maltodextrin
solutions using a laboratory scale spray dryer with
ultrasonic nozzle of 120 kHz frequency and 1.7 W
Figure 10. Region-wise spray drying Equipment Market in
Food Sector (values adapted from MarketsandMarkets.com).
power. Constant flow rate of 2.5 mL/min and 130  C
temperature were maintained during the operation.
The average volume weighted mean of particles was
obtained as 95.167 mm and d (0.5) as 47.543 mm which
is substantially lesser than the particle size obtained
using the SFD method. Further, based on the meas-
ured log CFU/g dried product values the survival rate
could be calculated as around 82% which is appre-
ciable considering the temperature of operation and
the particle size of final product. Thus, it is analyzed
that the ultrasonic spray drying could be suggested as
an alternative to the SFD process for obtaining lesser
particle size and much faster drying compared to the
SFD process eventually also affecting the cost of
operation. Furthermore, the cell viability could be
increased by controlling the particle size of the micro-
capsules and optimizing the concentration of encapsu-
lation matrix as well.
6. Global market
Spray drying had begun its evolution during World
War II and it has been adapting new technologies and
applications since then. Spray drying initially had
major application in dairy industry and it has grown
slowly in polymer, pharmaceutical, and chemical
industries.[36] The demand of complex products has
been increasing globally and has been achievable using
spray drying due to ease of operation. The global mar-
ket of spray drying has been flourishing as the prefer-
ences and lifestyle of consumers are more inclined
toward the quality rather than quantity.[64] The ability
to handle variety of materials and the numerous appli-
cations in different sectors has favored the use of
spray dryers. In food processing industry, the focus
has been shifting toward the nutrition of the product
due to the increasing awareness for healthy routine.
Whey protein and other milk products acquire a

major share in the use of spray drying in food sector.
Ultrasonic nozzle is still an emerging process in food
processing as discussed earlier due to several limita-
tions associated.
According to Technovia, around 40% spray drying
market has been occupied by nozzle type atomizer
with around 38% of the total application in food sec-
tor in the year 2018. Growing investment in health-
care has increased the manufacturing of products with
bioactive compound, probiotics, etc. and ultrasonic
spray drying has more potential in this regard. A glo-
bal food spray drying equipment market has been pre-
dicted for 2021 as $1471.4 million which is around
$216 million higher than the market value for 2016
with largest market share occupied by single fluid
nozzle as 45%. The region wise market share for the
year 2018 is shown in Figure 10 with Asia pacific
dominating the spray dryer market. Also, the ultra-
sound market has been forecasted to increase from
$6281.6 billion to $8349.3 billion from the year 2018
to 2023. Along with this, the ultrasonic atomizer
industry has attracted many major investors such as
US, Canada, Germany, France, Italy, Russia, China,
and Japan, and has been forecasted to grow exped-
itiously in the coming years.
7. Conclusions and future aspects
A comprehensive literature analysis of the use of
ultrasound in spray drying of food and bioactive com-
pounds has been presented in this review.
Fundamental aspects of ultrasonic spray drying along
with CFD analysis helped to understand the role of
ultrasound in spray drying and related performance
efficiency for drying. Ultrasonic spray drying for dif-
ferent applications in food sector has been discussed
along with a comparative assessment using other
methods. It has been concluded that ultrasonic spray
drying is an efficient technique in obtaining uniform
size distribution of dried particles which is a vital
characteristic for materials for further applications in
food manufacturing process. Despite several advan-
tages, the use of ultrasonic atomization is constrained
to some applications such as microencapsulation.
