M I L L E N N I UEMD I T I O N

NOTIIS
ITHITIB$T
F0n

DIIOKOFFICDIIS

by

Arcenio G. Padilla Jr.

/fl;\ GOLDEN SUCCESS

IT{ARITIME CONSULTAI\ICY
["s9*'*)
lnq[m8K,/,/
FORDECKANDENGINEOMCERS
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PhilippineCopyright@ 1994 by ArsenioC. Padilb Jr'
is prohibitedwithout
All rights reserved. Reproduction or use of editorial or pictorial contentin any manner
with respectto the use of the information contained
"ipr"ri permissionin wriiing. No patentliability is assumed
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herein. While every prccaution
tbe use of the information
for errors or omissions. Neither is any liability assumedfor danages resulting from
containedherein

EDIT|On-- JANUARY2000
REVISED

rsBN 971-91521-0-9

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 PREFACE
This bookwaspreparedto assistDeckOfficen by showingthem the multiple choicetypeof Exami-
nation they may encounterin the LicensureExamination.All the answersto the questionsare basedon
studyand research.

The solutionsto the problemswere simplified for easierunderstanding.Formulasfor Navigation

and Seamanship were includedfor quick reference.

Candidatefor LicensureExaminationshouldreadthis bookand studythecontentstloroughly. This

will enablehim to gain confidenceduring the examination.

I would like to expressmy gratitudeto Capt. RomeoResultan,to Chief Mate RenatoSangalang,

Chief Mate NelsonPrias,LCdr. Angelo Tagle,Chief Mate EdgarMartinez,the staff of Collegeof Marine
Transporcation(PMMA), to PMMA Librarian Ltjg. Delia Mailed for their wholeheartedsupport.

Specialthanksare owed to the following ReviewCenters- GoldenSuccess,Achievers,RomeoB.

Resultan,Seafarersof the Philippines,Seacraft,and D' Navigators.

I want to give specialthanksto Third Mate RamiroBellezafor his artisticdesignof the cover.

And last,but not least,to my wife Angelitaand threechildrenAngelica,AndreaFe and ArsenioIII

who demonstrated remarkablepatienceandunderstanding right up to the end.

ARSEMOC.PADTTLAJR.
ReviewInslructor
FormerAssistantProfessor
PhilippineMerchantMarine Academy

iii
 " Success,s the product of
determination,couraga,and
hardwork. "
A C Padilla Jr.

IY
 TABLE OF GO}ITEilTS
Page
L TIDES AI.IDCURRENTS 1
tr WEATTIERELEMENTS .............23
m. ELECTROMCNAV[GATION................. ..........59
IV. MARINET.AWSAND SHIPBUSINESS.... .......87
V MARINEINSIJRANCE ..............107
u. SIGNALINGAND COMMUMCATIONS .......I2I
VII. ..............
COLLTSToNREGLJLATTONS ...........131
utr. CHARTSAND PUBLICATTONS .....................
161
x. COMPASS AND MAGNETTSM .......... ...........r71
X. PILOTINGANDSAILINGS .......181
)fl. NAUTICALASTRONOMY ........199
)fl. CELESTIALNAVIGATION .........279
)(Itr. NAVIGATIONPROBLEMS
A MercatorChart Construction........... .................:.. ....229
B. Visibilityof Lights..... .......231
C. Compass Deviation ...........233
D. Compass Deviationby Azinuth ............236
E. Compass DeviationbyAmplitude................. ............237
F. RightPlaneTriangle........... ...................239
G. Distance by VerticalAng1e.......... ..........240
H. ObliquePlaneTriang1e................. .........241
I. Couneto Intercepta Vessel .................242
J. BearingProblems .............243
K. BearingsandDistance Otr.............. ......250
L. PlaneSailing .....................252
M. Mercator Sailing........;........... ...............254
N. ParallelSailing .................255
O. Middlelatitude Sailing.. .......................259
P. Traverse Sai1ing.............. .......................260
a. GreatCircleSailing ..........262
R. Composite Sailing ............268
S. CurrentSailinC ................. .....................270
T SetandDrift ........... ..........271
U. TrueandApparentWind ....273
V. Time Problems .............. .......................276
W. GeographicalPosition ......280
X. TimeDiagram ...................281
Y. Bquationof Time....... ........283
Z. OrthographicProjection .......................284
AA RightSpherical Triangle. .......................287
 Page
BB. ObligueSpherical Triangle ....................296
CC. Correctionof Altitudes. ....300
DD. lnterceptMethod ..............301
m. MeridianAltitude....... .......302
FF. Chronometer Error ........... ....................303
ClG. Other Problems ................305
IlH. SpeedbyRevolutionsandFuel Conservation ............306
)CV. SAFETYOFUFEAf,SEA ..........313
xv. SHIPHANDLING .............. ........335
X\{. SHIPCONSTRUCTION .......,..,,.343
XVII. CARGOGEARS .....353
)Ofltr. CARGOHANDLINGANDSTOV/AGB ..,.......363
)O(. CARGOASSESSMENTS ...,..,,...379
)O(. STABILITYANDTRIM.......... .,..387
)O(I. STABILITYANDTRIMCALCULATIONS ................. ........401
)oil. AREASANDVOLUMES .......,...419
)Oiltr. ADDENDIJM
A Meteorology ....423
B. MarinelawsandShipBusiness ...............431
C. Navigation.. ......436
D. Seamanship................ ..........441

XXN. ANSWERS
A TidesandCurrents................. ...................461
B. WeatherElements ................462
C. ElectronicNavigation ..........463
D. MarinelawsandShipBusiness ...............466
E. Marinelnsurance............. .....466
E Signaling andCommunications ................467
G. CollisionRegulations ..........467
H. ChartsandPublications.............. ..............468
I. Compass andMagnetism............... ...........468
J. PilotingandSailings ............469
K. NauticalAstronmry .............470
L. CelestialNavigation .............471
M. NavigationProblems ............471
N. Safetyof Life at Sea.............. ...................473
O. ShipHarrdlinC................. ......474
P. ShipConstruction ........... .....474
Q. CargoCrears .......... ...............47
5
R. CargotlandlingandStowage .............. ......475
S. CargoAssessmencs ..............476
T TrimandStability .................476
U. Mensuration............. ............476
)oo/. COMMONCoIIVERSIONFACTORS ...........477

vt Thbleof Contents
 TIDES
fide is the rise and fall of water. Atlantic coastof the U.S. are of this type.
fidal Grrrent or fidal Stream is the periodic Dlurnal Tlde. Only a single high and single low
horizontal movementof the water. water occnr eachtidal My Ex Gulf of Mexico (N.
slnre), Java Sea,Gulf of To*in.
Ildd Phemmenon is the periodic motion of the
watersof tbe seadue to differencesin the attractive Mlxed fide. Characterizrlby alarge inequality in
fores of various celestid bodies, principally the the high waterheights,low waterheigbtsor in both.
moonandthe sun,upondifferentpartsof therotating Ex. Pacific cotnt of thc A.S.
earth.
Sprlng Tldes. Tideswith higher high andlower low.
Iltgh Ttde or Hlgh Water is the maximum height Occurat timesof new and full noon ( sunandmoon
reacied by tide. arein conjrmctionand at oppositionwith the earth).
Low THc orlow Water is the minimum level to Neap lldes. Tides wifr lower high and higher lor.
which the tide falls. Occur at times of fnst and third quarters(sun and
moon are in quadraturewith the earth).
The rate of rise and fall is not unifomr. From
low water,the tide beginsto rise slowly at first but at $olar THe" High and low watersoccuf at aboutthe
an increasingrate until it is about halfray to IIW. sametime each day due to the effect of Oe sun.
The rate of rise then decreasesuntil HW is reached Examples are tlu areasof S.PaciJicand Indoncsia.
and the rise ceases. The falling tide bebavesin a
Ihuble Low Water (as at Hoek Van Holland) and
simihr manner.
Double Hlgh Water (asat Southanpton,England).
Stand is the period at tIW or LW during which At suchplacesthere is often a slight fall or rise in
there is no sensiblechangeof level of tide. the middle of the high and low water period. The
praaical effect is to crcatea longer period of stand
Rangeis thedifferenoein height betweenconsecutire
at high or low tide.
high and low waters.
PcrtgeanTlde. Occus whenthemoon is atthepoint
Ildghtof fide is the vertical distince fron the chart in its
orbit nearestthe earth. The lunar semidiurnal
soundingdatumto the water surfaceat any stageof rangeis increased.
the tide.
Apogcan llde. Occun wbn the moon is farthest
RIse of,Tlde is the vertical distancefrom the chart from
Oeearth. The semidiurnalrangeis decreased.
soundingdatum to a high water dafim.
Iboplc llde. Occurs when the moon is at its
TYPES OF TIDE maximrrmsemi-monthlydeclinationN or S. Diurnal
effect is at a maximnm.
Semldlurnal Tlde. There are two high and two los'
waterseachtidal daywith relatively small inequality Equatorlel IHc. Oocurs when the moon crosses
in Oe high and low water heights. Tides on the the equator. Diurnal effctis rninimum.
 r,h
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A NEW|TTOON

A
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LOWWATER

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\i-l i HIGHWATER
"HO;*9* !rcwwnren
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SpRtNGTTDESOCCURATTIMESOF NEW NEAPTIDESOCCURATTIMESOF lsrAND

A N D F U L LM O O N . R A N G EO F T ; D E t S S m Q U A R T E R SR.A N G E o F T I D E I S L E S S
GREATERTHANAVERAGE. THANAVERAGE.

PRIMING LAGGING

ril @
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MOON
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WATE& o MOON

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LOWWATER

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MOON MOON

2 Tidesand Currents
 TIDAL CYCLES
Lunar Day. Vl hoursand 50 minutes.
Synodlcal or Lunar Month. The moon revolves
aroundthe earth with respectto the sun. About 29
Vzdays.
Tbopical Month. 27 th days. The effect of the
m@n's declination is repeatedin Vzof a Tropical
Month.
Anorralfstic Month. 27 Vz days. The cycle in-
volving the moon'sdistancerequiresan Anomalistic
Month.
Nodal Period. 18.6or 19 pars. An importantlu-
nar cycle.
Luniddal Interval. The interval betweenthemoon's
meridian transit and a particular phaseof tide.
fidal Datum. Alevel fromwhichheightsanddepths
are measured.
Mean Low Waten The averageheight of all low
watersat a place.
Mean SeaLevel. The averageheight of the surface overtakesthe low, and advancesupstream as a
of the seafor all stagesof the tide over a l9-year churning, foaming wall of water.
period. Used in Baltic Sea(tideless)aschart da- Frldy. A quasi-circular movementof water whose
tum.
Ilalf-fide Level. The level midway betweenmean
high water and mean low water.
Mean High Waten The averageheight of all high
watersover a l9-year period. Heights of land fea-
turesare usuallyreferredon nautical charc w a high
water daturn The level usedon charts of the U.S.
and terrilories.
The depth of water available at anytime is ob
tainedby adding the height of the tide at the time in
questionto the charteddepth, or by subracting the
predictedheight if it is negative.
Tidesand Cuments
METEOROLOGICALEFFECTS
1. Onshore winds raise the level of the sea and
offshorewinds lower iL
2. During periodsof low annosphericpressure,the
water level 0ends0obe higher than nomral.
TIDAL CURRENTS
Rotary Clrrreni It flovs continuously, with the
directionschangingthroughall pointsof thecompass
during the tidal period.The cycleis completedin 12
houn and 25 minutes.
Reverslng Current. Flows alternately in
approximatelyoppositedirections with an instant
or short period of slackwater. Prevalentin rivers or
straits or where the direction of flow is more or less
resficted to certain channels.
Ilydraullc Current. Generatedlargely by the
continuously changingdifferencein height of water
at the two ends.The tides at the two endsof a strait
are seldomin phaseor equal in range.
Bore. The advanceof the low water trough is so
much retarded that the crest of the rising tide
areais relatively small in comparisonto the current
with which it is associated
.
fide Rips. Small waves formed on the surface of
waterby meetingof opposingtidal currentsor by a
tidal current crossingan irregular boftom.
Flood. The movementof water toward the shoreor
upstream.
Ebb. The movementof water away from shoreor
docrnstream.
Set is the direction toward which the current flows.
Drtft is the speedor velocity of the current.
 OCEANCURRENTS
Ocan Cumt A welldefined curcnt extending
orcr a considcrable regim of the o pan.
Ferlodlc ftncnt The speedordirtction of vfiich
c,hangescplicntly u regular inbrvals, as a tidal
current.
ScrsmtCurncnts. Has largechangesin s@ or
diroctim due to seasmalwinds.
Pcrmmnt Cur.mi One whicb exocrienoesrela-
tively li[le periodic c seasmalc,hange.
Corstrl 6rrat. Flowsrougbly paratlel to a otnlit,
mtside tbe surf zone.
Logrhore QrcnL One parallel o a'sbore,insirb
tbe surf zme. Gener-arcd
by warresstriking thebeach
at my angle.
OffshoneGrrcot. Any current somedisance ftrm
the shore.
IBhc€ Currcn. Any cunent clce to tbe shorc.
Strc.m Cuncnt A relatirrcly nanrow,deep,fast-
moving current.
IHfl Curcnt. A br@$ shdloq slow-moving
currenL
CAUSES OF OCEAN CUR,RENTS
1. Wind
2. Densitydifiercnes in thewater
3. Depthofwarcr
4. Underwater topography
5. Sbapeof thebasinin whichtbeqrnentisnnning
6. Ext€ntandlocuimof land
7. Deflectimby therotatio of tbeearth.
Tbestressof windhwing &rosstheseecurses
tbesurft€laycrof warc(bmw. Thismotim is
transmittcdto eacb suooeedinglayer below the
sufia, but&ptointemel ftictim within thewatcr,
ttv ratcof motiondecnasswith&pth
A wind-driven currcnt is being deflcctcdby
qxlus rcrce drc b therotrtiqt of thecarth. The Lrbnfu
dcflectio is ffiNardt}r,,rightin thc N. IDnisphcre mtcr f,owhg suthca*umd. Canics laAe quenti-
and oward thc lcft in thc S. Ikmbphcrc. Tbc tiesof ie.
Tldesand Cunenn
Cablis forc is gncakr h higlur latitudei atd is
nnre cfrcaive in deepwater.
The difference between wind directim and
surfre wind-ctrrent directim variesfrromabout 15
deg. along shallow msal arcasto a maximum of
45 &g. in the deepooeans.
The speoddcurrent d€pendsupontbe the speed
of the win4 its @nstancy,the length d time it,bas
bloum"erc.
CURRENTS RELATED TO
DENSITY DITTERENCES
In an area of high density, the waEr snrhoe is
bn er then in an areaof lon, &nsity. Waterteods'to
flow Aon an area of higher water (low demity) to
oneof lower water(high density).but &re to rotati@
of t[e eartb, it is being deflectodbwad the nglr in
the N. lbmirybere, and toward the lefr in tbe S
Ihispberc. Tbe grearertbe density gradient (rare
of ciange with disance), the faster ttre related
qrrenL
MAIN CURRENTS
OF THE OCEANS
Nfith EquetorlelCurcnr Florvswtstwardin the
general arpaofNE trades.
Somh Equeea|e| Currcnt. Fhrys c/estwardin tbe
generalareaofSE trades.
Esrtorlrl C.rnntorcurrent. Sels iowdd the east
in the generalvicinity of the doldrums.It reachesa
maximrrmduing July and August and minimrm in
DEcemberand January.
Gdf Strr.n. The most remartable of all ocean
cur€ots. 13fcillws gmelly along tbe east@Gt d
N. America, fhuing arormdnffidC northmrd and
tben northeastwtrd bwad Cspe llilteras. Gulf
Strem isawatm ctrrcnl
Cuncd. Originating frm old arctic
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NorthAtbntlc Current. A vast slow-movingcur- mania.
runt in the generd vicinity of the prevailing wester-
lies. Peru Curnent or Humboldt Chrrcnt. A narrow,
fairly sable oceancurent that flows no'rthwardclme
Brazll Crnent. Flcn's southwestwa"dalong the to the S. American c@st.It originatesoffthe oast
Brazilian coast. of Chile at aboutLar 40S and flows past Penrand
Ecuador0othe southwestextremity of Colombia.
SouthAtlandc Cun ent. A broad,slow-movingcur-
rent in the generalvicinity of the prevailing wester- Rcsel Current. A weak northern branch of the S.
lies. Equatorial Current flowing toward the west and
northwestalong both the southernand northeastem
Benguela Current. A strongcurrent flowing north- coastof New Guinea
ward 0ofollow the west coastof Africa
Monsmn Cument. Flows eastwardand southeast-
Agulhas Currrcnt. A generally southwestward- ward acrossthe Arabian Seaand the Bay of Bengal.
flowing ocean culent of the Indian Ocean,flon's
along the eastcoastof South Africa Wcst Australla Culr.ent. An Indian OceanCur-
rent whicb generallyfirst flows northwardand then
Kuroshlo (Japan C\urmt). Carries large quanti- northwestwardoff the west coastof Australia.
ties of warm tropical water to higher latitudes and
then curves toward the east 6 a major part of the Wcst Wlnd Drtft. An o@anqurent that flows east-
generalclockwisecirculation in the N. Hemisphere. ward through all the o@ansaround the Antarctic
continent.
Callfomla Grrrent. A N. Prcific Ocean curent
flowing southeastwardalong the west coast d N. Wcst Greenland Cument. An oceancurrent flow-
America ftom west of Vancouverto the westof Bqia ing northward along the west ooantof Greenlan4
Califomia. into the Davis Strait.

Davldson Curent. A weakcountercurrentflowing East Greenland Culrent. An oceancurrent flosr-

northwestwardalong the west coast of N. America ing southwardalong the east coast of Greenland.
from Southem California to VancouverIslan( in- carrying water of low salinity and low temperanrre.
shore of the southeasterlyflowing California Cur-
rent. Canary Cunent. The southembranchof N. Atlan-
tic Current (which divides on the easternsideof the
Oyashlo. Formedby cold water flowing southward oean). It moves south past Spain and southwest-
through the westernpart of Bering strait between ward along the NW coastof Africa and pastthe Ca-
Alaska and Siberia and joined by water circulating nary Islands.
counterclockwisein the Bering Sea It brings quan-
tities of seaice but no icebergs. Falkland Current. Originating mainly from the
CapeHom Current in the north part of Drake Pas-
Alaska Current. The northern branch of the Aleu- sage.It flows northwardbetweenthe continent and
tian Current orving in a counterclockwisedirec- theFalkland Islandsafter passingthrough the strait.
tion. generally follows the ooast of Canada and
Alaska. East Afrlca Costal Clrrrent. An Indian Ocean
Current which originat€s mainly from that part of
Aleutbn Current. An easnvardflowing N. Pacific the Indian South Equatorial Current which turns
OoeanCurrent which lies north of the N. Pacific northward off the NE oast of Africa in the vicinity
OceanCurrent. of Lat 10" S (Somali Current).

Eest Austrelle Currnent.A S. Pacific OceanCur- Ect Slbertan Coostol Cuncnt. An cean curent
re.ntflowing southwardalong the eastooastof Aus- in the Chukcbi Seawhicbfriins the northwardflow-
tralia ftom the Coral Seato a point northeastof Tas- ing Bering Currentnorth of EastCape.

6 Tidesand Currents
 OCEANWAVES
YYevesare undulationsofthe surfaceof the water. Gnoup Veloctty. The speedat which the wave sys-
tem advances.

CAUSES OF WAVES: Oscllllatory Wave. A wave in which only the fomr

l. Wind
2. Submarineearthquakes
3. Volcaniceruptions
4. Tides
Ripples. Small waveletscausedby abreezn of less
than 2 knots starting to blow acrosssmoothwater.
Disappearrapidly as the breezedies.
Gravity \ilaves. More stableand gradually form if
the wind speedexceeds2 knos. They progresswith
the wind.
Swell. A relativelylong wind wave,or seriesof waves
that has travelled out of the generatingarea.Waves
that continue on without relation to local winds.
Sea.Wavesgeneratedor sustainedbywinds within
their fetch.
WAVES CHARACTERISTICS
Oceanwavesare very nearly in the shapeof an
invertedcycloid, the figure formed by a point inside
the rim of a wheel rolling along a level surface.
Crests.The highestpartsof waves.
Thoughs.The inte,rveninglowest parts of waves.
Wave IIeighL The vertical distancebetweentrough
and crest.
Wave Leng$. The horizonal distance between large-scalemotion of a portion of the oceanfloor or
successivecrests,measur€din the direction of travel. the shore, as by volcanic eruption, earthquakeor
Wave Pcriod. The time interval betweenpassage
of successivecrestsat a stationarypoint.
Waveheight,lengthandperioddependon wind
speed,the length of time it hasblown and its fetch. Epicenter. The point dircctly abovethe disturbance,
Fetch. The straight distanceqlsvshnstravelledov€r
the surface.The disance wave has travelled from fidal Wave. Either a tsunami or a stonn tide that
formation 0odecay.
advances,the individual particles of the medium
moving in clmed orbits, as ocean waves in deep
water.
Wave of Tianslatlon. A wave in which the
individual particlesof the medium are shifted in the
direction of wave travel, as oceanwavessin shoal
watars.
EFFECT OF CURRENT.ON WAVES
A following current increaseswavelengthand
decreaseswaveheight.
An opposingcurrent decreaseswavelength and
increaseswave height.
WAVESAND SHALLOW WATER
When a wave encountersshallow water, the
movementof the individual particles of water is
restrictedby the bottom, resulting in reducedwave
speed.The shallowerthe waterthe slowerthewave
speed.As the wavespeedslows,the period remains
the sameso the wavelengthbecomesshorter.Since
the energy in the waves remains the same, the
shorteningof wavelengthsresults in increased
heights.
Tsrnamis are ocean waves produced by sudden,
seaquakeor landslide.
Selsmlc Sea Waves. Caused bv submarine
earthquake.
at which the wavesoriginate.
overflowsthe land.

Tldesand Cunents 7
 Tlunrmis.arcoeriesofwavcs.In deepwater,th
wavebeigbt of a tsunarniis rever greatertban 2 or 3
fer Since the wavelcngth is rsually onsideraHy
pqp thsn 100mites, thewan is not conspicttousat
sc&
Storm Ttdcs c Storm Surges or Ttdel Wrvcs.
Cmsist of a single wave'crestand baveno period or
uaveleng0.
Three efiects ln r stmlndua r rbc ln scehvcl.
1. Wind stresson tbe seasurftce which results in
piling-up of water.
2. Tbe covergencedwinddriven currelts, which
elewrcs the sea surfrce along the oonvergence oils, are the mct effective.
line.
3. The lonr atmosphericpressnrethat mompanies
severestonon catnes t[e "inverted barmeter".
An inch of menry is equivalent to about 13.6
incles of water and the adjusment of the sea
surfroe to the reducedpressurecan amormt to
severalfeet at equilibdum.
Oil hasprorad efrectivein modifying the effects
of breaking wavqs,and bas proved useful to vessel
at sea.Its €fict is greatestin &ep nater, where a
srnrll quantitysffces if thecrilcanbemadeto spread
to windu/ard.In shallow uat€r wherethe wabr is in
motion over the bottom, oil is lesseffective.
The heaviestoil, notably animal and vegeable

t Tldcsand Cuncnts
 TIDES A]ID CURRENTS
1. In certain areasof the S. Padfib, tidesoaur almosi at the sametime eac,hday due to th influene by
the:
a. Sun c. Planetsin onjrmction
D. Moon d. Regressionoftbenodes

2. T\e amount that a crrrent travels in one hour is termed as:

a. Set ,. Ftood c. Drift d. Ebb

3. Tides having higher lows and lower highs occur when:

a, T\e moon is at its marimrrm north declination
D. The sun and the mmn are in conjunction
c. The sun and the moo are in oppoaition
d. Tfu moon is at first and last quarter

4. When two conseqrtivehigh or low watersare d large differencein heights,tbey are called:
a. Diurnal tides c. Mixed tides
D. Semidiund tides Tropic tides

5. When there are small difrerene betweenthe heights of two suc@ssivehigh or low tides, tbey are
called:
4. Diurnal b. Senidiurnal c. Solar d. Mixd

6. A tide is called diurnal when:

a. Only ore high and one low wat€r ocors in a hmar day
D. me high tide is higher and low tide is lower tban normal
c. The high tide and low tide are six burs apart
d. Two high tides ccur duing a luar day

7. Tropic tides arc causedby

a. Itfioonbeing at its maxim,m doclination North or South
D. lfioon crossing the equator
c. Sun andmom arc in line
d. Sun and moo ar€ at quadraturewit[ tbe earth

8. Neaptides q the 6des that bavelmrer higbs and higber lows occur when the noon is at:
a. Oppoeitfunwith tbe earth and sun c. Qtadrature with tbe eart[ and sun
\
D. Cmjunctim with the earth and sun d. |+pge,

9. Spring tirbs a tides that have higber highs and locrer bws ocor when tbe moon is at
a. Oppoeitionor in mjunctim with the earth and sun
D. Quadraturcwith tbe earth and sun
c. Apogoe
d. Perige

10. Mean low water is cmroctly delined as the averageheigbt d

a. tb two daily bw tides c. all lon, wateG
D.6ehigbrndlowtides d. tbbwerlowtidcs

frdesand Currents
 11. Althougb, tide ables list the times and heightsof tides at a speciftclocale, thesecm be alteredby:
I. onshorewinds tending to rise the level of tides
tr. bw atmosphericpr€ssurecausingtides o be higher than normal
a. I only D. tr only c. both I and tr d. neither I nor II

12. T\e diurnal inequality of tides is causedby:

a. the moon being at perigee c. changingweatheronditions
b. the declination of the mmn d. themoon being at apo3iee

13. In cenain areasof the worl4 there is often a slight fall of tide during the middle of the high water
period. The practical effect is to createa longer period of standat high water.This specialfeature is
called:
c. doublehigh water D. perigeantide c. apogeantide d. bore

14. When a strong curcnt sets ove,ran irregular bosom, or moetsan opposing qxrent, which of the
following mayoocur?
a. tide rips D. bore c. etrbcurrent d. slack water

15. The period at high or low wat€r during which there is no changein the height of the water is called:
4. rangeof the tide b. planeof the tide c. standof the tide d. revening of tide

16. "Standof the tide" is that time when:

a. the vertical rise or tall of the tide has stopped
D. slack watersoccur
c. tidal current is at ma:rimum
d. the actual depth of water equalsthe charteddepth

17. What doesthe term 'tide" refer to?

a. horizontalmovementofthewater c. mixing tendencyofthewater
D. verticalmovementofthewater d. salinitycontentofthewat€r

18. The rangeof tide is the:

a. distancethe tide movesout from the shore
b. duration of time betweenhigh and low tide
c. differencebetweenthe heights of high and low tides
d, maximum depthof the water at high tide

19. Itrowmany high watersusually occur eachday on the East coast of the united states?
c. one b. nvo c. three d. fow

20. Currentsrefer to the:

a. verticalmovementofthewater c. densitychangesinthewater
D. horizontalmovementofthewater d. noneoftheabove

21. T:heset of the curent is the:

a. speedof the current at a particular time c. direction ftom which the current flows
!. 6p1i6rrm speedof the current d. direction to which the current flows

22. Setof the current is:

a. iB velocity in knots c. estimatedcurent
D. directionfromwhereitflo$/s d. directiontowardswhereitflon's

10 Tldesand Currents
 23. Which of the following describesan ebbcurrent?
a. horizonal mo\'€mentof water awayftom the land following low tide
D. horizontal morrementof waEr towards the land following low tide
c. horizontal movementof water away ftom land following high tide
d. horizontal movementof wabr towardsthe land following high tide

U. The movementof water away ftom shoreor downstreamis called what type of cunent?
c. revening D. €bb c. flood d. slack

25. Slackwarer occunrwnen Oerei:

a. nohorizontalmotionofthefater c. aweakebborflmdcurrent
D. no vertical motion of the water d. neitber a vertical nor a horizontal motion

2f.. The velocity of a rotary tidal current will increasewhen the moon is:
a. new D. fuU c. atperigee d. alloftheabo,e