Especially, in case of dairy industry where the spray
drying is a well-established and extensively used pro-
cess, the use of ultrasound in spray drying is still not
in practice to its full potential majorly due to lack of
suitable large-scale reactor, low throughput values and
cost of operation. Use of ultrasound in spray drying
has been found to be much effective in microencapsu-
lation, drying probiotics to maintain the cell viability,
DRYING TECHNOLOGY 19
improving the texture of food products, and reducing
the microbial contamination as well. Nonetheless, the
use of ultrasound as a pretreatment method before
spray drying has also been emerging as an effectual
process for emulsification and extraction of bioactive
compounds. However, there are areas where the use
of ultrasound in spray drying needs to be amended to
meet the desired objective such as encapsulation
entrapment and better functional properties compared
to other low temperature processes. Integration with
other methods such as vacuum drying or freeze dry-
ing could be amenable to various heat sensitive mate-
rials and could open up the prospects of use of
ultrasound in drying in food industry in a
broader sense.
Disclosure of interest statement
The authors report no conflicts of interest. The
authors alone are responsible for the content and
writing of the paper.
References
[1] Ishwarya, S. P.; Anandharamakrishnan, C.; Stapley,
A. G. F. Spray-Freeze-Drying: A Novel Process for
the Drying of Foods and Bioproducts. Trends Food
Sci. Technol. 2015, 41, 161–181. DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.
2014.10.008.
[2] Bhandari, B. R.; Patel, K. C.; Chen, X. D. Spray
Drying of Food Materials e Process and Product
Characteristics. In Drying Technologies in Food
Processing; Chen, X. D., Mujumdar A. S., Eds.;
Blackwell Publishing Ltd.: United Kingdom, 2008;
pp 113–159.
[3] Anal, A. K.; Singh, H. Recent Advances in
Microencapsulation of Probiotics for Industrial
Applications and Targeted Delivery. Trends Food Sci.
Technol. 2007, 18, 240–251. DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2007.
01.004.
[4] Wu, J.; Wu, L.; Wan, F.; Rantanen, J.; Cun, D.;
Yang, M. Effect of Thermal and Shear Stresses in the
Spray Drying Process on the Stability of SiRNA Dry
Powders. Int. J. Pharm. 2019, 566, 32–39. DOI: 10.
1016/j.ijpharm.2019.05.019.
[5] Cheng, C. C.; Tseng, Y. H.; Huang, S. C. An Innovative
Ultrasonic Apparatus and Technology for Diagnosis of
Freeze-Drying Process. Sensors (Switzerland) 2019, 19,
2181. DOI: 10.3390/s19092181.
[6] Dalmoro, A.; Barba, A. A.; d’Amore, M. Analysis of
Size Correlations for Microdroplets Produced by
Ultrasonic Atomization. Scientific World J. 2013,
2013, 482910. DOI: 10.1155/2013/482910.
[7] Dias, M. I.; Ferreira, I. C. F. R.; Barreiro, M. F.
Microencapsulation of Bioactives for Food
Applications. Food Funct. 2015, 6, 1035–1052. DOI:
10.1039/c4fo01175a.
20 R. A. KHAIRE AND P. R. GOGATE
[8] O’Sullivan, J. J.; Norwood, E.-A.; O’Mahony, J. A.;
Kelly, A. L. Atomisation Technologies Used in Spray
Drying in the Dairy Industry: A Review. J. Food Eng.
2019, 243, 57–69. DOI: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2018.08.027.
[9] Luz, P. P.; Pires, A. M.; Serra, O. A. Low-Cost
Ultrasonic Spray Dryer to Produce Spherical
Microparticles from Polymeric Matrices. Qu
ım. Nova
2007, 30, 1744–1746. DOI: 10.1590/S0100-
40422007000700041.
[10] Gogate, P. R. The Use of Ultrasonic Atomization for
Encapsulation and Other Processes in Food and
Pharmaceutical Manufacturing. In Power Ultrasonics:
Applications of High Intensity Ultrasound; Juan, G.,
Karl, G., Eds. Woodhead Publishing: Cambridge, 2015;
pp 911–935. 10.1016/B978-1-78242-028-6.00030-2.
[11] Huang, D.; Men, K.; Li, D.; Wen, T.; Gong, Z.;
Sunden, B.; Wu, Z. Application of Ultrasound
Technology in the Drying of Food Products.
Ultrason. Sonochem. 2020, 63, 104950. DOI: 10.
1016/j.ultsonch.2019.104950.
[12] Anandharamakrishnan, C.; Ishwarya, S. P.
Introduction to Spray Drying. Spray Drying
Techniques for Food Ingredient Encapsulation; John
Wiley & Sons, Ltd: Chichester; 2015, pp 1–36. 10.
1002/9781118863985.ch1.
[13] Lang, J. Ultrasonic Atomization of Liquids. J.
Acoustic Soc. Am. 1962, 34, 6–30. DOI: 10.1121/1.
1909020.
[14] Freitas, S.; Merkle, H. P.; Gander, B. Ultrasonic
Atomisation into Reduced Pressure Atmosphere –
Envisaging Aseptic Spray-Drying for
Microencapsulation. J. Control Release 2004, 95,
185–195. DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2003.11.005.
[15] Lixin, H.; Kumar, K.; Mujumdar, A. S. Simulation of
Spray Evaporation Using Pressure and Ultrasonic
Atomizer – A Comparative Analysis. Russia TSTU
Trans. (English Version) 2004, 10, 83–100.
[16] Semyonov, D.; Ramon, O.; Shimoni, E. Using
Ultrasonic Vacuum Spray Dryer to Produce Highly
Viable Dry Probiotics. LWT – Food Sci. Technol.
2011, 44, 1844–1852. DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2011.03.021.
[17] Synder, H.; Ballesteros, D. Spray Drying: Theory and
Pharmaceutical Applications. In Pharmaceutical
Dosage Forms – Tablet; Augsburger, L.L., Hoag,
S.W., Eds. CRC Press: USA, 2016; pp 227–261.
[18] Bellinghausen, R. Spray Drying from Yesterday to
Tomorrow: An Industrial Perspective. Dry. Technol.
2019, 37, 612–622. DOI: 10.1080/07373937.2018.
1517778.
[19] Rajan, R.; Pandit, A. B. Correlations to Predict Droplet
Size in Ultrasonic Atomisation. Ultrasonics 2001, 39,
235–255. DOI: 10.1016/S0041-624X(01)00054-3.
[20] Wood, W. R.; Loomis, A. L. The Physical and
Biological Effects of High-Frequency Sound-Waves
of Great Intensity. J. Franklin Inst. 1928, 205,
151–153. 10.1016/S0016-0032(28)92379-0.
[21] Hussin, M. R. M.; Badaruddin, S. A. M.; Mohd Nor,
N. M. R.; Hamzah, M. H. A. Ultrasonic Atomization
of Graphene Derivatives for Heat Spreader Thin
Film Deposition on Silicon Substrate. Mater. Today
Proc. 2019, 7, 763–769. DOI: 10.1016/j.matpr.2018.
12.072.
[22] Yasuda, K.; Bando, Y.; Yamaguchi, S.; Nakamura,
M.; Oda, A.; Kawase, Y. Analysis of Concentration
Characteristics in Ultrasonic Atomization by Droplet
Diameter Distribution. Ultrason. Sonochem. 2005,
12, 37–41. DOI: 10.1016/j.ultsonch.2004.05.008.
[23] Sollner, B. Y. K. The Mechanism of the Formation
of Fogs by Ultrasonic Waves. Trans. Faraday Soc.
1936, 32, 1532–1536.
[24] Nii, S. Ultrasonic Atomization. In Handbook of
Ultrasonics and Sonochemistry; Ashokkumar, M.,
Cavalieri, F., Chemat, F., Okitsu, K., Sambandam, A.,
Yasui, K., Zisu, B., Eds. Springer Science: Singapore,
2016; pp 239–257. 10.1007/978-981-287-278-4.
[25] Zhang, X.; Gardner, D. J.; Muszy
nski, L. Ultrasonic
Atomization of PMDI Wood Resin. Wood Fiber Sci.
2009, 41, 84–89.
[26] Jangam, S. V. An Overview of Recent Developments
and Some R&D Challenges Related to Drying of
Foods. Dry. Technol. 2011, 29, 1343–1357. DOI: 10.
1080/07373937.2011.594378.