27. Ttre referencedatu4 usedin determining the heigbts of land featureson most charts is:
a. meanhigh water D. half-tide level c. meansealevel d. meanlow water

28. The shorelineshown on nautical chars of waterssubjecto large tidal fluctuationsis usually the line
of mean:
c. lowerlowwater D. highwater c. bnrwater d. tidelevel

29. Which of the following statementsregardingcurents idare correct?

I. In general,the s@ of tidal currents are lessalong straight coaststhan indentedooasts.
tr. StrongersetsDward or awayftom the shorecan be expeaedwhen passinga straight omst than an
indentedone.
a. I only D. tr only c. botb I and tr d. neither I nor II

30. Regardingtides and currents,which of the following iJare correct?

I. The time of slack water doesnot generallycoincide with the time of high or low water.
tr. The time of maximum velocity d the current doesnot wually coincidewith the time of the most
rapid changein the vertical height of the tide.
a. Ionly D. tronly c. bothlandtr d. neitherlnorll

31. The vertical distanoebernreentrough and crestof a wave is called:

a. rise D. magni$de c. range d. heigbt

32. Prining of the tide occu$:

c. at,timesofnewandftrllmmn c. betweenfirstquarterandfullmmn
D. betweennew and fust quarter d. betweenthird quarter and new mmn

33. Iaggrng of the tide occur''s:

a. betweenfust quarter and frrll noon c. betweenfull moon and third quarter
D. betweennew and first quarter d. noon and earth are at quadrature

34. An important lunarcycle affecting the tidal cycle is called the nodal period. How long is this cycle?
a. 16 days D. 19 yers c. 6 years d. 18 months
'
35. The averageheight of the snrftcc of the seat'or all st4gesof the tide over the 19 yearperiod is called:
4. rneanlow water D. meanhigh water c. rncansealewl d. 'half-tide level

Ttdesand Cunents 1t
 36. The datum from which the predictedheightsof tides are reckonedin tbe tide tablesis:
a. given in the table 3 of the tide tables c. meanlow water
D. the highest possiblelevel d. thesameas that usedfor thechartsof the tocality

37. Tbe interval of the averageelapsrI time from the meridian transit of the moon until the next high tide
is called the:
a. llarmonic constant c. Establishmentof tbe port
D. Tide cycle d. Ilalf-tide lerrel

38. Which d tbe fi. is a referencedatun usedfor determining the depth of water as shown on an East
Coastchart?
a. Ilalf-tide level D. Mean .righ water c. Mean low water , d. Mean sealevel

39. The term 'flood curnent"refers !o that time when the water level is:
4 Moving towardsthe land c. Not changing
D. Falling d. Falling becauseof a rapid changein the wind

40. Ibw many slack tidal curreng usuallyoccur eachday?

a. One D. TWo c. Three d. Four

41. In a river subject!o tidal currents,the besttime to dock a ship without the assistanceof tugs is:
c. When the slac* water and stand coincide c. At stand
b. At high water d. At slack water

42. Chafid depth is Oe:

a. Vertical distanceftom the chart soundingdatumto the oceanbottom
D. Vertical distancefrom Oe chart soundingdatumto the oceanbottom plus the height of tide
c. Awrage height of water over a specifiedperiod of time
d. Arerage height of all low watersat a plre

43. When utilizing a Pacilic Coastchart, the referenceplaneof sormdingis:

a. Mean low water springs c. Mean lower low water
D. Mean low water d. Lowestnormal low water

4. \\e drift and set of tidal stream,river and ooeancurents refer to the:
a. Fosition & araof the current
D. Speed& direction oward which the current flonn
c. Tlpe & characteristicof the current's flow
d. Noneoftheabove

45. The velocity of a rotary tidd current will be docreas€dwhen the moon is:
a. At apogee D. At perigee c. New d. Full

46. The datumof sormdingsfc the Atlantic Coastof the United States,new in 1988is:
a. meanlow water c. meanhigh water spring
D. meanlower low water d. nean high water

47. WhicX of tbe following is fre correct definition of height of the tide?
a. the vertical distanccfrom the tidal datum to the level of the warcr at any time
D. the vertical diftrence betweenthe heights of low and high water
c. the vertical diftreirce of darum plane and ooan bottom
d. the vertical distancefrom tle surfaceof the water to tbe oceanfloor

12 Tldesand Cunents
4t. Mean high water is the averageheight of:
a. tbhigherhighwater c. theloneroftheg,pedqilytides
b. he lower higb water d. all high waters

49. Which statementis true oncerning apogeantides?

a. theyoccrn only at quadraturc
D. they ocon when the moon is nearestto the eartb
c. tbey causeddiumal tides o boome mixed
d. tfuy bave decreasedftomnormal

50. The classof tide that prevails in tbe greatestnrtmberof important harbrs in the Atlantic Coastis:
a. spring D. mixed c. diunml d. semidurnal

51. Neaptideomrs:
a. at the sart of sp,ring,the sun is orrerthe equator
D. only c/henthe srm,moon and earth are in line in any order
c. when the sun and moon are 90 deg. relative to the earth
d. when the sun, moon and eartb are in line, in any cder

52. Spring tide occurs:

a. at the start of the spring, when the sun is over tbe equaor
D. only wben the sun and moon are on the sameside of the earth and neady in line
c. wben the sun and moon are 90 deg. relative to the earth
d. when the sun,moon and earth are nearly in line, in any order

53. In order to predict the acnral depth of warcr using the fide Thbles,the da0aobained from the Tide
ables:
a. is the rcnnldepth
D. should beaddedor subraced from the charteddepth
c. shouldbe multiplied to the c,harteddepth
d. shouldbe divi@ by the cbarteddepth

54. The velocity of current in large oastal barborsis:

a. unpredictable c. generallycolntant
D. predictedin the tidal current tables d. generallytoo weak

55. To makesureof gecing full advantageof a favorablecurrent,you shouldreachan entranceor strait at

what time in relation to the frrediced time of the favorablecurent?
a. me hour after c. 30 minutesbefore
D. at the predictedtime d. 30 minutesbeforeflood, one hour after an ebb

56. A rotary current setsbrougb all direcfionsof 6e conpass. The time it takesto oompleteone of these
cyclesis approxinately:
a. 3hours D. 6%hours c. l2t/znovs d. ylhs0m

5?. A tidal currcnt which floun alternatelyin approximaEly oppositedirectionswith a slrck waterat each
reversalof direction is called:
a. reversingorrectilinear c. tiderips
D. bore d. hydraulic

58. A current in a channelcansedbya difierencein the surhoe level at the two endsis called:
a. reversing D. bore c. eddies d. hydraulic
Tldesand Currents 13
59. A quasi-circular mov€m€ntof wag whoseareais relatirrly small in conparison to the cunent with
whie,hit is associatedis called:
c. bore D. tide rips c. ddy d. db

60. In a &rv estuaries,the advanoe^f tbe low wat8r trough is so muc,hretardedthat the crestof Oe rising
tide overakes the low, and advancesupsaeamas a chuning foaming wall of water is called a:
c. bore b. tide rips c. hn, water d. hydraulic current

61. Which current would you en@unteron a dirirt passaSeftom SouthAftica to Argentina?
a. Agulhas b. SouthBquatorial c. Guinea d. SouthAtlantic

62. Tbe main strean of the Califorrria current generallyseB in what directim?
o. southerly D. northerly c. westerly d. easterly

63. The North Equatorial cunent flows o the:

a. southwest D. northeast c. *Est d. east

64. Coriolis force affectsthe oean curr€ns as folloun:

I. Coriolis force is grcater in higher latitudes.
lI. Its efrectis grcater in deeperwater.
a. Ionty D. tronly c. bothlandrl d. neitherlnorll

65. Which of the following stat€mentsis/are correct regardingTide tables:

I. The datum frm which the predictedheighB are reckmed is the sameas that usedfor the charts
of the locality.
tr. Tio find the actud deptb of the waler at my time, tbe heigbt of the tide is to be added to or
srbtrrcted frm the charteddeptb.
c. I only D. tr only c. botb I and tr d. nei0er I or tr

66. The set of tbe oceancur€nc is causedby:

a. densitydifrere,ncesoftbewater c. rottrtimoftbeearth
D. dirpclionof prinrycirculationof air d. all oftheaborc

67. The height of oen waves:

a. increasesif tbe samedfuecfionas tbe currents
D. increasesas tbey approachlessdeepwater
c. increasesas tby approachdeep€rwat€r
d. remain constantin deepand sballw wator

68. Tbe curr€nt that is similar to the Gulf gts€amis the:

a. Kuroshio c. O:tchio
D. Califffnia current d. Bengrcla curr€nt

69. Equatorial comtercurrent gemally flmnc to tbc:

a. nortb D. south c. w|cst d. ea!!t

70. The moat efroctivegeneratingfacs of surfaceooeanqtrr€nB arc:

a. temperatuF and saliniry difrrcnes in tbe water
D. wind and density diftrtne in the warer
c. wuer depth and |md€f*abr t0eosraDhy
d. rotatim of tbe earth snd cm&cntel intcrfcrcne

t4 Tldesand Cunents
71. On mid-ooeanwafers,the height of a wind-gen€ratedwave is not afiecredby:
a. fetch c. water depth exeeding 100feet
D. wind velocity d. duration of the wind

72. Which current would you encounteron a direct passagefrom london to Capetown?
a. Norwaycurrent ,. Falklandcurrent c. Brazilcttrrent d. Benguelacurrent

73. Fetchis the:

a. time in seoondsrequiredfor two creststo passa given point
D. strerchof water over which a wave-foruringwind blmrs
c. distaDcea wave travelsbetweenformation and decay
d. measurpmentof wave steepness

74. You are oDa voJageftom NewOrleans to Bcton. When navigating offthe Floridaoast, you will get
the greaest b€Defitftom the Gulf stneanif you navigate:
a. about45 miles eastof CapeCanaveral c. dong the 50 fathomcurve
D. about25 miles eastof Daytona d. closeinsbois

75. Wavebeight, length and period will dependupon:

a. windspeed. c. lengthoftimethewindhasblown
D. the fetch . all of tbe abore

76. The NombEquatorial current flows tothe:

4. *cst b. southwest c. norltwest d. east

77. lnwhich month will the Equatorial countorcunentbe the strongesc

a. August D. April c. Oober d. January

78. When a cur€nt flows in the oppmite directi@ to the wave,tbe wave :
a. lengtb is increased c. velocity inseases
D. leng$ is unclanged d. heig[t is incrpased

79. The Br-azilcrrrent generally flows in which directim?

a. sout[westerly D. southerly c. nortbwesterly d. northerly

80. Cold wat€r flowing southwardthrough the westernpart of Bering strait betweenAlaska and Sib€riais
joined by uater circtlating counterclockwisein tne nering seato form the:
a. Kuroshio D. Oyashio c. Sub-arcticcurrent d. Alaska curent

81. Which is true staerent oncerning equatcial tides?

a. Theymur when the sun is at maximum declinatio.
D. They ocon when the moon is at ntaximlm declination.
c. The difrerencein height betweenconsecutivehigh or low tides is xj minimrn.
d, Ttey ue usedas the basis fa the vulgar establishmentof the port.

t2. Yur vessclgm agroundin soft mu4 yur would havetle bestc,hanceof reflooting it on the next high
tideif it is grunded at:
a. hlnwarcrn€ap b. Wetwarcrspring c. highwaterneap d. highwaterspring

83. Tlie largestwav€sCheaviest cbops)will uually derrelopwbere the wind blows:

a. at rigbt angle o tle fhry of tbe current c. in tle samedfu€ctio as tbe flw of the current
D. ageinst6efhoofthecurrent d. ouerslactwat€r

Tidesand Cunents 15
 84. The speedat which oceanwave systemadvanoesis called:
d. wavelength D. ripple length c. groupvelocity d. waveralocity

85. A current will develop betweenareasof different density in oceanwaiers. If 1ou face in the same
direction the current is flowing, the water oft
a. high density will be on the left in the N. hemlsphere
D. low density will be on the left in tbe N. hemisphae
c. high density will be on the right in the S. hemispbere
d. bw density will be on the left in the S. hemisphere

86. One of the causesof oceancurrentsis density difierenes in the water. This is true because:
a. in an areaof high density the water surfaceis lower than the areaof low density
D. surfacewater flows ftom an areaof high densityto arealow density
c. the lesserthe density gradient the freeier the water
d. density differencescausethe curents to stayin the trough

87. Generally speaking,a ship steaning acrossthe N. Pacilic oean from Japanto Seattleis likely to
experience:
a. adversecurrentsfor the entire sossing c. favorablecurrent in the summermonthsonly
D. favorablecurrent fo the entire crossing d. variable cunents

88. When a current flows in the oppositedirection to the wave:

a. length is increased c. velocity increases
D. height is increased d. length isunchanged

89. Coastalcurrent:
a. is generatedby wavesstriking the beach c. flows in a circular pattem
b. flows outside the surf zone d. is also hown as longshorecurrent

90. Which of the following curcnt is r€sponsiblefm themovementof ioebergsino the N. Atlantic shipping
lanes?
a. Iceland current D. Baltic curent c. Labrador current d. Baffm current

91. In the Sargassose4 thereare largequantitiesof seaweeds and no well defmedcurrents.This areais in
the:
a. Central N. Atlantic ocean c. rilestern N. Pacific ocean.
b. Caribbeansea d. WestcoastofS. America

92. The cold oceancuffent which meetsthe wam Gulf streambetweenlatitude 40 deg.and 43 deg.N to
form the "oold wall" is the:
a. Labrador current D. Alaska current c. N. Pacific current d. California curent

93. As the SouthEquaorial curent approachesthe eastcoastof Africq it divides with main pa$ flowing
southto form the warm:
a. Agulhas curent D. Benguelacurent c. Madagascarcurrent d. Canary current

94. What curent flows southwardalong the west coastof Oe United Statesand causesextensivefog in
that afea:
a. Davidsoncurrent D. Alaska current c. N. Pacific curent d. Califomia current
"w^rm" basedon the latitude in which it originates:
95. Which of the following currentsis
c. Alaska curent D. Sub-arcticcurrent c. Kuroshio d. Perucurent

16 Tldestnd Cunents
 !)6. The Brazil current flows in which direction?
c. northwesterly D. southwesterly c. southerly d. northerly

97. On a voyagefrom New York o Durban,yon shouldexpectthe Agulhascurrent to prcsenta strong:

a. ciffshoreset D. onshoreset c. headcurrent d. following current

98. You are anchoredin tbe Aleutian island chain and receivedword that a Tsunamiis expectedto strike
the islands in six hours. What is the safestaction:
a. Get undenvayand be in deep,op€noceanwaterwhen the Tbunamiarrives.
b. Increasethe scopeof the anchorcable.
c. Get undenvayand be closeto the shoreon the side of the island away from the Tsunami.
d. Plant both anchorswith about a 6Odeg. anglebetweenthem.

99. Which of the following shoutdyou expectwhen you enoountera Tsunani in the openocean?
a. violent seasfrom mixed directions
D. no noticeablechangefrom the existing seastale
c. wind increasingto gale force
d. amEor wavewith extrerre height and length

100. Which of the following statementsabout the rate of rise of the tide is/are correct?
I. The rate of rise is not uniform.
IL The tide risesfastestwhen it first startsto rise.
a. I only D. II only c. both I and tr d. neitber I nor II

101. High tide on a coastlinelag behind the meridian transit of the moon due to:
I. The revolution of the earth
II. The rotation of the earth
a. Ionly D. tlonly c. bothlandtr d. neitherlnorll

102. Your draft in a channel is 39.5 feet. Wbat is tbe depth in metersyou can clear the bar at?
a. 6.58m b. l2.l9m c. l3.l7m d. 21.87m

103. The depthof water on a cbart is indicatedas 23 meten. This is equal to:
a. ll.5 fathms b. l2.6fathoms c. 69.0feet d. 78.6fea

104. Thirty-twometersis equalsto:

a. t7.50tes b. 58.52tet c. 96fa. d. lm.99tff,t

105. You are rmderwayin a vesselwith a draft of 6.0 feet You arein an areawherethe charteddepthof the
water is 4 fathoms.You should expoctthe deptb of waterbeneathyour keel 3ob approximat€ly:
a. l2fet b. 30tert c. 2/-fer,t d. l8feet

106. The heavenlybody that has the greaterinfluence on tide is Oe:

a. Sun D. Star c. Planet d. Moon

107. Theyare causedby meteaologicalhctors suchaswind andbarometricpressureandby oceanographical

ftctors suchas difierent sdinity of water and temperature.
a. Wavcs D. fides c. Swells d. Currents

108. Wnds blowing along a c@st tend to set up long waves which travel along tbe omst raising the sea
level at the crcct and lowering the sealevel at the trough. Thesewavesare known as:
c. Storm surgps D. Coastshakers c. Tidal waves d. Ripples

Tidesand Currents l7
109. A phenoaenon surely not an indication of an approachingtropical storm.
a. tong high swell D. Ctoudsin the *y c. Tidal wave d. Ilalos around the mmn

ll0. It is the result of an underseaearthquakewhich setsup wavesentirely rmconnectedwith tides and

travels with a great speed.
a. Swell D. Tidal wave c. Eddy d. Breaker

111. Which of tbe ff. stat€mentsis tfue?

a. A low barometricprcssurewill tend to raise the sealevel.
D. A low barometricpressuretendsto depressthe sealevel.
c. A high brometric prc$ilre will raise the sealevel.
d. A low or high pressur€doesnot affect the sealevel'

112. The curr€nt coming from high latitudesnorth or south going towardsthe equator..
a. Warm current D. Polar current c. Cold current d. Bquatorial current

113. The movementof water coming in towardsthe shoreor up streans:

a. ffiing b. Flooding c. High tide d. Slacking

114. A level of the sea,defined by somephaseof the tide, &om which waler depthsand heightsof tide are
reckmed.
a. Tidal cunent D. Tidal datum c. 'fidal wave d. Tidal day

115. What currcnt increasesthe speedof a vesselover the ground?

a. Favorableline b. Favo'rablecurrent c. Favorablewind d. Fathometer

116. A tidal current having one flood current and one 6b current eachtidal day is:
a. Diurnal curent D. Diunal circle c. Diurnal inequality d. Diunal motion

117. The Humboldt Current flows in which directim?

a. West D. North c. South d. East

ll8. The wabrs of the North Atlantic entering the Arctic Ocean,betweenNorway and Svalbar4 is which
current?
a. Oean qrrrent D. Monsoo current c. Northem curent d. Polar curent

119. A relatively natrox,, deep,fast-moving curent is sometimescalled:

a. Hff1dycurrent b. Driftcurrent c. Windcurrent d. Streamcurent

120. What is the diflerence betrveenthe time or heigbt of tides at a subordinatestation and its reference
station?
a. fidal day b. Tide c. Tidal wave d. Tidal difrerence

121. ThedeflocfiondawinddrivencurrentstotherightofthewinddirectionintheNorthernllemisphere
is carsedby
a. The Coriolis fore c. The polar ice caps
D. Sub-surhc cunent d. Variability

122. Wbatdetermines the mosteffects on iceberg?

a. Currens c. Waves
D. Tides d. Wnds

rE Ilfus and Currents

123. What is the higher of two low tidesocctqing during a tidal day?
a. Higher low water D. High tide c. Higherhigh water d. High meanwater

12t1.What is a short" breaking wave occurring when a current passesover a shoal or other submarine
obstructionsor meetsa contrary current or wind?
a. Overflow b. Overfall c. Overshore d. Coastalwave

125. What is the place at.which continuoustide o.bservations

are made over a number of yearsto obtain
basictidal data for the locality?
a. Tide tables c. Secondarytide station
b. Primary tide station d. Tide vessel

126. The instrumentwhich registerstheheightof the tide againsta scaleof thetide daa which is recorded
for the actual reading oomputationis called:
a. Barograph c. Automatictide range
D. Thennograph d. Tidal graph

127. T)nedifferencebetweenthe heightof the two high tidesduring a tidal day is called:
c. High waterfull and change c. High water inequality
b. High water d. High water mark

128. An o@ancurrentflowing rougbly parallelto a coastoutsidethe surf zoneis called:

a. Driftcurrent c. Offshorecurrent
D. Longshorbcurrent d. C-oastalcu:rent

129. Either a tsunamior a stormtide that overflowsthe land is calleda:

a. Tide D. Current c. Stomrcurrent d. Tidal wave

130. What is that part of the tide duesolelyto the tide producingforcesof the sun?
a. Solartide b. Equatorialtide c. Apogeantide d. Perigeantide

131. It consistsa singlewavecrestand hasno periodor wavelength.

a. Stormtide b. Stonnsurge c. Tidalwave d. lttofthese

132. Ihe time interval betweennew or full moonand the maximum effectof thesephasesupon therangeof
tide.
a. Ageof tide c. Vulgarescablishment
D. Lunitidal interval d. Diurnal interval

133. The part of theEquatorialcurent that haspa.ssed

throughthe Gulf of Mexico andhasbeendeflected
by land.
a. Gulf Stream D. LabradorCurrent c. CanaryCurrent d. BenguelaCurrent

134. The horizontaldistancebetweensuccessive

troughsmeasuredin the directionof travelis termedas:
a. Wavelength b. Waveheight c. Waveperiod d. Wavevelocity

135.Theintervaloftheaverageelapsedtimefromthemeridiantransitofthemoonuntilthenexthig
is called:
a. Lunitidal interval c. High water
,. Establishmentof the port d. Ageof tide

Tidesand Currents 19
136. The difrerencebetweentbe level of the danrmof chart and of the meanhigh waterspring is known as:
a. Neaprise D. Tiderise c. Springrise d. Diurnalrise

137. The time interval benveenthe passageof successivewavecrestsat a stationarypoint is called:

a. Wavelength D. War fieight c. Waveperid d. Waveralocity

138. The trade winds which blow with great persistence,set up a sysbm of Equatorial current which at
times exiendsto latitude 50". This current is called:
a. Atlantic oceancurent c. Streamcurrent
D. Counter current d. Drift current

139. Wavescausedby stonns that continue on without relation to local winds.

a. Swells D.. Sea c. Gravity,waves d. Noneof these

140. It is a wavein which only the fonn advances,the individual particlesof the mediummoving in closed
mbits, as oceianwavesin deepwater.
a. Waveof translAtion c. Gravity wave
D. Oscillatory wave d. Tidal wave

141. It is a wavein which tbe individual particlesare shiftedin the direction of wavetravel, asooeanwaves
in shoal water.
a. Waveoftranslation c. Gravitywave
b. Oscillatorywave d. Noneof these

142. T\e point directly abovethe disturbane, at whicb the wavesoriginated.

a. Epicenter D. Geocenter c. lleliocenter d. Me,trnnter

143. lt is the continuation of the South Pacffic Equatorial Current after its division near the Fiji Island.
a. Rmsel curent b. StreamCurrent c. Austrdian Current d. Rotary current

144. A suddenand temporaryoscillation or fluctuation of the water level in a land-lockedpart of the sea
a. Seiche b. Seine c. Seineboat d. Seinefloat

145. The BenguelaCurrentflows:

a. Southwestertyalong the SE coastof Greenland.
b. Southwesterlyalongthe SW coastof Greenland.
c. Southwesoerlyalongthe NW coastof Africa
d. Northwesterlyalong the SW coastof Africa

146. Kuroshio Current is affecting your vessel.Yo will be carried by the current to which direction?
a. To the southand west c. To the north andeast
b. To the north and west d. To the south and east

147. Approximately,how much of the earth's surfaceis coveredwith water?

a. Three-fourths D. Tho-thirds c. One-third d. One-fourth

148. Portsof Norway on the Atlantic Oceanare usually ice-ftee during winter becarseof the effectsof:
c. Oceancurrents ,. 'Iatitude c. Topography d. Migratory cyclones

149. At a depth of 3 meten in the ocean,the pressureof the waterwould be approxinately:

a. 30 millibars D. 3 millibars c. 30 decibars d. 3 decibars

20 Tidesand Cunents
 Tlu pessure exettedby I nwter of wateris eqwl to I decibar.Tln pressurehdecibars is approximatcly
tlrc sameas thc dcpth in meters.

150. In the SouthemHemisphere,the oceancurrent that comptetelyencirclesthe earth is the:

a. Equatorial counier qurent c. Southequatorialcurent
D. Westwind drift d. Fast wind drift
Westwind drifi is also knownas A trARcrrccrRcuvtpotAR
cuRnENT.
151. On which of tbe following doesthe densityof seawaterdepend?
Answer: Salinity, temperatureaad prcssure.

152. The most imporhnt &etor in causingvriations in soundvelocity in the upper fuw hundredf@t of the
o@an.
Answer: Dewity.

Thethree variables governing tln speedof the soundin afluid are density,compressibility,and tlte
ratio betweenthc specific luus of tlu fluid at constantpressureand at constanivolume.

153. The instrumentthat recordstemperatureagainstdepthas it is loweredinto a bodyof wateris called:

Answer : Bathytlurmograph

Temperatureu any desireddepth can be determinedby nwansof reversingtlurmometer.

154. The physicalpropertiesof oceanwaterwhich is characterizedby theamountof dissolvedmatterin the

water is known as:
Answer: Salinity

155' At a given teNnperature and pressure,which of the following samplesof sea water would have the
greatestdensity?
a. Onewith a salinity of 35 partsper thousand
b. Onewith a salinity of 37 parts per thousand
c. One with a salinity of 33 parts per thousand
d. Onewith a salinity of 31 para per tbousand
Answer: (b)

156. Which of the following is not a part of the Gulf Streamsystem?

a. Antillescurrent f. Ftoridacurent c. Gulfsream d. NorthAtlanticcurrent
Answer: (a)

157. Bodiesof water show lessvariation in temperaturefrom seasonto seasonbecause:

Answer : Heat is distributed through thc water by vertical and horizontal currents.

158. In general,the salinity of the oceanis approximately:

Answer: 33 0/00 to 37 0/00

159. In general,the oceantemperaturerangesapproximatelyfrom:

Answer: -2 "C to 32 "C

160. The processof obtaininga modulatingwavefrom a modulatedwave.

Answer: Demoduluion

Tidesand Currents 2l
: 61. Which of the following is not a relatively cold current?
a. East Ausralian Current c. PeruCurrent
b. C-anaryCurrent d. California Current
Answer: (a)

162. Which of the following is not arelativelywarm crrrrcnt?

a. MozambiqueCurrent c. Falkland Current
D. Guinea Current d. Btaziltan Current
Attsviter: (c)

153. The relatively cold current which flows along the northwestcoastof Africa is the:
.4nswer: CanaryCunent

f,i4. The Coriolis ForcecausesooeaDcunents to circulate:

Answer : Cloclcwisein tlw North Latitudes.

155. The North Atlantic cutrent sets:

,[nswer: fustward

1ti6. The Davidsoncurrent flows:

Answer : Nortlwrly along tle Cahfomia coast.

l( 7. An oceancurrent is primarily causedby:

Answer : Prevailing wind-

168. The Benguelacurent sets:

Ansver : Nortltward along tlw westcoast of Africa

16). Indian Oceancurrents:

Answer : Have direction changeaccording to thc rnonsoon*

17'). The North Pacific curent sets:

Answer: hsterly.

22 Tidesand Cunents
Weather is the stateof the earth's atmospherewith
respectto temperature,humidity, precipitation,
visibility, cloudiness,etc.
Cllmate refers to the prevalent or characteristic
meteorologicalconditions of a place or region.
The Atncphcne. A relatively thin shellof air, water
vapor,dust, smokg etc. surroundingthe earth.
Thoposphene.That portion of the atnospherefrom
the earth's surfaceto the tropopause.It is character-
nedby deoeasing temperaturewith height, appre-
ciablevertical wind motion, appreciablewa0ervapor
contentand weather.
Thopopause.The boundarybenreenthe roposphere
and sratosphere.
Stratosphere. The atmosphericshell extending
upwardftom the tropopauseto the height wherethe
temperaturebegins to increase in the 20-to-25
kilometer region.
Jet Stream. Refers to relatively strong (60 kts.)
quasi-horizonal winds usually concentratedwithin
a restrictedlayer of the abnosphere.
Geostrophlc Wlnd. That horizontal wind velocity
for which the Coriolis force exactly balancesthe
horizontal pressureforce.
Gradlent Wlnd. Any horizontal wind velocity
tangent to the contour line of a const4nt pr€ssure
surface(or to the isobaror a geopotentialsurface)at
the point in question.
hcssure Gradlenl The change in pressurewith
horizontal distance.
Front is the zone of separation benreen two air
Ilusses.
Warm Front Wamer air is replacing colder air.
Representedas red line. As the wamr front passes,
temperaturerises, the wind shifts clockwise (N.
Itremisphere)and the steadyrain stops.Thepressure
might slowly decrease.
Cold Front. Colder air is underrunning and
displacingwarrnerair. Representd asblue line. As
the fastermoving, steepercold ftont passes,thewind

Sequenceof Weatherat a WarmFront

Element ln Advance At the Passage ln the Rear

Pressure Steady|all Fall ceases Uttle changeor slow fall

Wnd (norlhem Increasingand sometimes Veerand sometimes Steadydirection

hemisphere) backinga little decrease

Temperature Steadyor slow rise Rise,but not very sudd*r Uttle change

Clord Ci, Cs, As, Ns in succession; Low Ns and scud St or Sc

scud belowAs and Ns

Wealher Continuousrain or snqY Precipitatlonalmostor Mainlycloudy, olhetwise

completelystops drizzle,or intermittent
slight nin

Msibility Very good except in Poor, often mist or log Usuallypor; miotor log
precipitation may persist

23
shifts cloctwise (N. Hemisfere), temperetureftlls .Occluded Front. A faster moving cold front
rapidly; and tberp are often brief and smetimes orertakes the warur ftont. Representedas purple
violent shon€rs,ftr4uently mpanied by thunder line.
and lightning and squalls.
Stadonrry Fnont. A front which is stationary or
After a cold ftont passes,the pressure rises, nearly so. Representd as alternating red & blue
visibility improvesand the clouds tend to diminish. line.

Sequenceof Weatherat a Cold Front

Elemant ln Adrrarrce At the Passage - In the Rear
Pressure Fall Suddendse Rise continuesmore slowly
Wind(norlhem lncreasingand backinga Sldd€n veerand Backinga little after sqmll,
hemisphere) litte, oflen becomirB sometimeshealy thenolten strengthensand
squally squall may steady or veer further in
a later sqtall
Temperature Steady,but hll in $dd6n hll Uttle change or perhapssteady
prefrcntalrain falh variable in showers
Cloud Ac orAs, hen hevy Cb Cb wi|h low scud Lifting rapidly,followedby As or
Ac; later,lurtherCu or Cb
Weather Usuallysome nin; Rain, often heavy, with Heavy rain lor short period but
pefiaps thuder pefiaps thunderand sometimesmore persistent,
hail then mainlyfair with
occasionalshower
Msibility Usuallypoor Terponry deterioration Usuallyvery good exceptin
iollowed by rapld showers
improvement

LOCAL WINDS
Land and SeaBreezcarecausedby altematebeating
and cooling of land adjacent to water. By day the
land is warmer than the water, and by night it is
cmler.
ScaBrecze. During the day, the lower levels of air
over land are warmed,and the air rises, drawing in
ooler air from the sea
Land Breeze. After $mset, as the land coolsbelow
the seatemperature,the air aboveit is also ooled.
The contracting cool air becomesmore dense,
increasingthe pressurenear the surfaceresulting in
an oufilow of winds to tbe sea.
Anabatlc Wlnd. Wind that blows up an incline asa
result of surfaceheating.
Katabatlc Wlnd. Wind thatblowsdownan incline.
There are two t),pes,FOEHN and FALL WIND.
foehn. A dry wind with a downward oomponent,
warm for theseiason.
Occurswhenhorizontallymov-
ing air encountersa mountain barrier. Known as
CHINOOK in theRocky MountainRegion.
Fall lillnd. A cold wind blowing down a mountain
slope.

24 WeatherElements
 SOMELOCAL WINDS wind c a gale asmciarcdwith a depression)in the
Persian Gulf, the Gulf of Oman and along the
l. Bon. A cold, dry katabatic wind which lvlakran mst"
brq ftom directions varying betweennorth and
anL doq.nftom &s 6eunrains of the north and east 13.Sotherly Busier.TheS windbehindtbeold
fu€s of the Adriatic. It is often dangerous.The ftont in a trough of low pressureoften starts with a
rind cming down in violent gustsfrom the moun- violent squatloffthe SE coastof Australia
FirL(.
I4.$mtra. Squallsfron SW. Occur several
2. Tbhuantepecer.A violent squally wind from times a month between Itfay and October in the
N a NE in the Gulf of Tehuantepec(S of southern MalaccaSts.and W. cmst of lvtalaya
Mexico) in winter.
15.Bllzzad. A violent,intenselyooldwind laden
3. Pampero.Line-squalloccuringat thepassage with snon, mostly o1 entirely picked up from the
of a sharp cold front in the Argentine coasts.It is gound. Any havy snowfall accompaniedby sfong
usrally accompaniedby rain, thunderaadlightning. wind.
4. Mlstral. A col4 dry wind blowing fron the 16.Ihlst lVhtrl. A rotating cohrrnnof air about
north orrerthe NW coastof the MediterraneanSea 100 to 300 feet in heighl carrying dust,leavesand
(Gulf of Lions).
other light materials.Called as dust devil in south-
5. Eteslan. The summer winds of Agean Sea westernUnitedStatesanddesertdevilin S. Africa
andeasternMediterraneanwhich blow with consid- 17.Gnst A suddenbrief increasein wind speed
erableconstancyfrom a northedy direction. followed by a slackening, or the violent wind or
6. Gregale. A strong NE wind blowing in the squall that acconpaniesa thunders0orm.
central and western Mediterranean(Malta & east
18.Cat's Paw. A putr of wind or a light beezn
mstof Sicily). Occursmainly during winter.
afiocting a small are4 v/ould causepatchesof rip-
7. Harmattan. A dry E wind which blows on ples on the surf;aceof tbe water.
the west coastof Africa betweenC. Verde and the
Gulf of Guinea,in the dry season.
\tlaterspout A surall whiding storurover the cean
8. Khamsin. A southerlywind which blows in or inland waters.
Egyptand in the RedSeaaheadof eastward-moving
depressions. Tbnnadocs.Theseare derived from violent @nvec-
tive stormsover land and moving seaward.
9. Levanten An E wind in the Stnaitof Gibrat-
tar. Brings excessivemoistur€, cloud , haze or fog, Monsmns (seasonatwlnd). A wind systemproduced
and sometimesrain. by the alternateheating and cooling of a landnass.

l0.Norther (of Chile). A Northerly gale, with Summer Monsoon Blows from SW from IUay to
rain, which oocursusually in winter. Northcr (of October.
Gulf of Mextco). A strong,cool, dry N wind whicb
I4{nter Monsoon Bloc/s ftom NE frm Octoberto
blowsover the Gulf of Mexico and W. Carribeanin
April.
the winter.
In the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Seq the SW
11.Slrocco. Any Southerlywind in tbe Mediter- monsoonis strongerand more stormy than the NE
ranean. Hot and dry wind originating from the monsoon.
desertsof N. Africa
In the China Sea the winds are stronger and
l2.Shamal. Any NW wind (normal prerrailing steadierin the NE rnns(x)n.

WeatherElemen* 25
 AIRMASSES over water or land.

Airmass is an extensivebody of air with fairly A third classification sometimesapplied to

unifcm (horizontal) physical properties,especially tropical and polar airmass indicating whether the
temperahreand hmidity. In its incipient stagethe air mass is warm (w) or old (/c) relative to the
p'ropertiesof tbe airmassaredeterminedby tbe char- underlying surfa@, and cPk indicates ontinental
acteristicsof the region in which it forms. It is a polar air whlch is coldertbanthe rmderlyingsurface.
cotdorwamair massasit is colderor warmerthan The w andlcclassificationsareprimarily indications
the surroundingair. of stability (i.e., change of temperature with
increasingheight). If the air is cold relative to the
Ainnasses61t.nemed aocordingto their souroe surhce, the lower portion of the airmass is being
of regions (1) Equatorid (E), the doldrum area be- hearc4resultingin insability (temperaturemarkedly
tweenthe north and south trades;(2) Tropical (T), decreases with increasingheight) as the wanner air
the tradewind and.lowertemperat€r€gions;(3) Po- t€ndsto rise by convection. Conversely,if the air is
lar (P), the hilher temperatelatitudes; and (4) Arc- warm relative o the surface,the lower portion of
tic or Anarctic (A), the north or southpolar regions. the airmass is cmled tending to remain closeto the
Aimu$ses are further classiftedasmaritime (n) surface. This is a stable condition (temperature
or continental(c), dependinguponwhethertbeyfum increases with increasingheigh$.

NARTH-rotE

fFvaruNC
f i ,
ryES{lt!|ES
HAFSEL{TITUD6
HIqH PR€.S\gJRE

D4-DRUIlS

( \
\\
/IISH fPfrgs,URE
T'I'RSEGTTruDES
PRE\ALINO

€4.ITH RruE

S I M P L I F I ED O F T H EG E N E R A L
DI A G R A M
NF T H EA T M O S P H E R E
C I R C U L A T I OO

26 WeatherElements
Ihe DoHrms is the zone of light and rariable proportional to the pressuregradient
winds, often associated with heavy rain or
Dcprcslon or Low. A depressionor low-pressure
thunderstorms, which form a narroq roughly
systemis a region of relatively low pressurewith
lati$dinal, belt aotpying a position betweenthe
closedisobars.The isobarsformaclosed systemwith
equatorand aboutl:it.12" N or S. This is the zme
the lowestpressureinside that isobarwhich has the
wbere the trade-wind systemsof the northern and
/ smallest value of pressure, the wind circulation
southernhemispheresconvergetogether.
arounditbeing anticlocklise in the N. Ibmisphere
Ihe TbedelVbds at the surfaeblow from belts of and clockr*,isein Oe S. Hemisphere.
high pressure oward the equatorial belts of low
Sccondary Deprcsslon A $ndl depressionwithin
prcssure.Becauseof the rotation of the earth, the
the areaovered by a larger primary depression.
moving air is denectedbward the cest. The trde
winds in the Northern Henisphere are called lhoug! oflow Pressure.A rough is an elongated
northeast trades while those in the Southern areaof low pressureindicatedby isoban extending
Ilemisphereare called soutlteasttrades. outwardsftom a depression.
Ihe Horse Ladbdes (sr.nrnoplclt HIctl-PRBssuREAntlcyclone or lllgh. An anticycloneor high is a
relr) are zonesoflight and vatiable winds and fine regionof rclativelyhigb pressurewith closedisoban.
clear u/eathermarking the entrd regions of the The isobarsfom a closel systeNn with high pressure
subtropical high pressurebelt. They are mainly on the inside, the wind cinculationbeing clockwise
locatedin aboutLat. 30"-35" N and S. in the N. Ibnisphere and anticlockwise in the S.
Itremispherc.
hevalllq Westerlles. On the polewardside of the
high pressure belt in each hemisphere the Rldge of lllgh hessure. An elongatedareaof high
aunosphericpressureagaindiminishes.The qrrents pressureindicated by isobars extending outwards
of air setin motion along thesegradientsoward the from an anticyclone.
polesare divered by the earth's rotation toward the
east,becomingsouthwesterlyin the N.Hemisphere Col. A saddle-backedregion betweentwo lows and
and northwesterlyin the S. Henispbere. The bois- two highs.
terouswild oocuringin Latinrdes40" S to 50" S (or The weatherthat characterizedthe depresslon
55" S) are called the roaring forties and they are is srong winds, densecloud, and rain or snon. The
strongestat about Latitude 50" S. central region of most antlcyclones is one of light
Whds of Poler Reglons"Thewinds blow outward winds and fair weatherfor the subtropicalareasand
ftom the poles and are deflectedwestwardby the for temperatelatitudes.
rotation of the earth, to become,nrtluasterlies in The trurgh is a region ofoonvergenceand tends
the Arctic andsoutluasterlies in the Antarctic. o be associatedwith densecloud and precipitation.
Some troughs tend to remain stationary for long
periodsin temperatelatitrtdes,particttladyin summer
PRESSUREAND WINDS
when the upper air circulation patt€rn is weak. In
Theair circulatesclockwiserormdcent€rsof high thesecircumstancesupather is mostly cloudy with
pressureand anticloclwise round centers of low local showers and thunderstomls, which may be
pressurein the N. Hemisphere(while in the S. heavynearan activefront. In tropical latitudes,low-
lhmisphere tbe air circulario is mticloclwise rumd pressure troughs are regions favorable for the
centersof high pressrneand clockwiseround centers developmentof tropical stonns in certain oceans.
of low pressure).
A rHgc of hlgh pne$ure is a systemof curved
The wind is srrong where the pressuregradient bobrs in which pressureis higher on the insidethan
is steep and light where the pressuregradient is on theoutside.Fineweatheris associatedwith a ridge
small, that is the speed of the wind is closely of high pressure.

WeatherElemcnts n
 A col is the region betweentwo ridges of high
pressureandtwo trougbsof low pressure.No definite
weathercan be associatedwith a col. it is a region
wheresharpchangesoccur.
TROPICAL CYCLONES ' Dangerous Semlclrcle. The actual wind speedis
CII\SSIFICATION:
Thoplcal Dlsturbance is a discrete system of
apparently organized convection. It has no strong
windsand no closedisobars.Also known aseasterly
wavGs.
Thoplcal Deprrsslon hasoneor moreclosedisobars
and some rotary circulation at the surface.The
highest sustained(l-minute mean) surfacewind
speedis 33 knots.
Tboplcal Storm has closed isobars and a distinct
rotary circulation.The highestsustained(l-minute
mean)surfacewind speedis 34 to 63 knots.
Hurr'lcane or\phoon hasclosedisobars,a strong
and very pronounced rotary circulation and a
sust4ined(l-minute mean)surfacewind speedd 64
knots or higher.
PRECT'RSORYSIGNS
l. A long low swell is sometimesevident,
prcceedingfrom the approximatebearingof the
centerof the storm.
2. Cimrs cloudsappearing0odiverge from a point
on the horizon may indicate the direction of a
ropical stonn.
3. An appreciable change in the direction and
strengthof the wind.
4. Corrected barometerreading is 5 mb or mor€
below the normal.
4uvs BALLors LAw
If an obserrrerin the N. Ibmisphere facestbe
surfae wind the center of low pressureis toward
his right, somewhatbehind him; and the center of
high pressureis toward his left and smewhat in
ftont of hirn.
If an obserrrerin the S. lbmisphere frces the
surfacewind the centerof low pressureis towardhis
left and smewhat behindhim ; andthe oenterof high
2E WeatherElements
pressureis toward his right and somewhatin front
of him.
CIRCULAR AREA OF THE STORM
greatf,rthan that dueo tbe pressuregradientalone,
since it is augnented by the forward motion of the
stonn and the direction of the wind and seais such
as to carry avesselinto the path of the storm.
Navlgabh Semlclrcle. Tbe wind is decreasedby the
forward motion of the storm, and the wind blows
vesselsawayfrom the storm track.
NORTIIERN IIEIVI$PIIERE
If the wind is rrcering,the shipis in theDangerous
Semicircle.If the wind remains steadyin direction
or nearlysteady,the ship is in the path of the sorm.
If the wind is backing, the ship is in the Navigable
Semicircle.
SOUTEERN HEMISPHERE
If the wind is veering, the ship must be in the
DangerousSemicircle. If the wind remains steady
in direction or nearly steady,the ship is in the path
of the storm. If the wind is backing, the ship is in
the Navigable Semicircle.
Vecrlng whd. A wind changing direction to the
right in the Northern Hemisphereand to the left in
the SouthernHemisphere.
Backlng wlnd. A wind chmging direaion o the
left in the Northern Hemisphereand to the right in
the SouthernHemisphere.
MANEUVERING TO AVOID THB
STORM CENTER
NORTMRN IIEM]SPIIERE
Rlght on DaqgernusSemlclncle"Bring the wind on
the stbd.bqp, holdcourseandmakeasmuchuay as
poosible.If obliged to heaveto, do so with headto
the sea
Left or Navlgable Scmtclrcl€. Bring the wind on
the stbd.quarter,hold cornseandmakeasmuchway
as possible.If obliged to beaveto, do so with stern
to the sea
On StormlhackrAhcad of Center.Bring tbewind
two pts. on the stbd. quarter,hold courseand make
as much way as pcsible. When well within Oe
navigablesemicircle,maneuveras indicatedabove.
On Storm Thack, Behlnd Center. Avoid thecenter
by the bestpracticablecDurre,keeping in mind the
tendencyof tropicd cyclom to qnre northwad and
eastward.
bourrerur HEDTTsIPHERE
Left or DangerousScmlclncle. Bring the wind on
the port bow hold courseand makeas much way as
possible.
Rlght or Navlgable Scmlclrcle. Bring the wind on
the port quarter,hold ourse andmakeas much way
as possible.
On Storm Thack, Ahead of Centen Bring the wind
tlo points on the port qtr., hold courseand make as
much way as possible.
On Storm Thack, Behtnd Centen Avoid thecenter
by the bestpracticableoouree,keeping in mind the
tendencyof tnopicalcyclonesto curvesouthwardand
eastward.
PUBLIC STORM WARNINGS
Storm slgnals are raised during the Tropical
Cplone Warning stage.In May 1991, PAGASA
introdrrced a new system in its cyclone warning
s€rvices,the Modified hrblic Storm\ilarning System
(MPSWS). Thi MPSWS involves the addition of
Public Storn Signal No. 4 and enhancedthe
descriptionof eachsignal.
PT'BLIC STORM SIGNAL NO. 1
A tropical cyclme will affectthe locality. Winds
up to 30-60 KPH may be expectedin at least 36
houn. Tbigs and branchesd small trees may be
hoken. Somebananaplants may tilt or land fliaton
the ground. Very light or no damageat all may be
sutainedby the exposedcommrmities.
Businessmay be carried out as uual. Disaster
WeatherElements
prepredness is rctivated to dert status.
PI,BLIC STORM SIGNAL NO. 2
A moderate tropical cyclone will affect the
locality. Wnds of greater than 60 KPH and up to
100KPH may beexpectedin at least24 bours.Sme
@conutrees may be tilted with few othersbr,oken.
Few big trees may be uprooted. Many banana
plantation may be destoyed. Sone old galvanized
iron roofmgs may roll d. Large numbersof nipa
and cogon houses may be partially or totally
unroofed.The seaand coastalutatersare dangerous
to smaller sercraft Fishermenare advisednot to go
out to sea.Disasterpreparednessagenciesand other
organizationsare alerted.
PT'BLIC STORM SIGNAL NO.3
A strongAopical qdone will affect the locality.
Winds grc:rterthan 100KPH up to 185KPH nay be
expectedin at least l8 hours.
Almost all bananaplants may be destroyedand
a large numberof treesmay be uprooted.Rice and
corn crops may suffer heavy demage.Majority of
nipa and cogonhousesmay beunroofedor desuoyed
and theremay be considerabledamageto structures
of light to medium construction. There may be
widespread disruption of electrical power and
communicationsservices.Seaandcoasal waten will
be dangerousto all seacraft
Feopleareadvisedto evacuateand stayin strong
buildings.Evactatelow-lying areas.Stayawayfrom
coastsand river banks.Warchout for the passageof
the eyeofthe typhoon.
Thepassageof theeyeof the typhoonis indicated
by a suddenchangefton bad to fair wea0er. Fair
weatbermay last fc one or two hours after which
theworstweatherwill restme with rrcrysrong winds
generallyooming from Oe oppositedirection.
Disasrcr preparednessand responseagencies/
organizationsarerctivated to respondappropriately.
PT'BLIC STORM SIGNAL NO. 4
A very intense typhoon will affect the locality.
Very strong winds of more tban 185 KPH may b
29
 PATHSOF TROPICALSTORMS

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affil{

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expectedh at bast 12 hours. destructiveto tbe oqnmmiry Evrctation to safer

sb€ltersshouldhavebeeodme duringPSSNo.3. It
Cocoutplantaticm may nrffer exensivedamage.
is bo late to ewcuatemr. Disasterooordinating
Many large tr€es may be uprmted. Rice and cmn
orncils corceqedandotberdilnst€rr€spmsetr-
plantatio may urfier severedamage.Electric power
ganizations mustreryondto €merg€ocies.
distributim and ommunications servicesnay be
disrupted.Damageo aficted communitiescan be
very heavy. The situation is potentially very Source: PAGASA

30 WeatherElements
 BEAUFORTSCALEOF WINDFORCE
Boaufort Gcncral Sea Cdlerbn Wlnd Veloclty
ilrmbcr Dc.edPdon ln Knots

O Cdm Seame a mln'or. Lessthan1

1 UgnAlr cf scds arefornsd

Hpd€s u,ffi theappeararrce 1to3
wlthottfosn crc€ts.
UgtrtBteze Smd wavelds,sill sfprt builmorepmnotnced. 4to6
Cret lnvea gfssyappearmceanddorpi brek.
GenileBmeze largs wavdets.Ct€clsb€gh b brsak.Foamcf a 7 t o1 0
dassyappeatqt€. Psrltnpsscattsr€dttttite caps.
iloderab Smdlwwe, bemmlB ldtgec taiilY 11to 16
Brcsze frcquentvv]ilecs.
Fr€shBr€zs liloderabwavestalfig a morcpronotnoe<t
torp 17lo 21
toaru manyufrltecapsarcfom€d

Stor€ Breeze targe wavs beg[nto form;thewtrltefosn caps 2.1o27

arr mol€exbmlve errsy{i,tld€.
l,learGde SeatF€psup andwftte fosn frqn br€ddngwav6 28to 33
begfrsto be Uottn In sfreaksdmg tlp dt€cilgncf
|hewind.
Gals tigh wavescf greter length;edg€s
ttloOerabty 34to 4O
d oFS b€gh b br€ekmo sphdm. Thefoamls
Ucrn h wet+nad<ed sfresllsdangfte df€ciloncf
thewlrd.

SfioruGale of foamalmglhe dirccton

ffi waves.Dsrse stueaks 41 lo 47
d fF vum. Ctestsd wavesbqglnto topplo,tunHe,
andrcl we. SpraYmaYdfectvidillty.
Silonn \lbrylilSt waneswl[r ovetrargirBcr€ils.ThercsrltrB €to 55
bfln, h gtreatPaHtes,ls HownIn derservhlb slneal<s
dcng tte-dru;Uond tte wird. Ontte tittple,tte strfaoe
oltp eeU|cs qr a rrtilteappeafarrce.Th€ tmHhgof
theseabmms treavyandshodc{ke.Vlsbllltyafected.
Vldqtr Storm Epdarafy ffi waves.Ttp seals cornpletely 56to fr|
oorr€r€dttlti longnt{te patdns ol loamMrU atorU
tre drecflm of tlp whd. Eveqyrrtnre, fF edgpsol fts
lhe wavecreetsareHownirilofiofft.Msfblityafiecled'
12 hlmlcane Thedr ls ltled wf0r'bamandgray. Seals ffinpletdy O4andorer
wtffewffirditng spray;visHftyvery s€fuudy dt€cted.

WeatherElewents 31
 CLOt]DS
l/^tbuds are visible assemblages of numeroustiny
\-,droples of water, or ie crystals, fumed by
oondensationof water vapor in the air, with thebases
of tbe assemblagesabove tbe surhce of the eartb.
Clouds arp classified aooordingo their height
and bow they are famed.
HIGE CLOITIN (mean lower level above20,0(X)
fet)
1. Clrrus (Cl) are detachedhigh clouds of
delicate and fibrous appearanoe,without shading,
generally white in color, and often of a silky
appearanoe.They are composedentirely of ice
crysals. Theseclouds may be arrangedin parallel
bandswhich cro*sthe skyin greatcirclesandappear
to amverge toward a point on the lbrizon. Their
oonvagenoe may indicate the direction of a low
pressurearea
2. Clrrocmlus (Cc) arehigh clondsoomposed
of small white flakes or scales, or of very small
globular masses,usually without shadows and
arrangedin groupsof lines, ormore often in ripples
resemblingthoseof sandin the seashore.(Macfterel
Sky). Composedof ice crystals and are generally
associated with fair weather,butmay precedea stonn
if they thicken and lower.
3. Clrrostratus (C-s)ate thin, whitish, high
clouds smetimes oovering the sky ompletely and
grving it a milky appearance.Halos may form with
the sunor moonat the center.Known asmare'stails.
If it continuesto thicken and lower, it becmes an
Alostratus andrain maynormallybeexpectedwithin
Z hours.
MIDDLE CLOT IN (meanlevel between6,500and
Z),0@feet)
4. Altocumulus (Ac) are middle clouds
consistingof a layer of large, ball-like massesthat
t€Ddb merge together.lvlay vry in thicknessand
colq from dqzzling white to dark gray. If they
thidcn q lower,theymay producethmdery warher
and showers but will not bring prolonged bad
weather.
32 WearterElements
5. Ntctratus (As) are middle clouds having the
appearanceof a grayish or bluish, fibrous veil or
sheet.The sun or moon, when seenthrough Oese
clouds,appearsas if it wereshining through ground
glass,with a corota arcundif If thesecloudsthic}en
and lower, or if low ragged rainclouds form behw
them, ontinuous rain or snow may be expected
within afew hours.
LOW CLOUDS ( mean lo*er level of less tban
6,500feet )
6. Stratocumulus(Sc) arelow cloudscmposed
of soft, gray, roll-sbapedmasses.They are usually
followed by clear skiesduring the nighr
7. Stratus (St) is a low cloud in a uniform layer
resemblingfog butnotresting on the ground.Light
mist may descendfrom stratus. Strong wind
sometimes breaks stratus into shreds called
"fractostratus".
8. Nlmbctrafis (Ns) is a low, dark, shapeles
cloud layer, usually nearly uniform, but sometimes
with ragge4 wetlooking bases.It is a rain cloud.
The precipitation is steadyor intermittent, but not
showery.
9. C\mulus (C\) are denseclouds with vertical
development( clouds formed by rising air which is
cooled as it reachesgreaterheigbts ). They have a
horizonalbase anddome-shaped uppersurface,with
protuberancesextending above the dome. They
acompany fair and gmd weather.
10. C\mbnftnbus (Cb) is amassivecloud with
great vertical developmengrising in mountainous
bwers to great heights. srads out in shapeof an
anvil. Producesshowers of rain, snow, or hail,
frequentlyamnpanied by thunder.Popularlyknown
as thndercloud.
CI,O['D HEIGHT MEASI'REIVTENT
The height to which the air must rise before
condensation takes place is proportional to the
differencebetweensurfaceair t€mperatureand the
dew poinr Atsea this difrerencemultipliedby 236
gives the beigbt in fe€t
 If the dry-bulb remp. is 80 T and the wet-bulb ADJT'STMENT OF BAROMEItsR READINGS:
emp. is 77 "R Oe dewpoint( ftom T-17 ) is 76 T,
or 4 locrer than ths surfrce air temperaore. The l. h strunent Error. Any inaocuracydue to imper-
heightof thecJoudbaseis 4 x 236 =944feel'. foction or incorrectadjusment of tbe instrument
canbedeterminedby omparison with precision
Ibensmlssometen A device used to measure instnrment.
visibility. It measuresthe transparency of the
2, Heigltt Error. The amospheric reading at tbe
amospherebypa*singabean of light weraknoum
heigbt of the baromet€rca[ed station pressure
sbort distance,comparing it with a refercncelight.
and is subjectto a height corection in order to
FOG is a cloud whosebaseis low enoughto rastrict make it a sea pressureleral. Applied to both
visibility. It is cmposed of droples of wabr, or ice Mercrnial and Aneroid barometerreadings.
crysals fumed I condensationor crystallization 3. Gravity Error. Mercurial barometersare
of water vapor in the air. calibrat€d br standardsea-levelgravity atl'att.
1. Radlatlon Fog forms orpr low-lying land on 45" 32'4 . Doesnot applyo readingsdAneroid
clear,caln nights. As the land radiatesheatand baometer.
beomesooler, it @olstheair immediarelyabove 4. TinnperaureEnor Barometersare calibratedat
tbe surhce. If the air is ooled to its dew point, a standardtempcranneof 32 9F.Tobe appliedo
fog forms. readingsof Mercurial barmeter only.
2. Advecdon Fog forms when warm, moist air lVhd Vane"Measuresthe wind directim.
blows overa colder surfaceand is mled bebn'
iS dewpoint. Mostcommmly enoormtered Aremomten Measureswind speed.
at sea
3. fboct Smkc or Arcdc Sca Smoke forms when True q Actual frihd.'Wind retative to a fixed
very old air movesover warmerwater.\Vispsd pornt on the earth.
vis0le water vapor nay rise from the surhce as Apparew t Reluive Wtzd Wind relative to a
the water $teuns. moving point.
EAZB msists of fine dust or salt Frticles in the lbmpcrahre is the intensity o degreeof heat It is
air, bt small to be individualty apparent, but in measuredin degrces.
sffcbnt number b redrce horizontal visibility.
Thermmeter is an instrument used to measure
SMOG is a mixurp of smo&eand fog. tempera$rc.
Ttermograph is an instrurnentusedto measureand
WEATEER, INSTN,I'MENTS record temperature.
Brromcten Lbed to measureatrnospbric pressute. Frhrcnhclt G). Purewater freezesat 32" and boits
at2l2-
Bamgrrph. th€d to measureandr€@rdamospberic
prcssure. CelsNus(C). fue wat€r fieez€sat 0o and boils at
Standsd,ltttw splur ic Pre ssure: 14.7 p| 29.92 lW Absolute Zcm is oonsideredo be the bwest
inchesof Mer,curyq 1013.2millibars possibletemperature,at which thereis no molecular
motion and a body hasno hear
Mencurld Brloretcn Invented by Evangelista Conversion:
Tbrrioelli in lil?. Itfieasuresamospheric prcssure "c= ("F_32"\ll,g
by balancingthe weightof a column of Mercury. T = ("Cx 1.8)+32"
AmoH Brrffi. I\fieasures
a[ncpheric pressure K1(= "C +273.15 KorKelvin
"C = "K -n3J5
by meansof tbe brce exertedby the pressure(nl a
pady arruate( thin-meal elementalled a sylplnn A temperatureof -40 is thesanebyeitherCel-
cell (awoidcapsule). siusor Fahrenheitscale.