[27] Kemp, I. C.; Hartwig, T.; Herdman, R.; Hamilton, P.;
Bisten, A.; Bermingham, S. Spray Drying with a
Two-Fluid Nozzle to Produce Fine Particles:
Atomization, Scale-up, and Modeling. Dry. Technol.
2016, 34, 1243–1252. DOI: 10.1080/07373937.2015.
1103748.
[28] Sindayihebura, D.; Bolle, L.; Cornet, A.; Joannes, L.
Theoretical and Experimental Study of Transducers
Aimed at Low Frequency Ultrasonic Atomization of
Liquids. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 1998, 103, 1442–1448.
DOI: 10.1121/1.421300.
[29] Kudo, T.; Sekiguchi, K.; Sankoda, K.; Namiki, N.;
Nii, S. Effect of Ultrasonic Frequency on Size
Distributions of Nanosized Mist Generated by
Ultrasonic Atomization. Ultrason. Sonochem. 2017,
37, 16–22. DOI: 10.1016/j.ultsonch.2016.12.019.
[30] Sugondo, A.; Sutrisno; Anggono, W.; Anne, O. Effect
of Frequency on Droplet Characteristics in
Ultrasonic Atomization Process. E3S Web Conf.
2019, 130, 1–7. DOI: 10.1051/e3sconf/201913001002.
[31] Wisutmethangoon, S.; Plookphol, T.; Sungkhaphaitoon,
P. Production of SAC305 Powder by Ultrasonic
Atomization. Powder Technol. 2011, 209, 105–111.
DOI: 10.1016/j.powtec.2011.02.016.
[32] Ramisetty, K. A.; Pandit, A. B.; Gogate, P. R.
Investigations into Ultrasound Induced Atomization.
Ultrason. Sonochem. 2013, 20, 254–264. DOI: 10.
1016/j.ultsonch.2012.05.001.
[33] Wisniewski, R. Spray Drying Technology Review.
Int. Conf. Environ. Syst., Bellevue, Washington, July
2015.
[34] Menshutina, N. N.; Lebedev, E. A.; Gordienko,
M. G. CFD Analysis of the Dispersed Phase
Behavior for Micropowders Production via Spray
Drying and Ultrasonic Atomization. Dry. Technol.
2019, 37, 1891–1900. DOI: 10.1080/07373937.2018.
1541903.
[35] Lebedev, E.; Gordienko, M.; Troyankin, A.;
Menshutina, N. CFD Simulation of Spray Drying
with Ultrasonic Dispersion. Comput. Aided Chem.
Eng. 2017, 40, 25–30.. 10.1016/B978-0-444-63965-3.
50006-4.

[36] Fajardo, S.; Garc
ıa-Galvan, R. F.; Barranco, V.;
Galvan, J. C.; Batlle, S. F. Spray Drying: An
Overview. In Biomaterials – Physics and Chemistry –
New Edition; Rosario, P., Teresa, M., Eds. BoD –
Books on Demand: Norderstedt, Germany, 2016; pp
9–35. 10.5772/57353.
[37] Leong, T. S. H.; Martin, G. J. O.; Ashokkumar, M.
Ultrasonics Sonochemistry Ultrasonic Encapsulation
– A Review. Ultrason. Sonochem. 2017, 35, 605–614.
DOI: 10.1016/j.ultsonch.2016.03.017.
[38] Donnell, C. P. O.; Tiwari, B. K.; Bourke, P.; Cullen,
P. J. Effect of Ultrasonic Processing on Food
Enzymes of Industrial Importance. Trends Food Sci.
Techno.l 2010, 21, 358–367. DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2010.
04.007.
[39] Prabhuzantye, T.; Khaire, R. A.; Gogate, P. R.
Enhancing the Recovery of Whey Proteins Based on
Application of Ultrasound in Ultrafiltration and
Spray Drying. Ultrason. Sonochem. 2019, 55,
125–134. DOI: 10.1016/j.ultsonch.2019.03.008.
[40] Khaire, R. A.; Gogate, P. R. Intensified Recovery of
Lactose from Whey Using Thermal, Ultrasonic and
Thermosonication Pretreatments. J. Food Eng. 2018,
237, 240–248. DOI: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2018.04.027.
[41] Gay
an, E.; Cond


on, S.; Alvarez, I. Continuous-Flow
UV Liquid Food Pasteurization: Engineering
Aspects. Food Bioprocess. Technol. 2014, 7,
2813–2827. 10.1007/s11947-014-1267-0.
[42] Antonio-Guti
errez, O.; L
opez-Malo, A.; Ram
ırez-
Corona, N.; Palou, E. Enhancement of UVC-Light
Treatment of Tangerine and Grapefruit Juices
through Ultrasonic Atomization. Innov. Food Sci.
Emerg. Technol. 2017, 39, 7–12. DOI: 10.1016/j.ifset.
2016.10.019.
[43] Khmelev, V. N.; Shalunov, A. V.; Golykh, R. N.;
Dorovskikh, R. S.; Nesterov, V. A.; Shavyrkina, N. A.
Studies of Spray Drying Process of Sour Milk
Products with the Application of Ultrasonic
Vibrations. Int. Conf. Young Spec. Micro/
Nanotechnologies Electron Devices, EDM, 2016,
246–250. DOI: 10.1109/EDM.2016.7538734.
[44] Deshmukh, R.; Wagh, P.; Naik, J. Solvent
Evaporation and Spray Drying Technique for Micro-
and Nanospheres/Particles Preparation: A Review.
Dry. Technol. 2016, 34, 1758–1772. DOI: 10.1080/
07373937.2016.1232271.
[45] Dalmoro, A.; Barba, A. A.; Lamberti, G.; d’Amore,
M. Intensifying the Microencapsulation Process:
Ultrasonic Atomization as an Innovative Approach.
Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm. 2012, 80, 471–477. DOI:
10.1016/j.ejpb.2012.01.006.
[46] Legako, J.; Dunford, N. T. Effect of Spray Nozzle
Design on Fish Oil–Whey Protein Microcapsule
Properties. J. Food Sci. 2010, 75, E394–E400. 10.
1111/j.1750-3841.2010.01708.x.
[47] Dalmoro, A.; Barba, A. A.; D’Amore, M.; Lamberti,
G. Single-Pot Semicontinuous Bench Scale Apparatus
to Produce Microparticles. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res.
2014, 53, 2771–2780. DOI: 10.1021/ie403308q.
[48] Barba, A. A.; Dalmoro, A.; d’Amore, M.; Lamberti, G.
Liposoluble Vitamin Encapsulation in Shell-Core
Microparticles Produced by Ultrasonic Atomization
DRYING TECHNOLOGY 21
and Microwave Stabilization. LWT – Food Sci. Technol.
2015, 64, 149–156. DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2015.05.040.
[49] Tatar Turan, F.; Cengiz, A.; Kahyaoglu, T.
Evaluation of Ultrasonic Nozzle with Spray-Drying
as a Novel Method for the Microencapsulation of
Blueberry’s Bioactive Compounds. Innov. Food Sci.
Emerg. Technol. 2015, 32, 136–145. DOI: 10.1016/j.
ifset.2015.09.011.
[50] Tatar Turan, F.; Cengiz, A.; Sandıkçı, D.; Dervisoglu,
M.; Kahyaoglu, T. Influence of an Ultrasonic Nozzle
in Spray-Drying and Storage on the Properties of
Blueberry Powder and Microcapsules. J. Sci. Food
Agric. 2016, 96, 4062–4076. DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.7605.
[51] Candia-Mu~ noz, N.; Ramirez-Bunster, M.; Vargas-
Hern
andez, Y.; Gaete-Garret
on, L. Ultrasonic Spray
Drying vs High Vacuum and Microwaves
Technology for Blueberries. Phys. Procedia 2015, 70,
867–871. DOI: 10.1016/j.phpro.2015.08.178.
[52] Han, L.; Bi, L.; Zhao, Z.; Xing, Y.