WeatherElements 33
IIUMIDITY is the conditiolt dthe amospherewith To flnd thc corrcc| readlag of a mcrcarlal
referene to its water vapof conbnt. hoomeCq:

RDI,AITE HUMIIIITy is & tl€o dtte prossure Exmple: If your Mercurial Baf,ometerwhich is
of water vapof pfesetrt in tbe ahosphere to the locared70 ft. Sorre sealevel reads30.20inc,hesand
saturatim vap6 pressdo tt t!6 ffie leEperature. tbe temperanueis 80 T., wbat is the orrect reading
atlltihde 20" N?
DEW PrOtr\tTis thetc&pcranre atwhich eesation
takes place, and any futhor coeling fesults in Soluion:
condensatimof sme of the moismc. TUlo 11:tbightEnor (70ft.) = 0.07in.
Thble 12: Gravity Brror (Lat 20o N) = 4.06 in.
As air bmpemnre docttases,rehive humidity TSh 13:Temp.Error (80 "D =4.14 in.
increases.
Total Correcrions = {.13 in.
EYGROME!tsR. is m u$ed
instnnmenlt to measure Bdromeier Reading = 30.20in.
relative hrmidity md dew point. = 30.07in.
CorrectedReading
PSYCHROIIEIEI is the frst.co@! tlpe of
Hygrmetor. TcmpcratureConversion:

Tofrird rclaivc hum*lity and dewpoint: Convert 100"Cinto "F.

"F T= ("Cx1.8)+32"
Extrnple. The dry-bulb ttmperatureis 65 and the
T = (100"x 1.8)+ 32"
wet-bulb temperature is 61 lF. Find the relative oF= 180"+32"
humidity and dew point.
T = 212"C
Sohttion:
Dry-bulb tenp.: 657 Convcn212 "F into "C.
Wet-bulbtemp.: 61 "F oC= ("F -32") I 1.8
Differene: 40 "g= (212" -32") ll.8
EnteringThtile 16, RelrttoeHtmidty is 80%. "C= 180"/1.8
EnrcringTSb 17,Dewpointis 5t 9F. "C= l(X)"F

ICE IN THE SEA

TORMATION OF ICT DEF'INIIION OF TBRMS:

As it oools,watoroontractsuntil 6e tenperature Anchor lce. Submergediceattachedor anchoredto

of naximrrm densityis reached.Fufthcf 6soling re-
sults in expansion.The maxinnm densityof fresh-
"F. and freez-
wat€roccus at a temperatureof39.2
ing takesplace x 32 T. The addition of salt water
lowers bdh the t€mpera0re of maximum density
and, o a lesserextenq that of fteezing. At a salinity
of 35 parts per thousaod,tb approximateaverage
"F. Ice be-
for tbe o€m.q the froezing point is 28.6
gins forming at the wd€r surfrce w&cn 6e d€dsity
cunentsoese ard thc smfaceunte( rcachesits ftoez-
ing point. In shml weler, tbe miring proffi cs tt
srffcient to ex@ndthe freezing temperatureftom
tbe surfrce to the bocom.
the bottom, irrespectiveof the nature of its forma-
tion.
Bergy blt A largepieceofflmting glacierie, gen-
erally showing less than 5 meters above sea level
but fiore than I meter and normally about 100 o
300 sq. metersin area
Calvlng. The bneakingaway of a massof ice from
an be wall, ice front or iceberg.
Fast lce. Seaice which forms and remainshst along
&e mst, whereit is atached to the shore,to an ice
wall, to an icefront, betc/eenshoalsorgroundedie-
bergs.

34 WeatherElements
hrore- Abreak orrupture throughrtry clmepack Pancoke tce. Predminantly circular piecesof ice
b, compactpackice, onsolidated packice, fastice, frrom30entimeters to3 mete,rsin diameter,and up
c a single floe resulting fton deformatim process. toabout l0antimeten in thic}ness,with raisedrims
due 30pie@ssfiking againstone another.
Glrclen A massof snowand ice which continuously
flows to lower levels, exhibiting many of the Polynya. Any non-linear shaped area of water
characteristicsof rivers of water. enclosedby ice.
Gnowler.A smallerpieceof icebut onelargeenough kft€d lce. A tlpe of deformedice formed by one
o inflict seriousdamageto a vessel.Small enough pieceof ice oveniding another.
that it may escapevisual or radar detection.
Ram. An undenvatericeprojectionfrom an icewall,
Eummocked lce. Sea ice piled haphazardlyoe icefront, icebergor floe.
pieceover anotherto form an unevensurface.
Rldge. A line or wall of broken ice forced up by
Iceberg. A mnqsivepiece of ice greatly varying in pressure.
sbape,showingmorethan5 met€,rs ahve seasurftce,
Shuge.An accumulationof spongywhite ice lumps,
which has broken away ftom a glacier, and which
a few entimeters across.
may afloat or aground.
Sky map. Thepattern on the undersideof extensive
Ice bllnk. A whitish glare on low clouds abovean
cloud areas,oeated by the varying amountsof light
accumulationof distant ice.
reflectedfrom the earth's surface.
Ice cake. Any relatively flat pieceof ice lessthan 20
Slush.Srpw which is saEratedandmixedwith water
metersacross.
on land or ice surfa@s,or which is a viscousfloating
Ice cap. A perennial over of ice and snowover an massin water af0era heavysnoufall.
extensiveportion of the earth's surface.
Snow bllnk. A white glare on the undersideof
Ice front- The vertical cliffforming the seawardface extensivecloud areas,createdby light reflectedfrom
of an ice shelf or other floating glacier varying in snow-coveredsurfaces.
height from 2 to 50 metersabovesealevel.
Splcule. A small individual, needlelike crystals of
Ice lsland. A large piece of floating ice showing ice suspendedin water.
about 5 meters above the sea surfae, which has
Tbntlng. Occurswhenbendingproducesan upward
b'rokenaway ftom an arctic ice shelf.
displacementof ice fonning a flat sidedarch with a
Ice rlnd. A brittle shiny crust of ice formed on a cavity beneath.
quiet surfaceby direct ftezing or from greaseice,
Water sky. Dark streakson the undersideof low
usually in water of low salinity.
clouds,indicating the presenceof water featuresin
Ice wall. An icecliffforming the seawardmarginof the vicinity of seaice.
a glacier which is not afloat. An ice.wall is aground"
the rock basementbeing at or below sealevel. ENTERING A PACK ICE
Land sky. Dark streaksor patchesor a graynesson Upon the approachto pack ice, a careful decisionis
the undersideof ex0ensivecloud areas,due to the neededto determine the best action. Often it is
absenceofreflectedlight from bareground. possibleto go aroundthe ice, rather than throughit.
Unlessthe pack ice is qui0eloose,this action usually
Lead. Any fracture or passage-waythrough seaice gains rather than losestime. When skirting an ice
which is navigableby surfacevessels.
field or an ieberg, do so to windward,if a choiceis
Nilas. A thin elasticcrust of ice, easilybendingon available, to avoid projecting tongues of ice or
wavesandswell underpressure,thntsting in a panern individual piecesthat have boenblown away from
of interlocting'fingers'. the main body of ice.

WeatherElements 3s
 WEATTIERELEIIEilTS
1. Which cloud is composedentirel.'of ice crysals?
a. stratus b. cimrs c. nimbctratus d stratocrmulus

2. Cloudsare classified acording to their:

a. locationinafront c. sizg
b. moisture d. altitude and how they are formed

3. A rhin whitish high cloudspopularlylnown as'hat€'s tqils" is:

d. stratus D. altostraos c. cirrostratus d. qtmulus

4. A cloud of marked vertical development,often anvil-shapedwould be classifiedas:

a. cimrs D. cirrocumulus c. altocrmulus d. cumulonimbus

5. If the sky was clear with the exceptionof a few cnrnulusclouds,it would indicate:
a. raln D. hunicane c. fair weather d. fog setting in

6. Uniform, grayish-whitecloud sheetsthat coverlargeportionsd the slryand areresponsiblefor a large

percentageof precipitation in the temperatelatitudesare:
c. altostranrs D. altoctmulus c. cirrostratus d. cirrocumirlus

7. AltosEatuscloudsare defined as:

a high clouds c' low clouds
D. middle clouds d vertical developmentclouds

8. Which of the following cloud typesis normally associatedwith thmderstorms:

a cimrs D. stratus c. cumulus d. qrmulonimbus

9. Cloudsthat form as small flaky or scalyglobular massesovering either small or large portionsof the
slry md are neady alwayswhite are:
a. cimrs b. cirrosfatus c. dtostra$s d. cirrocumulus

10. A low gniforur layer of cloud resemblingfog, but not resting on the ground is:
a. cumulus b. nimbus c. stratus d. cimrs

11. The basesof middle clouds are locatedat dtihdes of between:

a 3,000to6,500feet c. 10,000to35,000feet
0.6,500o20,000feet d 20,000feetandabove

12. Cumulonimbusclouds areFost likely to accompanya/an:

a. highpressuresystem c. warmfront
b. cold front d. occludedftont

13. What type of clouds are associatedwith a cold front?

a. altostratusand fraCto-CumuluS c. Cimrsand cirrostrahrs
b. cumulusand cumulonimbus d. altostratusand cimts

14. The appearanceof nimbostratuscloudsin the immediaEvicinity of a ship at seawould beaccompanied

by:
a. rain and poor visibility c. high winds and rising sea
D. dropping barometric pressure d. svete thunderstorms

x WeatherElements
 15. whicn of the following cloudscommonly producea halo around the sun or mom?
a cirrosfratus D. cirroomulus c. altostraurs d altocrmulus

16. An 'atoll cloud" forming over an island due to heating of the land during daytime would be what
t'?e?
a. cirms D. omulus c. stratus d nimbus

17. Clouds that havesignfficanceto marinersare:

a four D. six c. eight d ten

18. The fum of cloudsoften known as'tnackerel sky" which is generallyassociatedwith fair weatheris:
a cirrocrmulus D. nimbostratus c. cumulonimbus d stratus

19. Wamr air masswill generallyhave:

a turbulencewithin the mass c. hearryprecipiation
D. sratiform clouds d. gmd visibility

20. Which of the following list of clouds are from the highestto the lowestin the sky?
d. altostrahrs,cirrostratus, stratus
D. cirrostra$s, dtostratus, straEs
c. straurs,cirrostraors,altostra[rs
d altostratus,strahts,cirrosEanrs

21. High clonds are thosehaving a meanlower level of:

a above20,000feet c. 3,000to6,500feet
b.6,5nb20,000feet d. below3,0oofeer

22. I.out clouds havea lower level of:

a. below2QOO0feet c. below l0,000feet
D. below6500feet d. belowl5,000feet

23. \\e fog most commonly enoormtercdat seais called:

a. frontalfog D. advectionfog c. conductionfog d radiationfog

?4. The leading edgeof an air massis called:

a. lapserate b. afront c. an isobar d. an isallobar

25. Which condition will oocur after a cold tront passes?

a strafi$ cloudsform c. humidity decreases
D. pressuredecreases d. temperaturerises

26. Which of the following iVare responsiblefa the production of advectionfog?

I. A cold air massmoving over a warm seasurfacemixing with the warmer air prevailing tbere.
tr. A warm moist air moving over a oold seasurface,becmring chilled by contact.
a tronly D. Ionly c. bothlandll d. neithertnorll

27. fug formswhen the air:

d. temperaturcis equal to or-is below the dew point t€mperature
b. is 50% wat€r saturated
c. is9Mo water saturat€d
d. temperatureis greaterthan dew point iemperature

WeatherElements 37
28. hg will oocu when:
a. an extremelycold air ftom shorepassesover much warmerwat€r
D. warm dry air frrornshorepass€sover ooler water
c. wann oceanwat€r eraporat€sinto hot air
d ool rain passesthrough a warrn air mass

by nfiat color line?

29. An a working copy of a weatherDap, a stationaryfrrontis reBresented
a rd c. alternatingredandblue
D. blue d. PurPle

30. A wamr ftrontis representedby what color line?

a. blue b. rcd purple d dtematingredandblue

31. A cold ftont is reprcs€ntedby what oolor line?

a. rd b. blue c. purple d alternatingredandblue

32. An occhidedftrontis representedbywbat color line?

a. rd D. blue c. purple d altematingredandblue

33. When a wann air massis adjacento a cold air mass,the separationline betweenthe two is called;
a. front D. isobar c. isoherm d equipotentialline

34. Briel violent showersfrequently accompaniedby thunder and Ughtning are usually associatedwith:
a passageof a warm front
b passageofacoldfront
c. winds shifting countercloclwise in the N. henisphere
d stationaryhigb pressure

35. On the approrch of awann front, barouptric pressur€:

a. falls D. is steady c. is uncertain d. rises

36. Fog is commonlyassociatedwith a/an:

c. lack of frontal activity c. bw pressurear€a
D. anticyclone d. warm front at night

37. A boundarybetweents'o aii nrassesis a/an:

a. front D. continent c. isobar d. lapserate

38. Which condition would most likely rcsult in fog?

a. watm moist air blowing over cold water c. wafln moist air blowing over wann water
point falling below air Semperature d airbome dust particles
b. dr,rnt

39. A wamr front is generallyindicatedby:

c. thunderstormsof short duration c. dry air witb clear visibility
D. steadyprecipitation d. high cloudsof the cimts tlpe

40. The frost smokeor seasmokeis expectedwhen:

a. the land is of different Emperaturethan the sea
D. a warm water curr€nt enoolmterscold air
c. cold air takesthe phce of warm air
d a warm air massmorresin

3t WeatherElements
41. An occludedfront is causedby a/an:
a bw pressurearca c. areaof cdm air
D. high pressurearea d cold ftont overtaking a walut front

42. When a cold air massand a warm air massmeetand thereis no horizontal motioo 9; sither mlsg it is
called a/an:
a cold ftont D. oeluded front c. stationaryfront d warm front

43. When crossinga front, isobarstend to:

a changefromrmooth curveswithin the air massto sharp bendsat the front.
D. cbangefrom sharpbendswithin the air massto smmb curvesat the front.
c. passsnoothly acrossthe fr,ontwith no change.
d bcme closer togetherat the front and passthrough in straight lines.

44. When a wann air massovertakesa retreating cold air mass,the contactsurfaceis called:
a warm front D. oold ftont c. stationaryfront d ocluded front

45. When the cold air massdisplaceswarm air, you havea/an:

a. cold front D. warm front c. oaluded front d stationaryfront

46. After the passageof a old front, the visibility:

a doesnot change b. improvesrapidly c. improvesslightly d bcomes poor

47. A frontal thundentorm is causedby:

a pronouncedlocal heating c. a wann air massrising over a cold air mms
t wind being pushedup a mountain

48. Which of the following *eather changesmompanies the passageof a cold front in tbe N. henisphere?
a. a line of cumulonimbusclouds
D. steadyprecifitation
c. wind shift from northeastclockwiseto southwest
d, falling barometricpfessure

49. Which is true concerningthe speedof fronts?

a. oold ftont movesslowerthan warm front
D. cold front and warm front moveswith equal speed
c. cold front moveshster than warm front

50. A seriesof brief showersaccmrpaniedby strong, shifting winds may rrcur along or somedisance
aheadofa/an:
a. cyclone D. upper ftont c. cold front d. oaluded front

51. Seafogscausedby:
a advectionof wann moist air over a colder oceancurrent
b. radiational cooling
c. lack of wind
d. advectim of cold dry air over a wafln ocEtn current

52. The fog pnrducedby uam moist air passingacold surfaceis called:
a. ftontalfog D. advectionfog c. radiationfog d. conductionfog

WeatherElements 39
53. The first indication a mariner will haveof the approachof warm front will be:
a. high cimrs clouds gradually changingto cirrosha$s and then to dtostrauts
b. low dark cloudsaccompaniedby inrcrmittent rain
c. fog causedbyadvection
d. raryecumulonimbusbuilding up

54. As cold front passesan obserrrer,pressure:

a. drops and winds becomevariable c. dropsand winds becme gusty
D. rises and winds becme gusty d. rises and winds becomevariable

55. After the passageof a cold front, the barometricpressure:

a. drops and temperaturedropa c. rises and temperaturedrops
D. drops and the temperahre rises d. rises and temperaturerises

56. Which of the following aboutfront is true?

a. It is a boundarybetweentwo air nasses.
D. There are t€mperanre difierenceson oppositesides.
c. There are abrupt pressuredifferencesacrossa front.
d. Alloftheabove.

57. With the passageof an occludedftont, the temperattue:

a risesrapidly
D. remainsthe same
c. drops rapidly
d &pends on whether warm type or cold type occlusion

58. The slopeof a warm front is about:

a. 1 mile vertically to 10 miles horizontally
D. I mile vertically to 50 miles horizonally
c. 1 mile vertically to 150 niles horizontally

59. The slopeof a cold front is about:

a I mile vertically to 50 miles horizontally
D. I mile vertically to 10 miles horizontally
c. I mile vertically to 150miles horizontally

60. The steepnessof a cold front dependson:

a. direction of wind around the front c. temperatureof the air behind the front
D. its velocity d. precipitation generatedby the front

61. A warm air massis characterizedby:

' a. stability D. instability c. gustywind d. goodvisibility

62. Squallsare dangerousbeca:lse:

c. they causefog
b. they cover severalhundredsquaremiles at one time
c. they catse high swells
d. they are concentratedin an areaand haveviolent winds

63. The aonospherein the vicinity of a low pressurearears called a/an:

a. cold front b. cyclone c. anticyclone d. warm front

n Weather Elements
64. ln a tropical cyclone,a veering wind (one changing direction to the right in the N. hemisphereand
one changingdirection to the left in the S. hemisphere)would mean that you were:
a. in the eyeof the stonn c. in the dangerousserm-circle
D. in the navigablesemi-circle d. in the storm track

65. In the areaof the doldrums, which of the following choiceswould be incorrect?
d. overcas6 b. calms c. thunderstorms d. steeppressuregradients

66. Which of the following would you experiencein the eyeof a hurricane?
a. high velocity winds c. temperaturelower than outsideof the eye
D. owering curnulonimbusclouds d. extremelylow barometricpressure

67. The first visible sign of a tropicalcyclme is usually:

c. an exceptionallylong swell c. strong winds
b. rain d. high seas

68. What is the namegiven to thebelt of high pr€ssureat latitude35 deg.N?

a. Tabasco D. Doldrums c. Horselatitudes d. Prevailing westerlies

69. With falling barometerand low cloud ceiling, you can expect:
a. increasinghumidity and temperature c. qrmulus clouds
D. steady winds
moderate d improving visibility

70. In the N. hemisphere,winds veering sharplyto Oe northwestwitb increasingspeedindicate:

I. the passingof a cold front
tr. the passingof a warm front
a II only D. I only c. both I and II d. neitherI nor II

71. What wind reversesdirectionsseasonally?

a. monsoonwinds b. jet stream c. hookedtrades d. bre'ezes

72. T\e windsof the roaring fortiesarestrongestat ahut:

a. 50"N b. 50"S c. 40"N d' 40"S

73. Wind velocityvaries:

a. inverselywith the absolutehumidity
D. directly with the temperatureof the air mass
c. directly with the pressuregradient
d. inversely with barometric pressure

74. Wind direction may be determinedby observingall of the following except:

a. whitecaps D. swells c. wav€s d' low clouds

75. Weatherconditionin the middle latitudesgenerallymoves:

a. eastward D. northward c. southward d. westward

76. In the eyeof the hurricane,the seasare:

a. calm with a silky appearance c. slight
D. moderateand steadyin direction d. high and confusedin direction

WeatherElements 4l
77. Aaording o BrrysBalbt law, ryhen m drcrrpr in tbe N. hemirpherc €xpcrlnc€s a NB wind, tbe
mrcr of bw prcssrr€ b locarcdto the:
to wegt D. nor6east
a soNrthwsst c. norfiwest d southeastto south

7E. In tte N. bemisphere,a wind that shifu outercloctrvise is a:

a vwringwind D. bockingwind c. reversewind d chinook

79. Wbich Beartrortforce indicalesa wind spocdof 65 lnots?

a Frce0 D. Fce6.5 c. Facel2 d Facel5

80. Aeording b Buys Bdlots law, whcn an oherver in the N. hemisphereexperiencesa l.IlV win4 the
@@r of the bw pressureic locaFd to the:
4 nortbeast D. *tst souttwest c. nordwest d southsoutbeast

81. If yorn btrlletin sbowsthe mter d a lon, pressureareato be 100miles dueeastof pur position"what
winds cm you expct in tbe N. hemirybere?
a north to northwest D. eastto northeast c. eastto southeast d southto southeast

82. When frcing into the wind in tbe N. heinispbere,the enter of low pressurelies:
a directly in ftrontof .)ur c. b yollr left and behind pu
D. directlybehind you d to your right andbehind pu

83. The wind speedand directim obserrredftom a noving vesselis:

a oordinaewind D. truewind c. apparentwind d anemometerwind

84. Which conditinn would not indicate the approachof a tropical storm?
a long, high swells c. halos around the sun or moon
D. cimrs clouds d. in wind velocity
drr;re.*rre

85. The flow of air around an anticyclme in the Southernhemisphereis :

a. clodrwise and outward c. clockwiseand inward
b. ountercloclswise and outward d conntercloclwiseand inward

86. Anticyclonesare usually characterizrdby:

a. &y, fair weather c. cloudinessand pr€cipitation
b. high winds and gustiness d overcastskies

87. The circulation arotmda low pressureoenterin tbe N. hemisphereis:

a coqnterclockvise D. variable c. cloc*wise d anticyclonic

88. Bad weatheris rsually associatedwitb regions of:

a bw barometricpr€ssure c. changingbarmetric pressure
D. high barometric pressure

89. When a low pressureareais approaching,the weathergenerally:

a Inproves D. Getsworse c. Remainsthe same d. Unpredictable

90. Goodweatheris usually associatedwith a region of:

a [-oet barometricpressure c. Falling barometer
D. High barometric pr€ssure d hmping barometer

42 WeatherElemen*
 *;

o a hurricane in the N' Hemisphere'If the

91. You are afiempting to locat€your position with reference
yql are most likely:
wind direction remainssted buWelocity diminishes with time,
a Intheleftsemi'circle c' Onthestormtrack'aheadofcenter
D. In the right sqni-circle d. on the storm Eack' behind center

which of the following?

92. thereason fc the light winds in the doldnrm areais
c. Absenceof steeplressure gradients c' Rapid temperaore changes
d Raation of the earth
b. Seasmalchanges

93. An air massnear tbe equata would be:

I. High in temPerature
tr. High in relative humiditY
D. Neither I nor II c' I only d llonly
a goth I and tr
g4.Whatwindhelpsacraftmakeproglessinadesireddirectio?
c' Strongwind d Lightwind
a Favorablewind D. Fairwind
hove to with the wind shifting comterclocl$ise
95. In a tropical cyclonein the N. Hemisphere,a vessel
would be:
a Directly in tbe Path of the storm c. In the dangeroussemi-circle
D. Aheadofstormc€nter d In the navigablesemi'circle

is a:
96. In the N. Hemispherg a wind that shifts clockrrise
b. Backing wind c' Reversewind d Chinook
a Vering vind
generallymove :
97. Weatherconditims in tbe middle latiudes
b. Westward c' Northward d' Southward
a Bastrnard

98. A wind vaneon a moving vesselshows:

a. DR wind direction c. Apparentwind direction
D. Tmewinddirection d Estimatedwind diroction

99 An anemmeter on a moving rresselmeasures:

a Apparentwind sPeedonlY c' Tnre wind speedonlY
b. True wind sPeed& direction d' Apparentwind sPeed& direction

becane:
100. Tropical cyclonesdo notform within 5" of the equator .
c' It is too humid'
o, in.r" ate no fronts in the area'
D. It is too hot d' Of negligible Coriolis force'

hove16witb the wind shirftingclodrwise would be:

l0l. In a tropical cyclonein the S. hemisphere,a vessel
a Aheadof storm center c' Behind tbe storm centar
D.Inthedangerussemi-circbd.Inthenavigablesemi.circle
high and alow prcssufecent€r,the:
102. The greaterthe pressurediffe,rencesbetun,ena
a Mqtheairmasswillbe c' Greatertheforceofthewindwillbe
D.Coolerthetempera$rewillbed.Warmerthetemperarurewillbe

l03.Thelocalwindwhichoccrrrsduringthedaytimeandiscausedbythedifferentfa@sofvafming
land and watcr:
D. Chinook c' Landbreeze d Seabreeze
a hehn

WeatherElemenn 43
104. A katabaticwind blows:
c. Up an incline due to surfaceheating
b. lnacircularpattern
c. Down an incline due to coolin3 of the air
d. Itrorizonally betweena high an I a low pressurearca

105. The areaof strong winds occuringbetweenlatitrrdes40" to 60" S which blow to the eastis:
a. Polar easterlies c. Rmring faties
D. Prevailing westerlies d. Jqstreans

106. In the N. Atlanticbetween latitudes5o and 30" the winds you would expectto encolmterare:
a. Doldrums c. Trades
D. Westerlies d Easterlies

107. What winds blow towardsthe equatorftromthe areaabout30" N?

a Prevailing westerlies c. Equaorial tnough
D. Roaring fmties d NE trades

108. The wind flow from the Horselatitudes to the Doldnms is deflecteddue to:
a. The Coriolis force c. Different atmo$phericprcssure
D. Midlat semi-permanenthigh d. Prevailingwesterlies

109. The Horselatitudes are charrcterizndby:

a. weak pressuregradientsand light, variable winds
b. the formation of typhoons
c. steadywind$in one direction
d. changing winds from time to time

110. The usual sequenceof directions in which a tropical cyclme movesin the S. hemisphereis:
a northwesLwest and south c. north, no'rthwestand east
D. southwes! south and southeast d. wesgnorthwest and north

1I I . Severetropical cyclonesoccur in all wam oceanwaterexoeptthe:

a. Indian ocean c. S. Atlantic aean
b. N. Pacific ocean d S. Facific ocean

ll2. A hurricanenoving NE out of the Gulf of Mexico passeswest of your position. You could expectall
of the following except:
a. higher than normal tides c. winds veering ftom south b west or northwest
D. high winds d. hghtsbonen

113. You are enroutefrom PuertoRico to New Yort. A hurricane nakes up and approacies.If the wind
veerssteadily this indicatesthat your vesselis:
a. in the dangeroussemi+ircle c. in tbe path of the storm
D. in the navigablesemi-circle d. in the stonn oenter

114. Early indications of the approrch of a hurricane nay be all of the following except:
a. short confrsed swell
D. gradually inoeasing white clouds (mare's tails)
c. pumping brometer
d continuousfine nist like rain

4 WeatherElements
115. Tropical cyclmes are classified by form and intensity. Which of the ff. disturbancedoesnot have
closedisobars?
a. hurricane c. tropicaldepression
,. Eopical disturbance d cyclone

116. You havedeterminedthat you are in the right semicircleof a tropical cyclone in the N. hemisphere.
What action shouldyou take to avoid the storm?
a plae the wind on the starb@tdquarter and hold that course
b. plrce the wind on the port quarter and hold that course
c. place the wind on the port bCIiland hold that course
d. placc,the wind on the starb@rdbw and hold Oat course

117. The pr€ssuregradient betweenthe Ibrse latitudesand doldrumsruns:

a. northeast-southeast c. east-west
D. northwest-southwest d north-south

118. In N. Ame,ric4the majority of theweathersystensmovesfrom:

a. north to south D. southto north c. eastto west d. westto east

119. The wind directionarounda low pressureareain the N. hemisphereis:

a cloclrwiseand inward c. counterclockwiseand inward
D. clockrviseand outward d. counterclockwiseand outward

120. ln the N. hemisphere,an areaof counterclockwisewind circulation surroundedby higher pressureis:

a low b. high c. wam front d. cold front

l2l. In the N. hemispherc,you are caught in the navigablesemi-circlewith plenty of searoom available.
The bestcourseof action is to bring the wind on the:
a. Wrtquarter and make as much headwayas possible
D. starboardbowand make as much headwayas possible
c. starboardquaxterand make as much headwayas possible
'I\e
122. wind with the greatesteffecton the set,drift and depthof the equatorialcurents are the:
a tradewinds c. doldrums
D. horselatitudes d. prevailing westerlies

123. Whencimrs cloudsappearin the vicinity of a tropical cyclone,their convergence providesan indication
of:
4. dangeroussemi-circle c. wind direction for the next 200 miles
D. direction of storm center d. velocity of the wind for the next 100 miles

lU. ln the N. hemisphere,the dangeroussemi-circleliqs:

c. b the north of the storm cent€r
D. to the soutbof t[e stonn oenter
c. to the right of the directim of storm's movenent
d o the left of the direction of sSorm'smovement

125. What wind pattern has the most influence over the movementof frontal weathersystemsover the N.
American continent?
a dominant souther$ fbw c. prevailing westerlies
D. sub-polareasterties d NE trades

WeatherElements 45
126. Tfu wind is blowing strongoutof the north and yon areheadingnortb along the E. oast of the U.S.A.
The bestway to avoid working your vesselin high seawould be o:
a. leave the Gulf streamand move in closer to the sbore.
b. placethe wind on the port bor,'.
c. leavethe Gulf strean and heai out to the openmean.
d. remain in the main current of the Gulf stream.

127. On the pole side of the high pressurebelt in eachhemisphere,the pressurediminishes. The winds
along thesegradientsare divertedby the earth's rotation toward the eastand are knowl as the:
c. horselatitudes c. prevailingc/esterlies
D. geostrophicwinds d. doldrums

128. In the S. hemisphere,the wind flow associarcdwith a low pressuresystemwill have which of the
followin g characteristics?
I. the wind velocity is leastnear the s)'stem
tr. the direction of the flow is counterclockwis€
a. I only D. II only c. both I and II d. neither I nor II

129. A strongwind on the Pacific coastblowing ftom the north of Mexico, usuallyin cold seasonsis called:
a. Norther D. Papagayo c. Pampero d. Tehuantepecer

130. What wind resultsfrom a land masscoolingmorequickly at night Oan an adjacentwater?

a seatr.eezn D. mistral c. cmstal fueeze d. land &eezp

131. The p,revailingwinds in the band of latitudesfrom approx. 15" N to 30" N are the:
c. NE trade winds D. SE trade winds c. Doldrums d. hevailing westerlies

132. Convergenceis the oondition existing when:

I. there is a net horizonal inflow of air
II. there is stagnanlxil
a. Ionly D. tronly c. bothlandtr d. neitherlnorll

133. In the N. hemisphere,tbe trade winds are:

c. northwest D. soubwest c. northeast d southeast

134. The diroction of the suface wind is:

a directly from high Sowardslow pressure
D. directly from low towardshigh pressure
c. from high towardslow pressuredeflectedby the earth's rotation

135. A weather forecaststatesthat the wind will comnence brcking. In the N. hemisphere,this could
indiete thu itwill:
a shift in a clockrvisenranner c. be steadyin directims
D. shift in a co@terclockwisernanner

136. A weatherformst sta@.s that the wind will oonunenoeveaing. In the N. hemisphere,this indicates
that the wind will:
c. shift in a cloctrvise mnnner
D. shift in a cormercbckwise rnann€r
c. mtinue blmring ftom tbe sare directim

6 WeatherElements
I _11In readinga weathermap, closely spacedpressuregradient lines would indicate:
a. high winds c. calmor light winds
b. highorercastclouds d. fogorst€adyrain

138. Tbe areaof strongwinds occuringbetween40" S and 60" S which blow towardthe eastis the:
c. polar eastedies c. roaring forties
D. prevailingwesterlies

139. Thebelt of lilht and variahlewinds betweenthewesterlywind belt and the NE trde winds is the:
a. subtropicalhigh pressurebelt c. doldrum belt
b. intertropicalconvergencezone d. frontalzone

140. You are steaming west in the N. Atlantic in an extratropical storm, and tbe wind is dead ahead.
According to Buys Ballot, the center of the low pressurelies:
a. northofyon c. ahedofYott
D. southof you d. behind You

141. The probabilityof a suddenwind may be foretoldby:

a. apartlY cloudYskY
D. an overcastsky
c. a fast approachingline of dark clouds
d. the formation of cumulusclouds in the slry
"warm" if:
142. An air massis tenned
"F
d. it is above70
D. the ground over which it movesis cooler than the mass
c. it originatedin a high pressurearca
d. it originated in a low pressureare,a

143. Moot high pressureareasin the United Statesare accompaniedby:

a. precipitation c. humi( sticky weather
b. ckar. cool weather d. cool fog

144. Tropical cyclonesnonnally fcm within:

a. 0" to 15" c. 30" to 45"
b. 15o!o 30" d. 45" to 60"

145. If it is impossibleto avoid a hurricane in Oe N. hemisphere,the most favorableplace to be when the

sorm passesis in:
a. the dangeroussemi'circle.
b. tbe eyeof the stonn
c. that half of the storm lying to the left of storm'spath

146. Wbena hurricanepassesovercolderwateror land and lossesthe sourceof heat,th storm assumesthe
characteristicsof a/an:
a. High pressurearea c. Tropical storm
D. Extratropical cyclure d. Easterlywara

147. Acontinuouswind moving with a velocity between34 to 40 kts. is called:

a. Freshgale c. Gale
b. Sorm d. Near gale

WeatherElements {I
148. Wbich of the ff. indicates that a tropical cyclme can be expectedat )our poeition within A a 48
hours?
c. A diunal inequdity of 6 mb in the barmeter reading.
b. A suddenwindshift ftromSW to NW followed by steadily increasingwind.
c. The normal swell paftem becomingconftrsedwith the length increasing.
d An overcail sky with steadilyincreasingrain from nimbostraursclouds.

149. In the N. hemisphere,your vesselis believedto be in the direct path of a hurricane,and with plenty of
searoom available.The bestcourseof aclion is o bring the wind on:
a Stbd.bow, note that courseand headin that direction
,. Sbd. quarter,note that oourseand head in that direction
c. Port quarter,note that courseand headin that direction

150. In the N. hemisphere,which of the following is correct cocerning hurricanes?

I. To locatethe centerof the storm, face into the wind and count 8-12 points to your right.
tr. If your vesselis hove to in tlhed4ngerousseuri-circle,the winds will be backing.
a I only b. tr only c. Both I and II d. Neither I nor II
"C, this is equalto:
151. A thermometerreads45
a 49T b. ll3T c. 81 "F d' 131"F

152. T\e standardamospheric pressuremeasuredin inchesof mercury is:

a. 29.92 b. 7ffi.0 c. 1013.2 d. 500.0

153. The standardamosphericpressurein milli[65 i5'

a. 938.9 b. 7ffiJ c. 1013.2 d. 1000.0

154. 32 "Fisequal to:

a. 15 "C D. 0 "C c. 89 oC d. 0 "Absolute

155. The proce.ssleading to the decayor dissipationof fronts or frontal zone is called:
a. Frontolysis D. Froctolysis c. Frontogenesis d Clclogenesis

156. The initial formation of a front or frontal surfaceis called:

a. Froctolysis b. Frontolysis c. Frontogenesis d. Cyclogenesis

157. A lnminous phenomenadue to elecfical dischargedin the amosphere,and most comrnonlyseenin

high lati$des.
a Aurora D. Corona c. Ilalo d. Fogbow

158. The phasetransition of a substancepassingfrom the solid to the liquid sta[esuchas melting of ice.
a lnsolation b. Evaporation c. Condensation d Fusion

159. A continuoqswind moving at a velocity of 41 to 47 knots is known as:

a Stronggale b. Near gale c. Gale d' Strongbrer,ze

160. In low latitudes, tlre lows of the diunal variatim of pressureoccur/sat:

a. M00Hand 1600H
b. Nmn and midnight
c. 1000Hand2200H
d Noon

4E WeatherElements
161. In low latitudes, the highs of the diurnal variation of pressureoocur/sat:
c. M00Handl600H c. 1000Hand22NH
D. Noon and midnig[t d. Noon

162. A long, narronr,jagged crack may appearin the ice but wide enougbto permit the passageof a ship.
This is called:
a. Crackie b. Ler.dicr,, c. Shuga d Folynya

163. Whenthe air is at its dew point, iu

a Cannot give up its moisture. c. IIas a low relative humidity.
D. IIas the lowest relative humidity. d. Will contain no additional moisture.

164. Which weatherinstrument measuresaunosphericpressure?

a. Barmeter D. hychrometer c. Anemometer d Thermometer

165. An instrumentdesignedto maintain a ontinuotrs recordof atmosphericpressureis a:

a mercurial barometer c. barograph
D. aneroidbarometer d. thermograph

166. An aneroidbarometeris an instrument:

a. usedto measurethe speedof the wind c. that tells the direction of the storm
D. usedto measureair pressure d. usedto measureheight of the waves
"set" hand on an aneroidbarmeter is to:
167. The purposeof the
a. adjustthe barometer
b. indicate any cbangein the reading of the barometer
c. provide a core,ction for height abovesealevel
d. provide correctionfor temperaturechange
168. The needleof an aneroid barometerpoints o 30.05 on the dial. This indicatesthat the barometric
pressureis:
a 30.05 inchesof mercury c. 30.05mm of mercury
,. 30.05 millibars d falling

169.Barometersare usually calibratedto indicate amospheric pressurein:

a. inchesof merory and centimeters c. inchesof merorry and millimeters
D. fetof mercury and millibars d inchesof merorry and millibars

170. The instrumentmost commonly used!o gatherthe datafor detennining the relative humidity is the:
c. hydrometer D. payc,hrometer c. barometer d anemometer

l7l. A hygrometeris a deviceusedfor determining:

a absolutetemperatue c. windvelocity
D. amospheric pr€ssure d relative humidity
"R what is the correct
172. lt your mercurial barometerreads 30.50 inches and the temperatureis 56
rcadingat 55" N, 150"W?
a 30.42 b. 30.45 c. 30.50 d. 30.53
Correctionsare obained from Thble 12 and 13.

173. The correction/swhich must be applid to an aneroidbarometerreading include/s:

a. height error D. gravity error c. temperatur€enor d all of the abore

WeatherElemcn* 49
lZ4. Tbeconection/sufiich mus beappliedo a mercurialbrometer readinginclude/s:
a tbigbt error D. Gravityerror c. Tkmperature error d All of theabove

to brcakor shiftposition,andpossible
175.Tbeprincipaldangerftomitxbergsis theirtendency mderwater
exte,nsionscalled:
a Rams D. Calve c. Growlers d SPicules

176. Aline connectingplacesof equal salt contentsof the sea

a hohaline D. hohel c. hotherm d hobar

177. Aline on tbe weatherc,hartconnectingplacesof tbe samebarmetric prcssure.

a Isotherm D. Isallobar c. Isobar d. hotope

178. A line connectingplacesof the sameEmperaffi€.

a hotherm D. fuonic c. d. Isohel

179. Aline cormectingplacesof the samedepth'

a hotherm b. Isobar c. Contou d. Isohaline

180. A line connectingplacs of the samenagnetic variatim.

a. Isogonic D. Agonic c. hobar d Isallobar

181. Lines connectingpoints at which a given density@cursat the samedepth.

a Isobars D. hopycnic c. Isogonic d. Isotherut

182. Which of the following is a commonunit to measureamospheric pressure?

a Knots D. Degrees c. Inches d Fer;t

183. A millibar is a unit of:

a Precipitation D. hessure c. Humidity d. Temperature

184. The dew point is rpachedwhen the:

a Tbmperatureof the air equalsthe omperature of seawater'
D. Amospheric pressureis equal to 14.7 psi.
c. Relative humiditY reaches50%.
d Airbecomes sa$rated with watervapor.
"F "F.
lg5. The dry-bulb temperanreis 28 and the wet-bulbtemperatureis 62 What is the relativehumidity?
a 16% b. 14% c. 39% d' 79%
Get tlv difrercnceof dry andwet bulb temperuure. UseTable 16'

It6. A light feAbery d€positof ie causedby the condensationof water virpor directly in the crystalline
form on natural o$ects whce temperanresarebelow freezing'
a Derv D. Frost c. Glazn d Snow
such
lg7. The region containing 3/4 of the maqsof the amosphereand the region o which are confined
phenonenaas clouds storms,precipitition and cbanging weather conditions'
,r sr.rcupn.r" D. Tropospher,e c. Mesosphere d lonosphere
what maximum
1gg. Freezingsalt water sprayshouldbe anticipatedwben the air temperaturedropsbelow
valrp?
a 32"F b. 287 c.0T d 40"F

5l) Weather Elements

It9. The stateof,the amospherewhenit holds the maximilm amountof watervaporpossibleat a particular
temperature.
a. Saturation D. C-ondensation c. Evaporation d. Advection

190. The speedof soundin water is approximately:

a. 1.5 times its speedin air. c. 3.5 times its speedin air.
b. 2.5 times its speedin air. d. 4.5 times its speedin air.

191. The term usuallyrefersto a revolvingstormin the North Indian Oc€an,Bay of Bengaland Arabian
Sea.
a. Cyclone b. Thi-fung c. Bagp d. Hurricane

192. Whenthe air is at its dew point it:

c. [t hasa low relative humidity. c. FIasthe lowest relative humidity.
,. Will contain no additional moisture. d. Cannot give up its moisture.

193. It refers0othe prevalentor characteristicmeteorologicalmnditions of a place or region.

a. Weather D. Aunosphere c. Climate d. Noneof these

194. A slow moving ice in a river that flows !o lower level passingravinesandmountains"
a. Ram D. Growler c. Glacier d. Calve

195. A warm, dry wind blowing down the leewardslopeof a mountainand acrossa valleyfloor or plain.
a. Foehn b. Fall wind c. Gust d. Squall

196. A cold wind blowing down a mountainslopeis calleda:

a. Foehn D. Fall wind c. Anabaticwind d. Squall

197. A white glare on the undersideof extensivecloud areascreatedby light reflectedfrom snow-covered
surhces.
a Sky map b. Watersky c. Ice blink d. Snowblink

198. A whitish glare on low cloudsabovean accumulationof distantice.

a. Snowblink D. Sky nap c. Land sky d. Ice blink

199. The temperatureat which the air is saturatedwith watervaporand belowwhich condensationof water
vaporwill occur is referredto as:
a. Dew point c. Precipitationpoint
b. Vapor point d. Absolutehumidity

200. An extensivebody of air within which the conditions of temperatureand moisture in a horizontal
plane are essentiallyuniform.
a. Front ,. Climate c. Air mass d. Weather

201. Barmeters are calibratedat a standardtemperatureof:

a. 0T b. 32"F c. 60"F d. 70"F

202. The transition of a substanoedirectly from the solid state to the vapor state,or vice versa, without
passingtbrough the intermediateliquid sate.
a Sublimation D. Condensation c. Fusion d. Insolation

WeatherElemcnts 51
203. Relativehumidity is the percentageof watervaporthat is in the air ompared to the maxinum amount
it can hold at:
a. Specificbarwretric pressure c. Specific wind speed
b. Specific temperature d AnYtime
"the atr is saturat€d"meians:
204. The expression
a. the relative humidity is 100%
D. the vapor pressureis at its minimum for the prevailing temperature
c. precipitation has comrnenced
d. cloud cover is l(X)%

205. The diurnal pressurevariation is most noticeablein the:

4. polar regions D. horselatitudes c. roaring futies d. doldrurs

206. Aurospheric pressureat sealevel is equal to:

a. 14.7psi c. 1013.25millibars
b. 29.92inchesof mercury d all of the above

207. T\e dew point temperatureis:

a. alwayshigher than the air temperature.
D. equal to the differencebetweenthe wet and dry bulb temperatures.
c. alwayslower than the air t€mperature.
d. the temperatureat which the air is saturatedwith water vapor.

208. The stateof the atnrospherewhen frequentlydisturbedby suddenand violent gusty winds.
a. Cloudy D. Fogg c. Cyclonic d. Squally

209. Which of tbe following will aid evaporationof surfacewater?

a. absenceof wind c. all of these
b. low amospheric pressure d. adwtease in temperature

210. As the temperaturefor a given massof air increases.the:

a. kw point decreases c. relative humidity increases
D. relative humidity decreases d. bt point increases

2ll. A psyclrmeter is usedto determine:

I. denrpoint
tr. relative humidity
a I only D. II only c. both t and II d. neioer I nor [I

212. Whid condition/s iVare necessaryfor the formation of dew:

a earth'ssurfacecoolerthanair c. clearskies
D. calmair d. allof these

213. Atwbat angle will winds blow in regardto isobars?

a. X)" b. m" c. fi" d. 0"

214. It is onsidered to be the lowestpossCIletemperatureat which thereis no molecularmotion anda body

hasno heat.
a. Absolutezero b. 0"c c. 0"F d. Noneof these

s2 WeatherElements
215. Astrong wind with an averagevelocity af Z tnoa and a pressureof.2.3lbs. per squarefoot
a. Gale D. Freshgale c. Srong hrrr;zn d. Near gale

216. \\e center of a tr,opitnl revolving sbrm where the barometerpressureis the lowest and there is
mparatively calm wind with a very high searunning in all directions.
a. Vortex D. Vertex c. Cenroid d Crocenter

217. ln low latitudes,the range of diurnal variation of pressureis up o:

a. 10mb D. 3mb c. lmb d 6mb

218. A strong southwestto westwind accompaniedby heavyrain which prevails during July and August
on the west coastof CostaRica and Nicaragua.
a Norther b. hmpero c. Temporales d. Mistral

219. A wind of considerableintensity causedby aurospheric instability. It comesup and diesquickly, and
is often accompaniedby thunder,lighhing and precipitation.
c. Gradient wind D. Geostrophicwind c. Veeringwind d Squall

220. Violent whirlwinds of 50 to 1000yardsor more in diameterwhich are experiencedover land and in
conditionsof great instability.
a. Waterspouts b. Tornadm c. Cyclones d. Thunderstorms

221. T\e gravity error in Latittrde 45" is:

a.0 b. -0.2in. c. +0.1in. d +0.2in.
"F is:
222. T\e height eror of the barometerwhich is 50 feet abovesealevel and at a temperatureof 50
a. 0.06 in. D. 1.00in. c. 0.05 in. d. 0.04 in.

223. Wheredoesice in the seaat first usually form?

a on the seasurface c. At the bocmt
b. In the middle d. tuiYwhere

224. Who is tbe godof soonns?

a. Tai-fung D. Hunrakan c. Cyclops d Nloftheaborre

225. A sylphonoell is a part of:

a. Aneroid barometer c. Anemometer
D. Chronometer d hYchrometer

226. 1\e areaof the lowestbarometricpressurein a clclonic s0orm,lying perpendicularlymore or lessto

the direcrion of travel of the storm.
a. Depression b. Col c. Hurricane d Trough

227. TM, elongarcdareaor longitudinal areaof high barometricpressureis called:

a. Col D. Ridge c. Trough d Anticyclone
^I\e areabetweentwo anticyclonesand two depressionswhen they are so arrangedthat a line joining
228.
tbe 2 anticyclmes crossesthe line joining the 2 depressions.
a Ridge D. Col c. Tlubulence d Sationary area

229. Tbe layer of the amospherethat servesas a goodreflector of radio waves.

a. Troposphere D. Biospbere c. Mesosphae d lonosphere

VleatherElements 53
 is:
230. The normaloxygencontentof the atmosphere
a. 81o b. 2l% c. l0% d. 50%

231. Barometersonboardships are usualy readand moniloredor evenloggedregulady:

a. Whenthereis a low pressuret'thin the area
b. During a passageneara high pressurearea
c. Becauseof strong typhoonwithin the area
d. Becauseyou haveto do it regularlyonboardship

232. Which instrumentis usedto measuredistancewhenheightof objectis lmown?

a. Stadimeter b. Bearing circle c. Anemometer d. Ilygrometer

233. What is the nameof a Tornadowhenit movesout ovcr water?

a. Waterspout D. Typhoon c Cyclone d. Stonn

234. kecipitation of hexagonalcrystalof flakesis:

a. Snorp b. Fog c. tlail d. Mist

235. Small individual particlesof ice which makethe appeafimceof the seaoily with a peculiargxayor
leadentint are called:
a. Spicules ,. Rams c. Growlers d. AJ.lofthese

236. The processof changingwatervaporinto liquid or solid form is called:

a. Condensation b. Saturation r. Fxion d Insolation

237. Awhitish semi-circulararc seenoppositeto sunor moonis called:

a. Fogbow b. Corona t:. tlalos d Bishop'sring

238. It indicatesatmosphericpressureof 0.001bar or 0.0145pormdsper squareinch or O.U295inch of

mercury and is called:
a. Millibar b. Bar c. Barograph d. Barometer

239. A line joining placeshavingequalsunshineis called:

a. Isohel D. Isobar c. Isob'ront d. Isoclinal

240. Public storm signal no.3 meansrain and wind is expectedto passin the areaor vicinity at rate of:
a. 185 KpHor more b. 100 to 185 ren c. 60 to 100 res d. 30 n 60 ru.t

v4l. Adischargeof electricity from cloudsor from earthresulting in intenseillnmination is called:

c. Lightning D. St. Elmo's fre c. Thunder d. Aurora

Vl2. Itwas esrablishedin 1913by the InternationalConventionfor Safetyof Life at Seaheldthat yearasa
resultof the sinking of the SSTitanic.
a. International ice patrol c. Land sky
b. Sky map d. WaterskY

U3. An areaof high pressurewhich remainsin the vicinity of the Bermudaswith greatpentistenceand has
a definite effect on the weatheralong the Atlantic coastof the United Starcsis known as:
a. Aleutian low D. Bermudahigh c. Florida high d. Icelandic low

24.4. No recordof a fully developedcycloneexists in tbis area:

a. chinasea D. SouthPacific c. westlndies d. BayofBengal

54 WeatherElements
 '\rool pack"
245. Cloudswith vertical development.Its uppersurfacedome-shaped,and sometimescalled
clouds.
a. Cumulonimbus D. Altostratus c. Cumulus d. Altocrrtulus

26. When air is not confined, changesin temperatureproducea changein volume, heatedair expanding
and cooledair contracting.The resultis:
a. Tradewind D. Gradient wind c. Wind d. Geostrophicwind

247. lc*&rgs in the N. Hemisphereare causedby:

a. Arcticseaioe b. Glaciers c. Hrmmockice d. Noneof these

248. Fast new,pac* and hummockare tennsusedwith:

c. Sea b. Current c. Snov d. lce

249. ln which month tropical cyclonesoccurwith the most frequencyin the Northern Hemisphere?
a. May b. July c. June d. October

250. What is the actual weight of water vapor in a parcelof air and expressedin grams per cubic meter?
a. Absolutehumidity c. Seatemperature
D. Relative humidity d. Dew point temperatrre
''
251. In which monthsdo mosthumcanesin the SouthernHemisphersoggti
a. July,August,September c. January,Februa4v,March
D. April, May, June d. October,November,December

252. A recording thermometerfor determining the temperatureof the seaat various depthsis called:
a. Bathythermograph c. Bathythennometer
b. Bathymetricscale d. Seathermometer

253. A relatively thin shell of air, water vapor,dust and smokesurroundingthe earth.
a. Weather b. Aunosphere c. Celestialsphoe d. Troposphere

254. Tbe top of the troposhereis marked by a thin transition zoneknown as:
a. Stratopause D. Tropopause c. Mesopause d. Ionopause

255. To meetthe needsfu a pressureunit involving force rather than length, the unit usedbymeteorologist
ftrr afnosphericpressureis:
a. Millibars b. Feet c. Meters d Fathoms

256. A large floating massof ice detachedfrom a glacier at sealevel.

c. Hurrmockedice D. Fastice c' Iceberg d. Ice island

257. A large massof seaice, consistingof variousfloes, pressureridges and openings.

a. Packice b. I'ezrdicn, c. Shuga d. Spicule

258. When the Gulf sfean water en@unterscold air, evaporationis so rapid that it causes:
a. Frost smoke b. Fog c. Rain d. Squalls

259. Asmall circular depressionsrboidiary to a cyclone.It is usually formed by bending of isobarsin the
equatorialsideofa cYclone.
c. Secondarydepression c. Secondarytyphoon
b. Secondarycyclone d. Tfopical stomt

WeatherElements 55
260. The low pressureateas'thatlie betweenthe tradesis called the:
a llorse latiudes D. Doldrums c. Wcterlies d. Easterlies

261. Which sideof the moving tropical cyclonein the Northern Hemispherehas the weakerwind?
a- t-eft D. Right c. Fuward d Arft

262. Aline conectlng poins of oqud magneticdip is called:

a Isoclinal D. Isogonic c. Isosoeles d Isophase
oF and the wet-bulbtemperatureis 35 "F. Find the relative humidity.
?53. The dry-bulb temperatue is 4l
a. 35% b. ffi% c, 53% d. n%

264. The instnment usedto measurlesolar radiation is called:

a. Thermomet€r D. P5nfreliometer c. hychrometer d. hnometer

265. Seaice piled h4hazardly one pieceover anotherto form an unevensurfrce is called:
a. Hrmmocled ie b. Packedice c. Fastice d. New ice

?l;6. Atine joining two oalusions betweenwarm and cold air which is stationary.
a Frontal surface D. Frontal depression c. Polar front d. Quasi-stationaryfront

267. A ndrow peninsulaof ice is called:

a. Ice shelf D. Ice berg c. lcn tongue d' Ice field

268. The generaldirection of movementof s0ormsin tbe temperatezonesis:

c. l.IW b W (N. Hemisphere); SW to W (S. Hemisphere)
t. NB to B (N. Hemispbere);sE to E (S. Hemisphere)
c. NE to E (N. Ilemisphere);SE to S (S. Henisphere)
d. SE to S (N. Hemisphere);SE to E (S. Hemisphere)

269. The sideof the storm that lies o the left in the N. Hemisphereand to the right of the stonn path in the
S. Hemisphereis the:
a Dangeroussemi-circle c. Dangerousquadrant
D. Navigablesemi-circle d. Noneof these

270. Ttle Williwaw of the Aleutian @sq tbe Tehuantepecerof the Mexican coastand the Misfal of the
Westernand BasternMediterraneanare examplesof:
a Fallwind D. Anabaticwind c. $phoon d. Stationaryfront

271. Which of the following statementsis true regardingBernoulli's Theory?

Anster : Pressureis leastwhercthe velocities are grealest.