Microencapsulation Exploration of Squalene by
Ultrasonic Spraying and Freeze-Drying. AMR 2012,
554–556, 1835–1840. DOI: 10.4028/www.scientific.
net/AMR.554-556.1835.
[53] Klaypradit, W.; Huang, Y. W. Fish Oil Encapsulation
with Chitosan Using Ultrasonic Atomizer. LWT –
Food Sci. Technol. 2008, 41, 1133–1139. DOI: 10.
1016/j.lwt.2007.06.014.
[54] D’Addio, S. M.; Chan, J. G. Y.; Kwok, P. C. L.;
Prud’homme, R. K.; Chan, H.-K. Constant Size,
Variable Density Aerosol Particles by Ultrasonic
Spray Freeze Drying. Int. J. Pharm. 2012, 427,
185–191. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2012.01.048.
[55] Isleroglu, H.; Turker, I. Thermal Inactivation Kinetics
of Microencapsulated Microbial Transglutaminase by
Ultrasonic Spray-Freeze Drying. LWT 2019, 101,
653–662. DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2018.11.091.
[56] Marco, C.; Rosell, C. M. Bread Making Performance
of Protein Enriched, Gluten Freebreads. Eur. Food
Res. Technol. 2008, 227, 1205–1213. DOI: 10.1007/
s00217-008-0838-6.
[57] Kieliszek, M.; Misiewicz, A. Microbial
Transglutaminase and Its Application in the Food
Industry. A Review. Folia Microbiol. (Praha) 2014,
59, 241–250. DOI: 10.1007/s12223-013-0287-x.
[58] Jiang, M.; Bai, X.; Sun, J.; Zhu, W. Implication of
Ultrasonic Power and Frequency for the Ultrasonic
Vacuum Drying of Honey. Dry. Technol. 2020, 1–12.
10.1080/07373937.2020.1750026.
[59] Chegini, G.; Taheri, M. Whey Powder: process
Technology and Physical Properties: A Review.
Middle-East J. Sci. Res. 2013, 13, 1377–2138. 10.
5829/idosi.mejsr.2013.13.10.1239.
[60] Gajendragadkar, C. N.; Gogate, P. R. Ultrasonics
Sonochemistry Intensified Recovery of Valuable
Products from Whey by Use of Ultrasound in
Processing Steps – A Review. Ultrason. Sonochem.
2016, 32, 102–118. DOI: 10.1016/j.ultsonch.2016.02.023.
[61] Vishali, D. A.; Monisha, J.; Sivakamasundari, S. K.;
Moses, J. A.; Anandharamakrishnan, C. Spray Freeze
Drying: Emerging Applications in Drug Delivery. J.
Control Release 2019, 300, 93–101. DOI: 10.1016/j.
jconrel.2019.02.044.
22 R. A. KHAIRE AND P. R. GOGATE

[62] Cao, L.; Xu, Q.; Xing, Y.; Guo, X.; Li, W.; Cai, Y. Using Ultrasonic Atomizer. UPB Sci. Bull. Ser. B
Effect of Skimmed Milk Powder Concentrations on Chem. Mater. Sci. 2012, 74, 27–32.
the Biological Characteristics of Microencapsulated [64] Schuck, P.; Jeantet, R.; Bhandari, B.; Chen, X. D.;
Saccharomyces Cerevisiae by Vacuum-Spray-Freeze- Perrone,
I. T.; de Carvalho, A. F.; Fenelon, M.; Kelly,
Drying. Dry. Technol. 2020, 38, 476–494. DOI: 10. P. Recent Advances in Spray Drying Relevant to the
1080/07373937.2019.1581797. Dairy Industry: A Comprehensive Critical Review.
[63] Both, E.; Gyenge, L.; Bodor, Z.; Gy€
L
anyi, S.;
orgy, E.; Dry. Technol. 2016, 34, 1773–1790. DOI: 10.1080/


Abrah
am, B. Intensification of Probiotic 07373937.2016.1233114.
Microorganisms Viability by Microencapsulation