272. Ow of the practical usesof Bernoulli's Theory is for forecasting:

Answer: PressuredroPs
Berrculli Efrect: The rcduction of interrul fluid pressurewith increasedstrean velocity.

n1. Oa spoptic charts, the equivatentpressureat s€alevel is customarilyshown as:

Anster : Sealcvel prcssure

n 4. Thestateof the amospherewhenit holdsthe naximum amountof watervaporpossibleat a particular

t€nperafirr€.
Answcr: Saturation

56 WeatherElern.ents
275. During the evening,the land givesoffits heatand falls belowthe temperatureof the sea.The result is:
Answer : A land brceze,from land to sea

276. T\e rotation of the earth will'divert surfae winds:

Awwer : To tltc riglt in tlv Nortlwrn Hernisphere

277. Corioll,sforce is causedbY:

Ansvter: Rotation of tlu Earth

n8. An ice floe which hasbecomehoreycmbed in the coune of melting.

Answer : Rotten ice

279. T\e direction of the wind in a cycloneis soutb.Statethe probablebearingd its centerftom a ship in
the SouthernHemisPhere.
Anwer : Tlw bearing would he I to I0 pointsto the W of wind direction, or betweenE and ENE.

280. yogr vesselis proceedingtoward a stationarythunderstormat 15knots. If you sawa flash of lightning
and l0 secondslater heard thunder,how long would it takebefore )ou enier the storm?
Solution:
Time in minutes = Distancein feet / Speedin feet per min.
= 10 secs.x ll20 ftJsec.
(15 kts. x 6Ot0 ft.rh.m.)/ 60 min.
= 7.37minutes

281. The most important factor in maintaining a balancein the heating of the (rceansand the amosphere
is:
Answer: Radiuion

282. Steamfog may fqm when:

,Answer: Cold air passesover wannwater.

283. BesidesMeruny, the otherliquid containedin thetbermometer,aspeciallywhena very low t€npemtur€

is o be measuredis:
Awwer: Alcohol

284. Which of the following latiude receivesthe most heatfmm the sun?
a. 10"N b. 30"S c. t0"S d 30"N
Answer: (a)

285. A measur€of gravitational pull m m object is the:

Answer: Wiglx

2t6. tloat is transferredfton the earth direaly to the ahocphere W:

Arcwer : Radiuion and Convection

287. The,fcce that direcs air ftromhigb o lon' pressure.

ltnwer : Pressuregradient force

2t8. What are tbe two main branchesof lvlarine Meteaologt?

Anwer: Clifitatic aad SYtwPtic

WeatherElements 57
289. Convert 1006millibars to inchesof Mercury and statethe kind of pressure.
Answer: 29.71in, of Mercury;a sign of low pressure.

290. Afog causedby the oooling of theair in contactwith the groundasa result of cooling of the groundat
night.
Answer: Radiuionfog

291. Which statementis true regardingCoriolisForoe?

I. A wind that shifts in a cyclonicdirection.
II. The deflection is towardsthe left in the SouthernHenisphere.
Answer : II only

292. T\e unequaltempefaturechangesbetweenland and water is the major causeof:

Anntter: Monsoons

293. Approrchinga tropical islandat nigh! youwould expectthe wind:

./rtswer : To blow offslnre.

294. The primary circulation of the earth is causedby:

Answer: Thz uncqualhealingofthc earth'ssurface.

295. T}reprimary wind circulation of the earth is disturbedby:

L Cieography,seasonsand time of day.
II. Stormsand hurricanes.
Answer : Both I and II

296. The prinury dangerof a wa(m front is:

Answer: Fog ,nlry covera largearea.

297. A typeof fog which occurs when cold air blows over a relatively warm seais called:
Ansvter: Seasmoke
"C and a standardsealevel
298. The U.S. standardatmosphereassumesa sealevel temperatureof 15
pressureof:
'btswer : 29.92inclws of Mercury

299. Tbe temperatezoneof the Northern Hemisphereextendsfrom:

Ansver: Iit.23" 27' N to ltt.66" 33' N.

300. Density is defmedas massper unit:

Answer: Volume

301. A tropical air massthat originates over a continental areais:

Answer : Hot and dry

302. The four stageson the life cycleof a uopical cycloneare:

Arcvver: FornwtioqImmaturity, Matuity, and Decay.

58 Weather Elements
 RADAR NAVIGATION
nearthe antenna.
The tenn MDAR was derived ftom radio detec
I tion and ranging.Thisis applied to elecfronic
Clutter. Unwantedradarechoesreflectedliom heavy
equipment designed to determine distance by
rain, snow,waves,erc.,whichmayobscurerelatively
measuringthetime requiredfor aradio signal!o ravel
large areason the radarscope.
froma transmitterto a"targe(' andreturneitherasa
reflected"echo" or as a retransmittedsignal from a Cursor. A deviceusedwith an instnmr'ng to provide
transpondertriggeredby the original signal. Since a moveablereference,astherunnerof a sliderule or
the primary radar usesa directionalantenna,the a rotatableplasticdisk with inscribedcrosslines,used
directiirnof the targetis also determined,but with in readingbearingson a plan positionindicator.
somewhatlessaccuracythan the distance.
Diffraction. The bendingof a waveas it passesan
The radar radio signal is pulse modulated.Sig- obstruction.
nalsaregenerated in a transmitterby a timing circuit
sothatenergyleavestheantennain veryshortbursts Indirect or Falseecho.Causedby reflectionof the
mainlobeof theradarbeamoff ship'sstructuressuch
or "pulses".During transmissionof a pulse,the an-
tennais connectedto the transmitterbut not the re- asstacksand kingposts.Whenreflection doesoccur,
ceiver.As soonas the pulse leaves.An elecEonic the echowill retum from a legitimateradarcontact
switchdisconnects the antennafrom thetransmitter !o the antennaby thesameindirectpath.
andconnectsit to the receiver.Anotherpulseis not Multiple echoes.Thesemay occw when a strong
transmitteduntil after theprecedingonehashadtime echois receivedfrom anotler ship at closerange.A
to travelto themostdistanttargetwithin range,and secondor third or more echoesmay be observedon
return. The duration or length of a singlepulse is theradarscope at double,triple, or othermultiplesof
calledpulselength,pulseduration,or pulsewidth' the actualrangeof theradarcontact.
From the receiver,the return signal goesto the Multiple-trace echoes.Theseare echoesreceived
indicator.This consistsof a cathode-raytube and from a contactat anactualrangegreaterthantheradar
appropriatecircuits. range setting. If an echo from a distant target is
received after the following pulse has been
DEF'INMON. OF TERMS: transmitted,the echowill appearon the radarscope
at the correctbearingbut not at the truerange.
Attenuation. The decreasein the strengthof a radar
wave resulting from absorption,scattering,and Persistence.A measureof time that the radar
reflectionby the medium through which it passes indicator(PPIscope)retainsimagesof echoes.
(waveguide,a0nosphere)and by obstructionsin its
Plan pcition indicator. An intensity-modulated
path.
radar display in which the radial sweeprotateson
Beamwidth. The angularmeasureof thetransverse thecathode-raytubein synchronismwith therotating
sectionof a beam(usuallyin the main lobe) lying antenna. The display presents a maplike
within directionscorrespondingto specifiedvalues representationof the positionsof echo-producing
of field strengthrelativeto themaximum. objects.
Blind sector.A sectoronradancopein whichradar Pulseduratlon. The time intervalduring which the
echoescannotbe receivedbecauseofan obstruction anrplitudeof a pulseis at or grerttetthan a specified

59
value.Also calledpulselengthandpulsewidth. main lobeat the samerangeas Oe latter.

Pulserepctltlon frequency.Thepulserepetitionrate Spoklng. Theseappearon the PPI as a number of

of a periodic pulsetrain. spokesor radial lines.Spokingis easilydistinguished
from interferenceeffectsbecause thelinesarestraight
Pulserepedtlon rate. The averagenumuerof pulses on all range-scalesettingsand are lines rather than
per unit of time. seriesofdots.
Racon. A radar transponder which emits a Stablllzed ln azhuth. Theorientationof thedisplay
characteristicsignalwbentriggeredby a ship'sradar. is fixed !o an unc,hangingreference(usually north).
Radar beacons.Theseare transmittersoperatingin The north up orientationis an exanple.
the marine radar fiequency band which prodrce Sub-refracdon This may o@ur if a layer of ool4
distinctive indications on the radar scopesof ships moist air overridesa shallowlayer of wann, dry air.
within rangeof tbesebeacons. The effectis to bendtbe radarrays upwardand thus
Radarscope.The cathode-rayhlbe in the indicator decreasethe maximum rangesat which targetsmay
of a radar set which displays the receivedecho in be &tected. Also affectsminimum rangesand may
srch a manneras to indicat€ rangeandbearing. result in failure to detect low lymg targetsat short
range.
Rarmrk. A radar beacon which transmits either
continuouslyor at intervals' Super-reftacdon This may(rccur in calm weather
with no turbulencewhen thsre is an upper layer of
Refracdon" The changein direction of motion of a warm, dry air over a surfacelayer of col( moist air.
ray ofradiant energyasit passesobliquely from one The effect is to increasethe downwardbending of
medium into another in which the speedof the radar raysand Ous increasethe rangesat which
propagationis different. targetsmay be detected.
Relatlve motlon dlsplay. A tpe of radarscope' Surfaceradlo duct A layerof theatmoopherevfrere
display in which the position of orn ship is fixed' the radarraysfapped arerefracteddownwardto tle
usually at the @nter of the plan position indicator'surface of the sea, reflected upward, refracted
andall the &tected targetsmoverelativeto own ship. downward again within the duct, and so on
continuously.The enogy trappedby the duct suffers
Resolutlon ln bearlng. The minimum angular
little loss; thus, targets may be detectedat
separationbetweentwo targets at the sane range '
exceptionallylong ranges.
which wilt allow both to appearas separate,distinct
echoeson the PPI. True motlon dbplay. A type of radarscopedisplay
in which own ship and other moving targetsmove
Resoludonln renge. The minimum rangebetween
on the PPI in aocordancewith their true coursesand
separatetargetsat the sane bearingwhich will allow
speeds.All ftxed targetsappearasstationaryecboes.
bah to appearassepamte,distinct echoeson theplan
positionindicator. Unstablllzcd In azlnuth. The orientation of the
displaychangeswitb changesin own ship's heading.
Sector dbplay. A radar display in which a high
Tbe headup orientation is an exanple.
persistenoescr@n is excited only when the radar
bean is within anarrow socttrwhich canbe selected Varlable range marker. An adjustable ring
atwill. synchronizedwith a counter.
Shedowscctor. A soctorin the radarsope in which
theappearance ofradarechoesis improbablebocause TARGET CIIARACTERISTICS
of an obstructionnear tbe antenna'
l. Irelght If tbe targetdoesnot rise abovetheradar
Sldc-lobeefiects Tbeyarereadilyrecogpizedin tbat horizon, tbe radarbean cannotbereflect€dfrom Oe
they producea seriesofechoes on eachside of tbe target

60 Electronic Navigation
2. Sfun.Targetshavinglargerreflectingarcasreturn
tbantargetshavingsmallerreflecting
strongerec.hoes
areas.
3. Aspect of a targel The orienation to the axis of
the radar beam.The nearer the angle betweentbe
reflectingand the bean axis is 90 deg.,the greateris
the strengthof the cho renrned to the antenna.
4. Shape"Targetsof identicalshapbmaygiveechoes 6. Composltlon. Metal and water are good
ofvarying strengtb,dependingon aspect.Thus a flat reflecton. Ice is a fair reflec3or,dependingon aspect
surfaceat right anglebto theradar beam,suchasthe Wmd and fiberglassbmts arepoor reflectors.
TIIE GYRO-COMPASS
fhe basisof marine gyrm)mpass lies in the free
L gyroscope.It is a spinning wbeel or rotor so
mountedin a ftamethattheaxisupm nhich thewheel
spins may be pointed initially in any preferred
direction.
A conventional gyroscope consists of a
comparativelymassive,wheellike rotor balancedin
gimbalswhich permitroation in any direaion about
threemutually perpendicularaxis throughtbe center
of gravity. The three axes are called the ryin atis,
thelnrkontal cns, andthevertical axis.
Gyrmcoplc lnerda. The propertyof a gyroscopeof
resistingany forcewhich changeits axis of rotation.
A gyroscopetends to maintain the direction of is
axis of rotation in space.Also called RIGIDITYIN
SPACE.
Gyroscoplc precesslon The propertyof a Syroscope
exhibited when a fore is applied which tends o
changethe direction in spaceof tle spin axis' The
motion resulting ftom sucha force is not in line with
the force but perpendicularo it. Precessioncan be
demonstratedby applying a torque to the spinning
gyrosoopeaboutits horizontal axis.
Free gnmcope hasthreedegreesof freedom:
1. Freedomto spin on its axle
2. Freedomo titt aboutits horizontal axis
3. Freedomto turn about its vertical axis
Thesethree degreesof freedur permit the rolor
to assumeany positionwitb r€spectto the supporting
ftame. The term degreeof-freedom refers to the
Electronic Navigation
sideof a ship or a steepcliff along the shore,reflects
very strongecboes.A concavesurfacetpndsto focus
theradarbeamto theantennawhile a convexsurface
tendsto scatterenergy.
5. Texture. A smoothsurfacewill give poor radar
echo becausemost of the energy is reflected in
anotherdirection.
numberof orthogonalaxesaboutwhichthe spinaxis
is frreeto rotate, t[e spin axis not being countedin
one convention.
The gynocompassdependsupon four natural
phenomenafor its operation. Two are inherent
properties of the gyroscope,nanely, gyroscopic
inertia and gytoscopicprecession;and the other nvo
are the earth's rc0ationand gravity.
Before a free gyro can be converted into a
gyrocompass,the mounting structure must be
changedslightly. Tbe rotor is mountedin a sphere
(gyrosphere)and the sphereis supportedby the
vertical nng. Tbesphre andverticalring are,in $m,
mounted in a base called phantom. Means are
providedfor the vertical ring and phantomto follow
the gyro asit turns aboutiB vertical axis.
To make the gyro ino a gyrocompass,the gyro
has to be madeto seekand maintain TRUENORTTI.
Since north is the direction representedby a
horizontal line in the plane of the meridian, some
meanshaveto be provided to:
1. Make the gyro spin axis seekthe meridian plane
2. Make the spin axis horizonal
3. Make it maintain its position oncereached
Speederror. An error resulting from movementof
the gyrocompasses in other than an east-westdirec-
tion. The error is nrcstertyif any componentof the
ship's courseis north, and €ast€dyif south.Its mag-
nitude is proportional to the course,speedand lati-
nrdeof theship.Also calledSFEEooURSE-I^ATIruDE
ERROR.
6l
Tangent latltude error. It is approximatelypropor- causedby motion of the vessel,suchasrolling.
tional to the tangentof the latitude in which the gy-
The two maln elementsof the master compassare
rocompassis qerating. Thelatitudeerror variesfrom
theoompasselementandthesupportingelement.The
zeroat the equatorto a maximum at l- igh northern
compasselement includes the sensitive element
and southernlatitudes. This error may be compen-
(meridianand slavegyros),the phantomor follower
satedfor by meansof an auxiliary latitude corrector
element"and the gimbal. The supporting elements
to shift the lubber's line or to alter the position of a
includesthe frane and binnacle which provide a
small weight attachedto the casingnear one end of
shock-mountsupportfor the compa.ss element.
theaxle.
Deslrable characterlstlcs of the gyrocompass.
Ballistic deflection error. A t€mporaryoscillatmy
Sincea gyrocompassis not affectedby a magnetic
error of ttregyrocompassintroducedwhen thenorth-
field, it is not subjectto magneticcompasserrorsnor
southcomponentofthe speedchanges,asby speed
it is uselessnear the ealth's magneticpoles.H an
or cotusechange.An aorelerating force acts upon
error is present,it is the sameon all headings.Thc
the compass,causing a surgeof mercury from one
part of the systemto another in case of the directive force is sufficiently strong to permit
directional pick-off for use in remote-indicating
nonpendulbuscompass,or a deflection (along the
repeaters,automaticsteering,deadreckoningand
meridian) of a mass in the case of a pendulous
q)mpass. fire-control equipment,courserecorders,etc.
Undeslrable characterlstlcs. A gyrooompassis
Ballistic damptng error. A temporaryoscillatmy
dependent upon a sourceof suitableelectricpower.
error of a gyrocompassintroduced during changes
If qeration of thecompassis intemrptedlongenough
of courseor speedas a result of the meansusedto
to permit mcertaintyin its indications,a considerable
dampthe oscillationsof the spin axis.
period (as much as four hours for some
Quadrantal enor. Therolling of a vesselintroduces gyrocornpasses) may beneededfor it to settleon the
the force neededto start a gyrocompassswinging. meridianafter it reachesoperatingspeed.This period
The effect reachesa maximum on intercardinal canbereducedbyorientingthecompassin theproper
headings,midway betweenthe two horizontal axes direction beforeit is started.
of the compass,and changesdirection of error in
The gyrocompassis subject to certain errors
consecutivequadrants.
requiringapplicationsof corrections,eithermanually
Gimballlng error. The error introduced in a or automatically.Its accuracydecreasesabove
gyrocompassby the tilting of the ginbal mounting Latitude75 deg.
systemof the oompassdueto horizontal acceleration

DISTANCE AND SPEEDMEASUREMENT

Stadimeter. A small, hand-heldinstrumentusedfor
measuringdistancebetweenshipsin fonnation and
for measuringotherdistances.
Taffrail log. It is one of the simplest mechanical
distance-measuringdevice,consistingof:
1. A rotator which turns like screwpropeller when
it is towedthroughthe water;
2. A braidedlog line, up to 100fathomsin length,
which tows the rotator and transmitsits rotation
to an indicator on the vessel;and
3. A dial andpointermechanismwhich registersthe
distancetraveledthrough the water.
The taffrail log is usuallystreamedfrom theship's
quarter, although it may be carried at the end of a
shortboomextendingoutboardfrom the vessel.The
log line shouldbe sufficiently long, and attachedin
suchposition,that therotator is clearof the disorbed
waterof the wakeof the vessel;othenvisean error is
introduced.Errors may alsobeintroducedby a head

62 Electronic Navigation
or follorvingsea;by mechanicalwearor danage,such 2. By measuringon the chart or plotting sheetthe
as a bent fin; or by fouling of the rotator, as by distancemadegoodbetweenfixes and dividing
seaweeds or refuse. this by time
3. By finding the vectorsumof velocity throughthe
Measurementof speed.All instrumentsusedfor waterand velocity of the current
measuringspeeddet€rminetherateof motionthrough
the water.This is doneby: Pitch of the screw. The distancethe screwwould
advancein one revolution as if the screw were
1. Electromagneticinduc.. n advancingthrougha solid substance.
2. Differentialpressueormeirsurementof thewater
pressuredue solelyto the forwardmotionof the Slip. The difference betweenthe distancethe
vessel propellerwould advancein a solid substanceand
3. Measuringthe resistance0othemotionof the actualdistancetraveled.
vessel Doppler sonar navigatlon.The useof the doppler
4. Meansof a small screwpropellerhavinga speed effect observedas a frequencyshift resulting from
ofrotation proportional to the speedofthe vessel
relative motion betweena transmitter and receiver
5. Determining the relationship betweenvessel of ultrasonicenergyto measurethe relative motion
speedand speedof rotation of its screwor screws
betweenthe vesseland the reflective seabottom(for
Speedover the bottom canbe determined: BorroM RETURN uonn) or suspendedparticulate
matter in the seawater itself (for voLUME
1. By direct measurementasby dopplersonarspeed REvERBERATIoN uooe) to detemrinethe vessel's
log and sensingaccelerations velocity.

ECHO SOUNDER
fn this instrument,a pulse of electricalenergyis
lconverted periodically to sound energy and
transmitted downward by a transducer.When the
energystrikesthe bottom(orany other objecthaving
acousticpropertiesdiffe,rcntfrom thoseof water), a
portion is reflectedbrck to the transducerasan echo.
This energy is reconve,rtedo electrical energy for
presentation.Becauseof the speedof soundin water
is nearly constanLthe amountof time which elapses
benpeenthe transmissionof a pulseandthereception
of its echois a measureof the distancetraveled,or in
this case,depth.
Depthinfomrationis presentedin eithertwo ways:
nanely, an indicator consistingof a cathoderay ube
or a recorderwhich recordsdepthan calibratedpaper.
Echo sounderor fathometer only measuresthe
depthof waterbelowthe ship's keel.To gettheactual
depthof water, add the ship's drafl
Echo soundersare calibratedfor speedof sound
'of 4,800 ftlsec. The actual speedvaries primarily
with the temperature,pressure,and salinity. In the
o@an,the speedof soundis neady alwaysfasterthan
the speedof calibration. The error introducedis on
the side of safetyunlessthe water is fresh or very
cold.
If soft mud coversthe oean floor, someof the
sound-waveenergymay penetrateto a harder layer
beneath,resultingin indicationof two bottotns.ltis
not unusualin deepwater [o receivea strongreturn
at a depthof about200 fathomsduring the day, and
smrewhatnearerat thesurfaceatnight. This is called
phantom bottom or deep scattering /ayer. This is
believedto be due to large nunbers of tiny marine
animals. School of fish return an echo sufficiently
strong to make echo sounder a valuable aid to
commercialfishermen.
The sound waves (sonic or ultrasonic) are
producedelectrically by meansof a transducer, a
device for converting electrical energy to sound
waves.or vice versa.

Electronic Navigation 63
 TIIE LEAD
fhe leadis a deviceconsistingof a suiably marked
I line having a weight anachedto oneof its end.It
is usedfor measuringdepthd water.
Two typesof lead are in contmonv*: the lnnd
HANDLEAD IIARKINGS
Dlstane tllaftlng
tromlead
ln bthons
2 2 stdpsol leather
3 3 stdpsol leather
5 whlteoottonrag
7 rcd woolenrag
10 leatherwlth hole
13 sameas 3lathoms
15 sameas 5lathoms
17 sameasTfathoms
RADIO DIRECTION FII\DING
Radto dlrectl,on finder (RDF). The bearingsof the
radio transmissionaremeasuredasrelativebearings
or asboth relative and true bearings.
Whenplotting radio bearingsqt a Mercatorchart,
conversionangle must be applied !o conve'ltthe ra-
dio bearing(great+ircle direction) to the equivalent
rhumblinebearing.
Clrcular radlobeacom. Transmit radio waves of
approximatelyuniforn strengtl in all directions.
IXrecdonal radlobeacons. Transmit radio waves
within a narrow sector.The transmissionshaverela-
tively short range.
Sequencedradlobeacon. In U.S. waters, one of a
gfoup of up to six marine radiobeaoonsin the same
geogr'aphicalarea, exceptthoseoperating continu-
onsly,that transmit on a singlefreqwncy. The trans-
reducestationinterferenceand
missionsin sequenoe
undesirablereturning
Null. If the antennais rotated90 deg., the alternate
6 Electronic Navigation
lcad,weigbng 7 to 14 lbs. andhaving a line marked
to abofrt25 fathoms;afr tbe deep-sealcad, urcigh-
ing ftom 30 to 100lbs. andhaving a line markedto
100fatbomsor more in length.
Dlstatw lhrklw
tnm lead
ln bthoms
20 stroil line wlth 2 knots
25 shortllne with 1 knot
30 shodllne with 3 knots
35 slrodllne wfth 1 knot
& shortllne with 4 knots
45 slrortllnewith 1 knot
50 shortlinewith 5 knots
crestsand troughs arrive at both sides at tle same
time, tending to causecurrents to flow in opposite
directions around the loop. Under theseoonditions
the nvo partscanceleachother,resulting in zeroan-
tennaoutput.
18lf deg. ambfutty. Becare of the characteristics
of the simple lmp antenna,a l8Gdeg. ambiguity
exists.That is, a signal approachingfrom either side
of two directions180deg.aparturouldcausethesane
antennaoutput. This ambiguity can be resolvedby
using a vertical sensean enw in connectionwith a
loop. The output frromthis wire, if the direction of
motion of the signal is horizontal, is the samein all
directions.
ERRORS OF RADIO BEARINGS
Quadrantat crror. An erroneousRDF bearing re-
sults from cuffents induced in the direaion finder
antennaby re-radiationfrom the structuralfeatures
of the vessel'ssuperstructureand disortion of the
radio wavefront dueto the physicaldimensionsand
@ntourof the rassel's hull. It is maximumfor bear-
ings broadon the bm, and broadon the quarter.
Coastal refractlon A radio wave snossinga coast-
line at an obliqueangleundergoes a changeofdirec-
tion due to difference in conducting and reflecting
propertiesof land and war,r. Also called IAND EF-
FECT.
Polarlzadon error. The direction of travel ofradio
wavesmay undergoan alterationduring theconfused
DECCA NAVIGATOR SYSTEM
DECCA is a short to medium range hyper-
fhe
Ibohc radionavigationsystemuftich utilizespbase
comparisonsof low frequency(70-130 kHz)'
unmodulatedcontinuous-wavetransmissionsto pro-
vide hxes of high aocunrcy. The simplicity and
speedin fixing is an important characteristicof the
s)6tem. A fix can be obained in lessthan I minute
by reading wo relevant pooition coordinatevalues
indicatedby two of the three cmrdinate met€rsd
the receiverand thenreferring them to the appropri-
arcnavigationalchart overprintedwith the Deocalat-
tice.
Deccachalns. Eachofthe severalDeccachainsusu-
ally onsists of for.r transmitting stationsoperating
in threepairs:master/redslavestation,master/green
slave station, and master/purpleslave station. The
slavestation of the pair is socalled becauseits func-
tion is to transmit a signal hamronically relatedand
havinga fixed phaserelationshipwith themastersig-
nal. Each slavestation is locatedabout60 to 120 n.
miles from the masterstation.
The fixed phaserelationship is maintained by
plnse locking,i.e. keepingthe ftequencyemiaedby
the slaves0ationat a oonstantphaseurgle relative o
the stablefrequencyreceivedfrom the master sta-
tion.
Different lanenumbersareallocatedto the zones
of ech master-slavepair, it is thereforepcsible to
assigna position line to a lattice without referenceto
its color:
ElectronicNavigation
period near sunriseor sunset,when great changes
are taking placein the ionosphere.
Reclprocal bcarlngs Unlessa radio directionfinder
has a vertical sensingwire, there is a possible180
deg.ambiguityin thereading.
If the transmitter and receiver are on the same
meridian. or both on the equator,no correction is
neededbecauserhumb lines and great circles oin-
cide under theseconditions.
Dcsfnatton
Ianice Tanes l-ane numbers
Red A-J 0_123
Green A-J 30-4-7
Purple A-J 5G79
A position line is fully describedby color, zone,
lanenumberandfractionallane,e.g.GreenD 36.70.
Lane ldentlficatlon. A nraster-slavephasecompari-
son producesa fractional lane position line which
could exist within any lane,but by seoingthe lane
numberto the correctvalueat a known location and
then maintaining the lane count, the position line is
unambiguouslydefined.
Lanc sltp. Atdistancesin ex@ssof 250n. milesfrom
the stationsof chainsemployingMP lane identifica-
tion and 150n. miles in the caseof stationsemploy-
ing V-type lane identification, skywavecontamina-
tion maybeof sufficient intensity to caus€the lane
identificationmeterto malfunctionrresultingin lane
slip. The effect is most pronouncedat night or dur-
ing the darkerpart of twilight. Ifite slip canalsore-
sult from intemtption or disturbanceof the Decca
transmission,incorrect initial referencingof the re-
ceiver, or from snowstalic or electrical storms.
Lane. Theareabetweenadjrcent hyperbolasof zqo
phasedifference.
Zone. A groupofadjacentlanesusedfor laneidenti-
fication purposes.Each zone contains 2l red, 18
green,or 30 purple lanesand is about l0 kilometers
wide measuredalong the baseline'
65
 LONG RANGE NAVIGATION
LORAN A tal part of the sweepis expandedin time to simplify
theoperationof locatingtheLoran pulseson theped-
LouN A is a basichyperbolicnavigation s)rstem estals.
in which the time differenceis that observedbetween
individual pulsesfrom two transmitters.The trans- LORAN C
mitting stationsoperatein master-slaveconfigura-
tionson oneof thefrequencies1850kHz, 1900kHz, LonarNC is a low frequency,pulsed,hyperbolic
or 1950kHz, radiating pulseswhich are approxi- system,managedandoperatedby the USCoastguard.
mately forty microsecondslong. A masterstation It is availablefor useby any vesselin the coverage
which controlstwo slavesis 'doublepulsed',mean- areacarryingtheappropriatereceivingapparatus.
ing tlat it transmitsentirelyseparate pulsesfor each
Thepropagation distances
at thetransmission fre-
slave. quencyof 100 kHz, and the stability of the propa-
Adjacentpairsmayusethesametransmission fre- gatedwaves,givel,oranC arangeadequate for ocean
quency,but aredifferentiatedat thereceiverby their navigation and an accuracypotential adequate for
-
pulserepetitionintervals(PRI) the time between coastal navigation. Ranges of 800 to 1,200 n. miles
successive pulses.A chain is thereforespecifiedby areobtainablewhenusingthegroundwave,depend-
ing upontransmitterpower,signal-to-noise ratio in
its frequencyand its pulserepetitioninterval.
the servicearea,receiversensitivity,andlossesover
Propagation.Transmittingstationswhich nnke up thesignalpath.
a master-slave pair aregenerallylocated200 to 400
Chain configuration.The hyperbolicline of posi-
milesapart. During day-time,propagationis almost
tion is derivedfrom thedifferencein arrival time of
entirelydue to groundwave,and at night-time,it is pulsesfrom two transmittingstations.The systemis
dueto bothgroundwaveand skywave.Duringnight- organizedsuchthat onestationis themasterandal-
time there may be receivedpulsesdue to various waystransmitsfi-rst.Thesecondary station,theslave,
modesof skywave,including one and wo hop E- is synchronizedwith the masterand transmitsat a
layer and one and two hop FJayer.By making use preciseintervalafter the mastertransmission.This
of thefirst slqnvavepulse(theonehop E-layer),op- interval,knownas thesecondarycodingdelay, en-
erationalrange of Loran A can be extendedfrom suresthatevenin situationswhena vessel'slocation
about700milesfor groundwave up to approximately is closetrotheslavetransmitte9the masterpulses will
1500miles. Multiple E-layerreflectionsand all F- still arrivebeforethe slavepulses.
layerreflectionsaretoo variablefor reliablenaviga-
tion. A Loran C chain is comprisedof at least two
slaves,andmore usuallyeither threeor four. These
The LoranA receiver. MostLoran A receiversuti- aredesignated W, X, Y andZ, and eachhasits own
lize a cathoderay tube(CRT) to visuallydisplaythe codingdelay,so that the slavesarealwaysreceived
masterandslavepulses.The spotis madeto deflect in the samesequence throughoutthe coveragearea.
acrossthe tubefaceat a preciselycontrolledrate.If
All transmittersof all chainsradiateat thesame
the rate coincideswith the pulserepetitioninterval
frequencyof 100kHz, soto preventinterferencebe-
of a given chain, it will causethe pulsesfrom that
tweenchains,tlte repetitionrateof thepulsegroups
chainto appearstationaryon thetubeface,andpulses of eachchainis nradeunique.This is referredto as
from otherchains(with differentPRIs)will appear thegroup repetitioninterval (GRI), and for a given
to be moving acrossthe tube.It is usualto split the chain,is selectedto beof sufficientlengthto contain
total spot deflectioninto two halves,making a top themasterand slavetransmissions.
'pedes-
traceanda bottomtrace.It is alsousualfor
tals' to be generatedon the two tracesto facilitate Fulseformat. To achievea simpletime difference
alignmentof themasterandslavepulses.Thepedes- measurement it is onlvnecessarv for themasterand

ffi Electronic Navigation

slavestationsto transnit onepulseerch. In reality, a
multiple Erlse grorp is radiate4 sincethis prcvides
more eners/ at tle re@iver withottt increasingthe
peaktransmiuerporver.The masterpulsegroupon-
sisb of eiglt ptlses spaed 1000micmeoonds aprt,
anda nintb pulse2000niqoaeonds after theeigbtb.
The slavetransmissionssimply odlsist of the eigbt
pulses.
Phrsc codlq. It is possiblefor a skywarreb be de-
layod on the grurndwow by as much as 1,000 mi-
croseoondsand so oerlapping the groundwaveof
thenext pulse.To preventlong delaysklmavesfrom
affectingthe time differencemeasutqnent,tbepbase
pulses
ofthe 1(X)ktlz canier is changediil suooessive
of a group.The different phaseodes for the master
and secondarysignds also allow automaticreceiv-
ers to usethecodefu masterand seondary station
identification.
Bllnl. Tbe ninth pulse in the mastergroup can be
switchedon and df o warn us€rsthat tlere is an
enor in thetransmissi<ns da givensarion. Theslane
statio of the unusablepair also
"blinks", by orning
its first two pulsesoffand thenm, fc approximately
/r soond orcry fon seoonds.
Slgnd aqulsidon ltfost modem receiverswill be
artmatically racting within 5 nhues dinitial turn-
on, and will ontinue to traf,l until the reeiver is
urrnedoff.
hopagadon. The high position-fixing aocuracyd
the Loran C system is achieved only when
grcundwavesignalsarereeived. Skywavecontami-
nation will causedistortion oftbe receivedsignal in
the form dfadinsandpulse slupe clunges.

OMEGA NAVIGATION SYSTEM

e Ouncl Nlvtcenox SvsrErt is a.world- The term timc slured indicatesthat tbe signals
wide continuousradionavigati@ systemof me- ftom the sations arenot transmiBedsimultaneouSy
dium amuracy which provides hypeftolic lines of but sequentiallyin a l0 secondcommutationpattern.
position througb pbasemparisons of VLF (10:14 Time sbaringor sequentialtransmissionis necessary
kIIz) continuors wavesignalstransmicedon a com- bcause of tbe useof the single frequency.
mon ftequencyon a time sharedbasis.The fully im-
In the Omega system,use is made of the long
plementedsystsn is cotprised of only eight trans-
groundwavepropagationdistancesof very low fre-
mining stations
quenciesto crcate a hyperbolic navigation Entem
With the Omega receirrerbeing wed in the hy- with baselinedistancesof up to 5,000 miles. Base-
pertolic mode' the measuredphase differene of line disanes of tbis magni$de give tbe Omegasys-
phasesyncbronizedand time sharedsignalsreceived tema worldwidecoverageusingmly eigbt transmit-
at a particular position from two stationstransmit- ting stations.In consequence Omegacannotprovide
ting on Oe sane ftequencydepends solely upon bow tbe positionuuracy of the shoft-baselinebyperbolic
much farther the position is from one tran$nitting navigationsystemqbut its global overage makesit
satioothan tbeother. ideal br aean navigation, and the aimed s)6tem
acuracy of 2 to 4 n. miles is adequae for this pur-
\\e tetm plused sytrchronzedindicatestbat the pose.
phasesof all transmissionsare maintainedsynchro-
nized at their souroes.This is accomplishedthrough In theOuregasystem,the time differenceismeas-
the use of esium ftequency standards.Phasesyn- uredasa differencein phaseof the two roceivedsig-
chronizationbc0rre€Nr transmitterand r€oeiveroscil- nals.This tochniqueis basicallyambiguous,sinoethe
lator is not required in the hyperbolic mode of op samerangeof obcervedphasediffcrens oocur for
erationbecausethe phaseerroriscanceledon taking each ufrole cycle difrercocethrough which tbe re-
tbe difrerence. ceivcr is advancedalong the baeelinebetweenthe

Electortc Naiguion t,
twotransniningstations.
In thensmal hypertolicmode,6e pbasediffer-
enceread-outftoNnthereeiver (witb thqpmpaga-
don orrectiol applied)mly indicatertheisophase
b theoh enrer'sposi-
oontour(LOP)corresponding
tim withina lane.Wbentbestatimsaretransmining
mllstloorvtbelme in cfric'h
at 10.2kllz, tbeobserver
beis locatedor his positionwithin anaocuracy of 4
miles,if o thebaseline.
Normally,tbelare omterdtbe rpcsiver,whic'b
is serm &partu?ftom almowlposition,provides
thelane.If thelanecorntingqability of theequip
m€Nilt asenporry €quiP
is lostfaanyt€iason,suc,h
mentfaih[€, tbenavigaforusuallycandeterminetbe
laneheis in bydeadreckoningc othernavigational
means.

SATELLITE NAVIGATION
rTthe Nlvv NavrcATloNSarsI-LttgSvsreu lar polartrbit at an approximate altihde of 600n.
I OnvSnD is tbe operationalsaellite naviga- miles.Tbe orbitalplanes of tbe inters€ctat
satelli@.s
tion systemof the Unied States.It is dl-wearher' tte eartb's axisof roation and arespaced apattin
wuldwide, and passive.The system'saocurcy is hnginrde. Tbus, tbe odital patbscrcss at tbeNortb
be[erthan0.1n.milemywhere in the*ul4 onland andSortb Poles. Altboug[ tbeo6itat planesremain
andseaThesystemis usedprinarily fc thenaviga- nealy fixedin ryaef tbesalelliEsappearb traverse
tionof surfaceshipsandsubrmarines. It is alsoused tbelmgiardinalmpridiosastheearthrotalesbeneath
in hydrographicsurveyingandgeodedc pocitionde- tb€m.
termination.Thesystem is alsoloown asTRAI'|SIT.
Thereareusuallyfive sarcllitesoperatingin tbe
TheNAVSATsysteinutilizasthedopplashiftof sysrem, andtheseprwidenavigationfixesanywtere
radiosignalstransnited fromtbesa@lliteto meas- ontheeartbonnearlyanhourlybasis.Fivesaellites
ure the relirtivewloctty betc,eentbe sate[itenavi-in ortit provideredrmdancy, t[e mininum onstel-
gator.Knowingthesarclliteortitp'recisely'tbenavi- lationfa systemoperationtsfour.Thisredudancy
gator'sabsolutepositim can be rcuraldy deEr- alloyrsfa antnexpect€d failureof a satelliteandtbe
minedfrrm this timerateof cbangeof rangeto t[e reluively log paiod of time destued to schedule'
safo[its.Thesatelliesatsotransmittining sig[als piepdefc larmch,andqbit a replrementsatellite
uftich prwide rimeautonatically.Frequency m o cmmical basb.This redmdaDcyalsopro-
ror
racyis beaerthanI part in 10 billion for videsbr urning offa sarllite whenits ortital plane
precisede'
terminationof tbedoppler shift, thetime is prcoessB
given in Etr anotbersafllite's plare,c whentbe
Coodinaed Universal li6s (UTC) b witbb tining (phasing)of sevemlsate[itesin their qbib
200
microccmds(usually2G50nicrwecoills). ar€@porarily sucl thatndly satellitespassneady
sinulamsly nearoneof t[e Poles.
Ihpphr shlfLThedservedDopplershiftis caused
SYSIEMCONFIGITRATIONAI{DOPDIIA*TIONby thrcesouroes of reluive velocity:(1) theosbitat
TheNAVSATsysrcnconslstsof e onstellation wlocity dthe sabllie; (2) tbevebcityof tbevessel
of oditing saEllites,a netwo(tof trackingstations o whiel thereoeiveris bcarcd;and(3)therotatio
thatontinuqsly monitortbe sarl[tes andupdarc of tbeeartl aboutits aris.
tb inftrmarin 6cy trusmit, od my numbetof user Iafccdonncrreg,cs"Obial pedicdmspaiodically
equipments cmposedof recdwrs andmplerr. to artifidal satelliesfa stongein satel-
transmined
Eachnavigationsarcllieis in a nminally ciror lltcmemory.

6E Elecnonic Nanigatbn
TrrEr{AvsTARGLOBALPOilnONINGSYSTEM(GPS)
fhe US Departmentof DefenseGlohl Position
I ing Systerr(GPS)or the NAVSTAR will r€place
the existing TRAIYSIT Satellite Sysm in the eady
1990's.The ryacesegmentofthissysbm, uften fully
operational,will consistof 21 operationalsatellites
plus 3 in-orbit spat€swenly-distri[uted betwpen6
orbital planeswith inclination of 55 deg.b tbe equa-
tor with a 12 hour pedod and altitude.sof 10,900n.
miles. This configuration sbouldensur€that a mini-
mum of five satellites with suitable elevationsare
visible o a receiveranywhereon the Earth's surfaoe
at anytfune.
GPSwitl tbereforeprrovide@ntinuous,uuldwide
position fixing. A GPS position fix is obtainedby
measuringthe rangesftroma seriesof selectedsatel-
lites to the receiver.Rangesaredeterminedby meas-
uring the propagationtime of the satenitedatatrans'
missions.fbwever, bcarse in practioeit is not pos-
sible to precisely sync'hronizetbe satellite and rc-
einer clodrs,tberangesmeasuredarcnot tnte rangeq
'psando ranges" sincethey ontain a
bot are tonnod
receiverclock ofrset error.
In order to achievea two-dimensional(2-D) fix
on the Ealth's surftce at least three psandoranges
must be obtained; the receiver microprocessorcan
thenresolvetbe threerangeequationsto rernovethe
effectsof reeiver clock offset sno1. $imilady four
pseudoranges*urldberequired o obtaina 3-D fix-
GPSpositions are referencedo the Wodd Geo-
detic System(WGS) and in order to plot theseposi-
tions on charts,wbic,harenormally referencedto lo-
AI\D SAFETTSYSTEI\'I
GI,OBALIVIARIITMEDISTRESS
fbe systemis basedon tbe introduction of mari
I time cmrmunication satellites together witb a
s,,stemof digital selectivecalling @SC) and an au-
tomateddirecl printing systemfon the transmission
of navigationd andmeteorologicalwarningsand ur-
gentinformationo ships(Navtex).In addition a sys-
tem, basedon polar orbiting satellites,will be used
for distressalerting and position fixing ftom float-
fuctonic Navigaion
cal or regional danms, a datum shift has to be ap-
plied.
Sctcilte trsnsmlsdom. Eachsatellite transmib on
nro frequencies,Ll (f575 Mllz)utdL2(1227 MIlz).
The Ll signalis modulatedwith nvo pseudo-random
noisecodes,the P ode (prccision)and the C/A code
(clear/aquisition or oourse/acquisition).
TheL2 sig-
nal is modulatedwith the P ode only. The function
of thesecodesis (1) for sate[ite identification and
(2) formeasurementofthe propagationtime.
The Narrtar rccdven All Narstarrreivers areoom-
priseddfoubasicelements: (1) antenna(2) rcceiver
(3) mpttter and(4) 6e datadisplaysegnent Within
this basicdescriptionthereexistsa numberof possi-
bilities for variation, dependingupon the perform-
anerequirement.
One pcsible receivervariation is in the number
of sigoals which can be processedsimultaneously.
Eachsate[it€ transmitsthreesignals, the C/A and P
on the Ll frequency,andthe P on the L2 ftequency.
The most simple receivercould have only a single
channel which utilizes the (7A signal only ofeach
satellitein turn.
A greaterlevel of performanceis obtainedfrom a
five+hannelreceiverwhici simultareouslyprcce.s.ses
the Ll frequencyP signal from the four selectedsat-
ellites, and also sequentiallymonitors the P signals
of the L2 frequencyof eachsatellite.In eacbcaseOe
effect of the ionosphereis determinedby receiving
theL2 frequency.
frreeEPIRBs (emergencyposition indicating radio
beaoons).
Baslc oncept of the GMDSS. The searchand res-
cueauthoritiesashore,aswell asshipping in the im-
mediatevicinity of the ship or percons,in distress,
will be rapidly alerted o a disress incident so tbey
can assistin a cmrdinated searchand rescte opera-
6'
tion with theminimrml delay.
The systemalso providesfc urgencyand safety
courmunicationsand the promulgatiol: of maritime
safetyinformatim. In otherumrds,wen" ship is ablg
irrespoctiveof tbe area in wbich it operatecto pe'r-
fornthose communicationfonctions which are es-
sential fa the safetyofthe ship itself and ofother
shipsoperatingin the sane area
To this end eactrGovenrmentContractingo tbe
amendnentsto the 1974 SOLAS Conventioncon-
erning Radiocommunicationsfq the GMDSS un'
dertaki to make available appropdarcsbore-based
facilities for spaceand terrestial radio-ommunica-
don servicesas reoommendedby the International
Maritime Organization, and all ships,while at sea
mustb caPableof:
a Transmitting ship-to-shue distressalerts by at
leasttwo separateand independentmeans,eacb
using a difierent radio+ommrmications€rvie;
b. Roceivingsbore-o-ship disress alerts;
c. Transmitting and receiving ship+o-shipdistress
alerts;
d. Transmiaingand reeiving searrcb andresaneo
ordinatingommunications;
e. Transmitting and receiving on-sceneoomnuni- dons in Canada,Fran@,the United Sates and Rus-
cations;
f. Transmitting and reeiving signalsfc locating;
g. Transmitting and receiving maritime safetyin- The Cocpa-Sarset sptcm has denonstra@d
formation;
h. Transmising and receiving general radioom-
munications from shore-based radio systems or
retworks;
i. Transmiaingandrwiving bridge-to{ridge m-
munications.
The Inmarsat Systcm. This system employs float-ftee satellib EIFIRBs, INMARSAT satellites'
geostationarysstellitesand operaresin the 1'5 and andINMARSAT coasteartbstationswith additional
i.O GH", provides shipo ftced with ship eorth sa- receiverand processorequipments.
tions a meansof alerting and a capability for two-
way communicationsusing radiotelexa1d radiotel-
"pnoo". Lband satellitc EFIRBs are also used for
aierting.The INMARSAT Safayf'[ETsystomis ttsed
for Uoadcastsof MSI to areasnot ooveredby the
NAVTH( systcm'
Four INMARSAT sarllites in gectetionary or-
bit 36,00 blmctcrs abovethe€quaffi pwlb near-
gtobal correrage,Tbe mst eartb stadon(CES) pto-
70 fucnonic Naigatbn
vide the link betweeirthe sarcllitesand t€rrestialtel-
onmrnicatims netwo*s. Currently,all oast earth
stationsareon'nedand operatedby teleoommunica-
dons carriers. A tlplcal coastearth station consists
of a parabolic antennaabout 11-14 n in diameter'
which is usedfq transmissionof signalso the satel-
lite at 6 Gl/zalrdftlr teeption ftom the sat€Uiteat 4
GIlz The sameantemaor anotherdedicatedantenna
is usedfc Lband transmission(at 1.6GIIZ) andre-
ception(at 1.5GIIz) of network contrrolsignals.
The C.:cpos.SarsatSystem.The COSPAS(Spaoe
Sptem for Searchof Distrressvessels)and SARSAT
(Searchand RescueSatellite Aided Tracking) sys-
t€,rnis a satellite-aidedsearchand rescue(SAR) sys'
tem dasignedto locatedisEessbeaons transmitting
on the frequencies121.5MHzot 406MHz. Certain
beaconsalsotransmiton243 MHz,butthis signalis
relayedoly by SARSATsatellitesandnotallLocal
UserTerminals(LUTs) ate equipd with 243 MHz
receivers,it operalesin the samerrranneras 121'5
MIIz systen.It is intendedo serveall organizations
in tbe world with responsibilityfor SAR operations
whetbera distressoccunlat sea'in the air or on land'
Cocpos$arsat is ajoint interoationalsate[ito-aided
searchand rescuesystem,establishedby oganiza-
sia
that
the detection and location of distresssig;nalscanbe
frcilitated by glohl monitming basedon low-dti-
nde satellitesin near-polarorbits. It hasbeenused
srcesfully in a large number of SAR operations
uorld-wide.
L-Bend Satcllltc EPIRBs. The system emplop
Ihc L-band set fitc EPIRB providesfor rapid
di$tsessalcrting, ooveraSeup to +/- 70 deg' lati$&'
20 simultaneorsalertswi6in a 10minute tine frame
and tbe poasibilityof manualc autdnatic enay md
updatenavigatimal darato tbe satellitePIRB' Tbe
sarcffiteEPRB canbedilat€d eitberautmatically'
by floating ftee ftom tbe rinking ship, ormanually'
Aftcrgivrtio, the saelliteBPlRB rancmir tbe
distressmessagecmaining the ship sation identity, tbeqpeciM inrcrmediatcftequencyto beransferred
position information and additional information to the mputer-aided multi-cbannelreceiverfa sat-
'
which could be nsedto hcilitate resctp. The trans- eUiteBPIRB identifrcationand messagedecoding.
mission is repeaed on a preselectedduty cple.
After tbe signal channelsare identified, they re
Additionally, a9 GlJzndar transponderis activard
assignedto prooessorchamels.Tbe distnessmessage
for locating puposes.
is then forwardedb an asociated RCC for appro-
After being relayed by the satellite, the distress Fiateaction.
signalis down-conrrertedat thecoastearthstationb

NAVTEX
serrrice
f,,Javter is aninternational whichprcvid€s serrresthe seaarea around his position, or from a
I \ fa tle artomatic pronulgation of meteuologi- numherof transmiaersasappropriate.
cal andnavigationalwarningsand urgentmessagEt
Trenmltter ldcntillcrdon @f). A singlermique
sailingwirhin
to vessels 400h. of themst
This
l€tter is dlocated to eachtran$nitter. enables
The serviceis intendedfor rse with sinple bw broadcastidentification and messageediting on the
oostreceivers whichhavetheabilityto alomatically basisof ransmioer area"For example;Niton Radio
selectand rejrxtmessagesin orderb insuretharmly (S), Rogaland(L), Scleveningen(P), erc.
the infoonatim by
rcquested themarinerispresented.
SubJect ldentlflcatlon (B2). Information is
In tbisway,thesystqncanbeusedbc<rvey awide groupedby subjecton tbe Navtexbroadcastandeach
rangeof infcmation of bothlocalandregionalim-
zubjectis allocateda ubject indicatq (82) as fol-
po,rtanewitboutoverwbehingtbeuserwitbuilleC-
loc/s:
essary infcmation.
A = Navigationalwarnings
Messages arebroadcastnainly ftomtransmitt€rs = Meteuologicdwamings
whichtire-sbre B
siedatexisingmst radiostations, c = Ice reports
tbeommontransmissfon fiequency d 5I EkIIz.fub
D = Searchandrescueinformation
In€ssage mains a codedpreamble,enablinga mi- = Meteorologicalforccasts
to sebct6 r€- E
cropro@sstr-ontmlled user/receiver = Pilot servicemessages
F
irt m€ssages uording b tbeircalegory,statim of
G = Deccawarnings
uigin oserial ntmber. H = Loran warnings
Thelrtarirr cGrylce.Navigatio,netedobgicaland I = Omegawarnings
searchand rescrp (SAnl oordinatorsfeedsource J = Satnavwarnings
nessag€s b tbeNavtexooordinatrwborelirysthen, K = Otherelectrmicnavaidmessages
usuallyvia teler,overthepublicswirchednetwolt, L = NavigationwaningsadditionaltoA
b appmtriarcms ststimbrbroadcastm 518 kIIz. M-Y = Fuserrriceusednotassigned
z = Nomessagesinhand
Tb Nartexoordinarcra[ocatesmsagps tospe-
cific transniuersroaAing to tbeinformationcon- hopagr0on Theftequency 518kIIz lieswithintbe
trinedin eb mersage md thcgographicatoover- medirmfrequency bandallocationfa marinewire-
agercquir€d,asa resulttle usermaycbooseto e- lesselegraphy,selectivecallinganddisresswert-
oeptrcsagpseitber ftm a singb transmitterwhich ing (405-535kIIz).

Elecnonic Naiguion 7l
 ELECTRONTCNAVIGATION
l. A measureof tbe time that the radaf indicator (PPI scope)retainsimagssof echoesis callod:
a pulserepetition D. resolution c. persistene d recurrelce rate

2. Radarrange in fog will, generallyspeaking:

a benodifier€nt c. be uselessbecare of its inrccurcy
b. be greatertban in clear weatber d be lesstban in clear weather

3. Tbe radar range scaleO rse in the open seawhen no other wssels are around or when there is no
expectatim of making a landfall is:
a. short c. maximrm with paiodic shifting tomedium
D. medium d maximum

4. The magn€tronis:
a a reeiving tube b. atwivet c. atransmicingtube d adetector

5. The most aocurateposition by radar fix is:

a radarrange and visual bearing c. radar range and radar bearing
D. tbe intersectionof two radar bearings d two radar ranges

6. when the rangeof a ship is decreasingand its bearingremainsconstant,the ships are on:
c. oppooiteoourse b. diverging otxrse c. collision course d parallel @urse

?. The numberof pulsestransmiced per secondby a radar transmitter is known as:

a. frequencyof transmission c. pulse transmission
D. pulserepetition rat€ d. pulsecharacteristics

8. What condition indicatesthat lour radar needsmaintenane?

a. serratedrange rings c. blind seclor
D. multiple echoes d. indirectechoes

9. Yogr radar is set on a true motion display.Which of the following will not appearto move acrosstbe
PPI scope?
a. own ship marker c. echoesfrom a ship at anchor
D. echoesftom land nateses d. all of the above

10. Antenna maintenancsof a radar should include:

a paintingofscanner c. cleaning window on horn
D. checkingoillevel d. alloftheabove

ll. When )ou ar€ using a radar in which your own ship is sbownat the centerof the scleenand 0 deg.
alwaysappearsat the top of the screen,the bearingscan be defined by which of tbe following?
a. magnetic D. tnre c' relatine d' compass

12. Whicb componentof the radar systemwou[ a retuming echostrike first?

a. magnetron D. waveguide c' receiver d antenna

13. Thc microsecondof time is uscd in radar applications.The microsecondrepresents:

.r ole-tsntb part of a second c. one-thousandthpart of a second
D. oe-millionth part of a second d. one-hundredthpart of a socqd

72 Electonic Navigation
14. A rdar displayin whichnortbis alwayset thetopis:
a $qtabilized dbphy c. mpocition display
D. stabilizeddisphy d relativedisplay

15. What is tbe nane of themovable,radial guide line usedb measur€direcrion on a radar?
a o(mpa.rsrw D. cusor c. PPI d vRM

16. Tberadarmntrolusedto reducesearcnnnatcloserangesis the:

a garn omtrcl c. hsttime control
D. sensitivity tirc ontrol d plse lengtb@ntrol

lZ. Tbo radar control tbrt redrrcesweal cchoesqil to a limited distancefrom tbe sbip is the:
a sensitivitytimc mrol c. brilliance conttol
D. rweiver gnincmrol d fut time constant

18. The lGcm radarascompared to a 3-cmradarof similarspecificatimswill:

& bemorezuit$le fs river andharbornavigatim
b. providebet€r rangeperfunmce m low lying targpaduringgmd weatherandcalmseas
c. havea wider borizontalbem width
d bavemoresearenlrnduringrougbsea

19. In a radar,sear€uun b gt€atesc

a ahead D. o windrvard c. ble€n'atd d astern

20. Wbenutilizing thefocusonEol m tberadar,1ouwaild adjustfor tbe:

a sbarpestcenterspot c. largestpossibtespot
possible
D. largest image
target d brigbtestoeNrterspot

21. A tpkal speedof scurrcr rotatim is about

a 2Orevsperminue c. 200revsperminue
D. 5 revsperminue d Nrcvspersecond

22. Tbe diftreooe in intensityof ilhmination of the radarsope betweenradarinages and thebackground
of tbe scrpenis calod:
a b,rigboess D. ontrast c. brilliance d. focts

23. Which of the following is important in rqrble shoning a faulty radar?

a call the radio operator c. oro down dl the manual oontrols
D. chect bstmete'r readings d chectscanner rootim

U. TE STC cmtrol €nabl6 )'otl b:

a cut down the seadutter ncar tb ship c. bchoftbeabo\ts
&. getbettermaxinun range d noneoftheabove

25. A rads traumic€r mdrcccivtr,asaunitis callod:

a ar€mitter c. aT/Rbox
D. aunitcdradar d a transeiver

26' Yw tfu basa bem widl of 2 deg'Tberadargrro bartng of therigDttugent of enislandis ] 16

rbg. Thc g1rfo61fir is I dcgE. wbst EuebcafingEbgtldbeplotEdon thec'hart?
a !13@. b.3l4deg. c. 3l6dcg. d tl?de6.

Elecnonic Natigation 73
n. P.gd'atmakesthe most ecuraE determinationof tbe:
c dir€ctionofauget c. stzeof a arget
D. distanceto a ttrget d shapeofatrget

21. A radar range to a small, cbartedobjoct suc,has a light will provide an LOP in what form?
a straightline b. arc c. parabola d hyp€tbola

29. yolr radar has a beamwidth of 2 deg. Tb radar gro bearing of the left tangentd an island is 056
deg.If the g),ro eror is 2 deg. 8., wbat bearingwould pu plot on the chart?
a-052dr,[ D. 056deg c. 059deg d 0&&g

30. Which of tbe followbg will causethe ARPA to emit either or both a visual or audible darm?
a an rcquired target€ntering ino aguard zoe
D. a trackedtarget lost for one radar scan
c. a trackedarget entering ]tour prcsetCPA-TCPAlimits
d. targetbeing initiatty daeed within a guard zme

31. yg|r are underwayat 10 lnos. At 1800,1ounotea radar cmtact deadaheadu a rangeof l0 miles. At
l8l2 the @ntact is deadaheadat a rangeof 8 miles. The estimat€dspoedof the contactis:
a Mdin the water D. 5 tnos c. 15 knots d lOknos

32. Which of the following ARPA data should ),ouusein order to determhe if a cldsequarterssituation
will developwith a targetvessel?
a setanddrift c. predictedTCPA
b. relativetrackinformation d initial rangedacquisition

33.A radar contactwill remain stationaryon a relative motion radar dirylay mly when it is:
a on the sameoourseas your vessel c. on the sameoourseand speedas yor vessel
D. on the samesPeedas Yourvessel d. on a reciprocaloou$e as your vessel

34. The ARPA may swaptargetswhen automaticallyracking if two targets:

a. aretracked on reciprocal bearings c. ue trackedon the samebearing
b. aretracked on the samerange d passclosetogether

35. Which of the following would give the bestradar echo?

a the beamof a 3-mastedsailing rrcsselwith all sails set
D. a llGfoot fishing vcsel with a radar reflector in its rigging
c. a 3([-fooj rqnksf, borvon
d a 60Gfoot freighter, beamon

36. you baveanothership overtaking you closeaboardto starboard.You have threeradar targetsbearing
699 deg. relative at ranges0.5m, lm and 1.5m. In this casethe unwantedecboesare called:
a multiple echoes D. spoking c. indirect echoes d. sidelobes

ytlt. Thrclve
37. yol are underwayat 5 kts. and seeon your radar a @ntact 10 miles directly asternof
minuteslarcr, the contrct is 8 miles diroctly asternof pu. what is the estimatedspeed the contact?
of
a Mdinthewater D. llmot c. l0knots d lSlooa

3g. The ability of a radar o distinguish s€poratetat8eison the samebearingbut having small differcnces
in rangeis:
4 rangeelongation D. rangerccolution c. bcaringresolution d propagptim

74 Elccttonic Nniguion
39. In a radar operation,a rapid decreaseof tempenrtureas the dtitude increaseswould tend to cause:
c. super-refraction c. diffusion
D. sub-refraction d. attenuation

40. When radar wavesare trappedin a layer of the amospherecalled a surfaceradio duct, which of the
following -wurld be created?
a. increaseradar range c. decreaseof radar range
b. lur:geloss of energyto the radio waves d. ndar rangewould be unchanged

41. An upperlayer of warm, dry air over a surfrce layer of cold, moist air causeswhich of the following in
radar operation?
a srb-refraction c. P'ropagation
D. super-refrrction d normal refraction
pick up a small boal
42. Which of the following phenomenawould be mct likely to causethe radarnot to
at a relatively short range?
a. sub-refraction c. super-refraction
D. resolution d persistence

43.If a radarpulserequires180 microsecondsto rerch an dject andto letunt, the rangeis approximately:
a. 8 nm b. 12,000)'ards c' 30,000prds d' 15'000)ards

4. Short rangeresolutionor pulselength will havewhat kind of an effecton the appearanceof a targeton
the radar scoPe?
a. tilgetwill appearlongerin azimuth c. targetwill appeardeeperin depth
b. targetwill appearshorter in azimuth d. taqet will appearshallowerin depth

45. The descriptionRACON besidesan illustration on a chart would meana:

a. tadarconspicuousbeacon c' circularradiobeacon
b. radu calibration beacon d ndar responderbeacon

46. In radarmaneuvering,it is beuerto makea 30 deg.coursechangein:

a 3 alterationsof l0 each c. 6 alterationsof 5 each
b. 1 alteration of 30 d 2 altentons of 15 each

47. your ARPA has automatic speedinputs from the log. Due to currents,the log is indicating a faster
speedthan the speedover the ground. What shouldyou expectunder thesecircumstances?
& rangeof initial target acquisitionwill be lessthan normal
b. target's true coursevector will be in error
c. generatqdCPAwill be lessthan the actual CPA
d. genaatedTcPA will be latter than the actualTCPA

,18.your radarindicatesa target.However,thereis no visibleobjectat thepoint indicated.A largemountain

approx. 50 miles awayon the samebearing as the target is breakingthe horizon. You shouldsuspect
the radar target is causedbY:
a a submergedsubmarine c. ducting
b. sub-refraction d ionosphereskip waves

49. The maximum measurablerangeof a radar setdependson:

a. refraction c. bean width
D. range resolution d peakpowa in relation o the pulserepetition rate

ElectronicNavigation 75
50. The closestpoint of approachof a contact m a relative motion radar nay be determined:
a. immsdialely when the contact is noted on radar
b. only if the radar scopeis watcnedconstantly
c. by an occasionalglanceat th; rNdar
d- $ter the contact hasbeenmar':ed at leasttwice

51. The radar control that shortensall ecioes on the display and reducescluUercausedby rain or snowis
the:
a. gun control D. fast time constant c. brillian@ d sensitivity time control

52. Marine radan have a short and long pulse.The long pulse is usedto:
a give better rangeresolution c. permit beUerminigus 13jgs
D. increasethe life of the magnetron d. put more energyout in searci of targets

53. Coral atolls or a chain d islandsat right anSl€so tbe radar beammay sbowasa long line ratherthan
as an individud targetsdue to:
a. effectsofbeamwidth c.pulsEleng0oftheradar
D. limitations on rangeresolution d multiple targetsresolutionfactor

54. Yog approrch a light fiued with a r&on. Tbe light may be identified on the radar by a/an:
a dashedline running from the oenterof tbe scopeto tbe liSbt
D. audible signal when the sweepcrcssesthe ligbt
c. circle 4pearing on Oe scopesurroundingthe ligbt
d codedsignal appearingon the samebearing at a greaterrange tban the light
55. An indirect radar echois causedby a reflectionof the main lde of the radarbean offa ship's structure.
Which of the following is not a characteristicof indirect ec,hoes?
a Their bearing is almostconstantevenwhen the true bearingof the contact changesappreciably.
'I\ey
b. appsar90" from the true bearingof the oontact.
c. Indirect ectroesusually appearin shadowsectors.
d When plotted, their moveurentsare usually abnormal.

56. Which of the following statementsoncerning radar is not true?

a. Raising the antennaheight incleasesradar range.
D. The ability of radar to detect objectsis unaffectedby weatherconditions.
c. Radarbearingsare lessaccuratetban radar ranges'
d Radar shouldbe checled regulady in clear weatherto ensurethat it is operatingproperly.
57. If there is any donbt as to correct or prop€r operationof a radar, which of the following is true?
a. Only radar expert can determineif radar is operating.
D. All radarshave light indicatorsand alarns to signal improper operation.
c. A radar range comparedto the acnnl rangeof a known obioct can be usedto checkthe operation
ofthe radar.
d The radar resolution detectormust be energizedto checkthe radar.
5t. Yon bas be€n tracking Ltuget and has generatedthe arget oourseand speed.The radar did not
receive a target ecb on its last two scansdne to the weather.What should you erpect uder these
circumstances?
a The ARPA will generatedata as if the targetwas still being hrclcd by radar.
D. The ARPA will give an audibleand/or visual losttarget daml'
c. The ARPA will generatedata basedon se,areturn echoesftom thc vlcinity where the target nas
lost.

76 ElectronicNavigation
59. Your ARPA hastwo guard zones.What is the purposeof the inner guard zone?
a. Alert the offrcer that the vesselis approachingthe CPA limit.
D. Warning of small targetsthat are initially detectedcloSerthan the outcr guard zone-
c. Guard against target loss during cTitical maneuveringsituation.
d. Soundan alarm for targetsfirst detectedwithin the zone'

60. Which d the following ARPA dafa should )ou use in order to determinc if a close qurrter situation
will developwith a target vessel?
a Reluive track information c. set & drift of the current
D. hedictedtimeofCPA

61. Whenusingan ARPA"which of the followingshouldyur considerin ordl:rtoevaluatetheinformation

displayed?
a T&gavessels3eneraSedcourse& speedare basedsolely on radar inputs.
b. Navigational oonsUaintsnay requirc a targetvesselto changecoufsti,
'q/ill clear all targets.
c. The g.ial maneuverfeanfe will auOmaticallydeterminea coursethat

62. What is the mark on a leadline indicating two fathoms?

a 2stripsof leather b. 2pi€,cu of ropes c. no narking J. 2 knots

63. A fathometerwi[:
I. Readrctual depth of water.
tr. Adjust auomatically for temperaturechanges.
a I only b. II only c. Buh I and II d. NeitherI nor II

64. A recordingfathometerrecordswhich of tbe following ?

4. Contour of bottom againstdistancebase c. Depth of water againsttime base
D. Depthbelow keel againsttime base

65. Wbat is the mark on a leadline indicating 4 fathoms?

a White linen rag b. Four knots c. No marking d. Four strips of leather

66. What should you apply to a fathoneter reading to determinethe depth of the water?
a Subtractthe draft of the vessel c. Subtractthe seawatercorrection
t Add the draft of the vessel d Add the seawatercorrection

67. What is the mark on a leadline indicating 20 fathoms?

a line wi$ 2 knots D. 2 strips of leather c. 2 piecesof rags

68. Tbo elaps€dtime of a fathmeter (from soundgenerationto the retunr of tbe ectro)is 1 seond.
What is tbe depth of the water at the point sounded?
a 400 feet b. M fatbms c' 800 feet d t00 farlms

69. When opemtedover a muddy botom, a fatbometermay indicate :

a. a shalloc' &pth readinE c. two depth readings
b. azqo dePh reading

70. The readingsfrour moat fathmeters indicatesthe:

4 rtual depth of water
D. rctual dePthof warcrbelon'keel
c. avenge depth of water to soft bottom

ElectronicNaviguion 77
71. A transducerchanges:
I. electrical eners/ into soundwaves
II. soundwavesinto electricd enei'Sf
a. I only D. II only c. both I and II d. neither I nor II

72. Which of the following factorsis most likely to havean effecl on the amountof gain requiredto obtain
a fathometerreadingfor depth?
d. atmosphericpressure c. salinity of water
D. typeofbotom d temperatureofwater

73. An electronicdepth finder operateson the principle that:

a. radio signals reflect from a solid surface
D. soundwavestravel at a onstant speedthrough water
c. pressue increaseswith dePth

74. When using a depth finder in the open@eian,what pbenmena is most likely to producea ontinuous
trace that may not be from the actual oceanbocmt?
a. echoesfrom schooloffish c. poor placementof the transduceron the hull
D. echoesfrom deepscat0eringlayer

75. The nonnal variation betweenactual depth of water and the indicated depth on the elecfonic depth
sounderdue to water conditions is on the side of safety.This would not be in casewhen the water is:
a. unusuallywarm D. fresh c. extremelycold d. has high salinity

76. The speedof the soundthrough water is nearly always:

a. faster than the speedof calibration for the fathometer
b. the sameas the speedof calibration for the fathometer
c. slower than Oe speedof calibration for the fathometer

77. Yanr vessel'sfathometertransmits a signal which is 1.5 secondslater. Your vesselis in how much
waler?
a 3,600feet b. 1,800feet c. 5,400feet d.7,200fet

78. When using an echosounderin deepwater, it is not unusualto:

a. rweive sEongreturn at about200 fathomsduring the day and re.arerthe surfaceat night
D. receive a first return near the surfaceduring the day and stnongretum at about 200 fathomsat
night
c. receivefalseechoesat a constantdepth day and nigbt

79. ln modem frthometers, the sonic or ultrasonic soundwavesare producedelectrically by meansda/

an:
4. transmitter D. transceiver c. amplifter d. transducer

80. Blinking of Loran-C signal indicates:

c. the signal is in ProPerseqrcnce
D. it hasaproper GRI
c. there is an error in the transmissionof that signal

81. After initial turn-on, most modenrLoran-C receiverswill be autmatically tracking within:
a 1 minute D. 3 minutes c. 5 minutcs d. l0 minurcs

7E ElectronicNavigatian
 'hominal ground waverangd'when using loran€?
82. What is consideredto be tbe
a. 100-500 miles c. 50G800 miles
b. l,zCG.l,s0Omiles d. 800-1,200miles

83. Most modern Loran-C receiverswhen not tracking properly' have a/an:
a. lighted alarur signal to wam the user c. alternatesignal keying system
D. bell alarm tr warn the user

84. In Loran-C, the high ae ,rracyof atomic trme and frequencycontrol allows eachstation to op€rate:
a athigherfrequencies c. ^tl,g7skllz
b. on sctreduleindependently d. n anultiplex phase

85. The type of transmissionusedin Loran-C is a:

a. single pulse b. wide pulse c. multipulse d narrow pulse

t6. Ioran-C ground wavesprovide position information of reasonableaocuracyout to:

a. 800miles D. 1,000miles c. 1,200miles d. l,5CImiles

87. A Loran-C fix taken many times at a known location will give positionsnormally rarying:
a. more than 300 feet c. less Oan 300 feet
b. lessthan 40 feet d. more than 500 feet

88. Ioran-C operateson a single frequencycenteredon:

a. 100kHz b. l,95}kl4z c. 1,850kIIz d. 1,500kIIz

89. Most modernLoran-C receiversaubnatically detectstation blink which is enoughto:

a. enabletbe receiverto shift auomatically to an alternatestation
b. uigget alarm indicatorsto warn operatorof a malfunction
c. automaticallyshut down the receiver
g0. In anyLran-c chaiq therearethreeor morestationstransminingpulseswhich radiatein all directions.
One of the stationsis the masterstation, and the othersin the chain are the:
a. secondarystations c' monitors
D. pulsestations d. ndiostations
'hight effect''in the receptionof radio signals?
91. Which stat€mentis true concerning
c. night effect is causedby rapid changesin the ionosphere
b. polarization is at ninimum
c. most prevalentlate at night
d. all ofthese

92. A full serrriceof Loran-C receiverwill provide:

4' an automaticon andoffswirch
b. automaticsignd acquisition and cycle marching
c. matching pulse rateof at l€ast20 stations

93. Loran-C stationstransmit groupsof pulsesu specifictimes.The time interval betlveentransmissions

ftom tbe master statim is tbe:
4 pulse interval c. goup repetition interval
D. codingdelay d. Phasecode

ElectronicNavigaion 79
 94. Tb€ basicprincipb on whbh Iffan-C is basedis refemedto as:
a reflec,edebctnonsystem c. electricd radiation s]'s@tn
D. hyp€rbolicradb naviguion d quarterpointelectrical navigation

95. I-oran-C receiver in operatio first receivespulsesfrom the:

a Easter sation D. slavesation c. multiple sations d secondarystations

96. In using Loran-C, sky wavereceptiongrvesgreaterrangebut is:

& hss accurae c. only reurarc during daylight
b. onlyreurate atnigbt

97. Lqan-C may be usedfor safenavigation in harbor areasdue b:

a hultipulsegro{rping }. repeaabilityof readings
D. synctronization control

98. WiS [,oran-C, the line connedtingthe masterstadonwitt the secondarystationsis the:
a bcus line D. baseline c. side line d. centerline

99. Ican-C *y wavesprovide position information of reasonableaccurey out to more than:

a. 3,000miles c. 1,500miles
D. 1,000mile.s d. 2,000miles
100. In the Loran-C star onfiguration, the stationsX, Y and Z ate called,:
o- te4f,,atersations D. slavestations c. secondarystations

101. A goodcrossingangleof a Loran-C LOPs shouldbe at least:

a. 10o b. 20" c. 15" d. 30"

102. The Loran-C lines drawn on navigational chartsrepresent:

a. ground waves D. *y waves c. either ground wavesor sky waves

103. The useof pulsegroupand extremelyprecisetiming at eachLoran-C stationmakepossiblethe useo[

a. highftequencypulse c. variedlongandshortpulses
b. the samefte4uencyfor all sations in a chain

lO4. toran-C usestbe nultipulse or nultipb pulsesystembecause:

a Lesssignal energy.isrecessaryfc receiveroperation
D. More signal energyis availableat the reeiver
c. It increasestbe signal capacity

105. Skywaveoontanination will causedistortion of the reeived signd in the:

I. Form of fading
tr. Pulsesbapechanges
a lonly D. tronly c. Botbl&tr d Neitherlnorll

106. Which systemof navigationemployscolors to designab slavestations?

a Cosol D. Omega c. Navsat d Wa

107. Wbat will not causelane slip in the Deoa navigatc?

a Electrical storms c. Skywavecontrmination
D. 'Diffecnt phascmeasurenent d Externd radio interferenoe

t0 ElectronicNwigation
108. The time interrral betweenthe transmissionof signalsfrom a pair of Loan-C stationsis very closely
controll€d and operatewith:
a An atomic time standard c. Greenwichmeantime
D. Eastein time standard

109. The position accuncy of a Loran-C degradeswith increasingdistanceftom tbe transmitting stations
as:
a Gainsaf,emade("'er the signalpath
D. A resultofvariation in propagationconditions
c. The frequencyof the pulseincreases

110. What is the basic principle on which the Deocasystemoperates?

a. Hyperbolicsystemusing phasecomparisonof the signalsftom the masterand slavestations
D. Parabolicsyst€musing time differenceof the signalsfrom the masterand slave statiolls
c. Hyperbolicsystemusing a cmbnation of the time differencesand phasecomparison

11l . rmmedbte notification of eventsaffecting the Oureganavigation systemis providedby the:

a. Wekly Notice to Mariners c. Voicebroadcastftom WWV or WWVH
D. Navareawaming system d. Codesinsertedinto the Omegatransmission

112. Which stalementaboutcorrpcting Omegareading is true?

a Diurnal correctionis applied to the readoutobtainedfrom the reoeiver
b. T\e readoutmust havepropagatim corections applied
c. Skywavescorrectionsnustbe applied from sunsetto sunrise

113. Which statementis true about the LOP of Omeganavigation system?

4 It is a line within a given lane and can be ambiguousif the proper lane is not known.
D. Each line number is unique to an LOP on a chart.
c. A masterand a single sliavestation canbe usedto fum an LOP.

114. Boalse radio wavesravel in great circles,which type of chart may requirecorected plouing?
a Stereographic c. Gnomonic
D. Iambert conformal d Mercator

115. A conversionangle orrection is necessaryto an RDF bearingwhenboth the transmitt€rand receiver

are on:
a l.at.50" N and 150miles apart
b. thesamelongitudeand arc200 miles apalt
c. theequator
d l,ait 30" N and 50 miles apart
116. The location of radio beaconsis inditzted on a chart by uAich of the following characteristics?
a the abbreviationR Bn c. both a and b
D. the magentacircle aroundthe lcation d neither a nor b

ll7. Which statemen(s)idare correctconcerningplotting of radio bearingsasreoeivedby RDF?

a A correctionmust be applied excep wherethe distanceis very short if the bearingsare plotted on
a Mercator chaft.
D. They are greatcircle bearingsand cannotthereforebe ploaed as rhunblines.
c. both a and b
"neither
d. anor b

ElectronicNavigation E1
118. The signal transmiaedby a radio beaconstation is referredto as:
a. group s€qrcnce b. nequency c. directional signal d. characteristicsignal

sequenceand just
ll9. yo, are using a sequencedradiobeaconfq an RDF bearing. It is in a six-station
- How lmg before it startstransmitting again?
ceasedtransmising.
a 50 seonds b. 5 minutes c. I minurc d' 50 minutes

with a rotating loop

120. What is usedb eliminat€ the 180 deg ambiguity when taking an RDF bearing
antenna?
lt. SenseanEnna c. the null
D. signal strengtb meter d calibration cam

12 1. The quadrantsl error of a radio bearing is causedby:

a. metal in the shiP'sstructure
D. polarization atsullfise and sunset
c. not taking thebearing ftom the transmitting ant€nna
skywavedistance,
122. lf. the radio signal glsundcBvQsexbnd out for less distancethan Oe af niarrm
there is aDatea in which no signal is receivedcalled the:
a. skipzone D. blaclout zone c. diffraction zme d shadowzoe

123. Which aid is not markedon a chart with a magentacircle?

a. ndarstation c. radiobeacon
b. r:rdarresPonderbeacon d l.aran-C station
be applied to
124. you have calibratedyour RDF. When compiling the calibration table, the correction to
any future RDF bearingsis listed againstthe :
a. true bearing of the transmitter c. headingof the vessel
b. relativebearing of the txansmitter

125. Itrowis tbe courserccorderclockkept synchronizedwith the ship's time?

c. slacking a clurch tnob and moving papergraph
D. move the PensbY hand
c. automaticalty
following is not required to
126. you have replacedthe chart paper in Oe courserecorder.Which of the
ensuretbat a correct trace is recorded?
d. set the rcne pe|r on the correct quadrant
b. test the etectrical gain to the thermograph
c. line the coursepen up on the exact headingof the ship
d. adjust tbe chart paperto indicate the correcttime
compensat€for varying sea
127. When thc/gyro pilot is used for steering, what control is adjustedto
conditions?
a. mdder@ntrol b. seacontrol c. weatheroontml d lostmotionadjustment

128. What is the relativg bearingof an dject broad on the port side?
a. 345 dag. b. $0 &le. c' 315 &g d. 350 drls.

l2g. l*rltt many degreesare tbere in a compasscard?

a. 420" D. 3t0P c. 390" d. 3@"

E2 Ekctronic Navigaion
130. Deviation cbangeswith a changein:
& sconditions D. latitude c. heading d. longitude

f 31. The reactionof a gyro+mpass to forcesor torquesapplied to the spinning gyro to keep it aligned in
a north indicating direction is:
a. Cryrosoopicinertia c. Precession
D. Earth rate d. Gravity effect

132. Tbeerror introducedin agyrocompassby the rolling of the vesselis:

a Gimballing enor D. Ballistic error c. Quadrantalerror d. Danping error

133. Cryrocompass repeate$reproducethe indications of the mast€rg)'rocompass.They are:

".. Accutatt only if tbe vesselis underway c. Iland operated
b. Accurateelectronic servomechanism

134. What magneticcompasscorreclor/scanbe setwhile the vesselis on headingmagneticNE or magnetic

SE?
a lleeling magnets c. Fore and aft magnets
D. Flindersbar d Qndrantal spheres

135. The reaction of a gpocompassto an appliedforce is:

a furthnte b. hecession c. Gyrmcopicinertia d. Gravityeffect

abovelatitude:
136. A gyrocompassis a very reliable instrumentbut its aocunrcydecreases
a. 75" b. 78" c. 80" d. fi"

137. Arthe mastergyrocompass,the compasscard is auached!o the:

a. Spider element b. Sensitiveelement c. Link arm d. Pick up transformer

138. Whenshucingdown a glro' you do all of the following except:

a. E;ng4e caselocks c. Balancerotor
D. Securethe alarm signal d. Securefollow-up system

139. Indicationsof the mast€rg)Tocompassare sentto remoterepeatersby the:

c. Phantomelement b. Follow-up system c. Azimuth motor d. Transmitter

140. Which of the following conditionsoould causea glrocompassto developan easterlyerrm?

a. adjustingscrewtoo far out c. azimuthmotor too tight
D. voltagebecomes too high d. locking latch is up

141. Which part of the master g)'rocompasskeepsthe phantom elementin alignment with the sensitive
element?
a. speedand latitude oonector c. azimuth motor
D. merory ballistic d. transmitt€r

142. Quadrantalerror in a gyrocompasshas its greatesteffect:

c. on inter-cardinal heading c. on north or southheadings
b. neanthe equator d. in high latitudes
permanent
r43. If a ship is proceedingoward the magnetic equator,the uncorrectedtbviation due to
magnetism:
a is unimportant b. remainsthe same c. increases d. deoeases

ElectronicNavigarton E3
14,4.Fu mostmodels,mpmating &e maqg g)'rocmpassfa smdl permanenterrorscanbeaoonplished
by adjusting the:
a lubbersline plate b. vertical ring c. colleclor ring d azimuth motor

145. A dopplerlog in the volume reverLerationmode indicates:

a speedmadegood c. setofthecurrent
D. speedthrough the water d. depthof the water

146. What will not induceerron into a dopplersonarlog?

a increaseddraft D. pitch c. roll d. changeintrim

147. If your vesselis turning RPMsfor J0 toots and speednade gmd is 10 looB, the qrrent is:
a slack c. is againstYouat 101nots
D. is with you at 10 knots

148. While navigating in fog ofr a coastline of steepcliffs, 1ou hear the echo of the ship's fog hont 4
secondsafter the signal was sounded.What is the distanceto the shore?
a 109yards b. 746yar& c. 480yards d. 500yards

149. The most accuratebearing is taken:

a Visually on a g),rorepeat€rwith the bearing circle providedthat the gyro eror is lnown
D. Visually with pelonrswithout regardto the helmsman
c. On a PPI scope,with the relative representation
d On a PPI scopeshowing true representation

150. A ring that setson a r€peat€rin pelorusand ftfied with a prism for obcervingthe sun is cdled:
a Azimuth circle D. Bearing circle c. Stadimeter d Alidado

RPM?
151. What instrumentmeasures
a llydrometer D. Sextant c. Thchometer d Courserecorder

152. If. the sun bearsdue south and your ship is in the Grecnwichmeridian and there is no chrmometer
error and the equationof time is formd O be negligible, the chronometerwould read:
a 1200 b. Uffi c. 0000 d. 0800

153. The g)'ro has three axis aboutwhich to move.They are all of the following except:
a Torque D. Spin c. Horizontal d Vertical

154. What causesthe g)rroto tun when pressureis applied:

a hecession D. Rigidity c. Crravity d Magnetism

155. Density of water is determinedwith:

a llydrometer D. Thchometer c. Clinomercr d. Ilygrometer

156. The sounding'thatusespressureis called:

a Patentsormdingmachine with $bes c. Sonic depth finder
D. Fathometer d Allof theaborre

157. The inherent erfi)r on sextantoonstructiondue to the axis of index not bing in the center:
a Prismatic error c. Graduationerror
b. Eccentricerror d Sideerror

u ElectronicNavigaion
158. Sinceatmosphericpr€ssureis causedby tbe weight of the air abovethe place,the pressuredocreases
as height increasesis called:
a Itreighterror D. Temperatureerror c. Gravity error d Instrumentalerror

159. The time intenral neededfor the signalfron a loran masterstationto travel the length of the baseline
introducedas a delay betweentransmissionof the masterand slavesignals is called:
a. Baselinedelay D. Basepulse c. Baselineextension d Baseline

cornnencewith intemuional call sign:

160. All storm warning messages
a TTT D. VV c. JMS d Noneofthese

161. The typesof weathermessageavailable to sbipsare:

a. Four D. Six c. Seven d' Five

162. T\e velocity of electromagneticwave when traveling in sprce is:

a. 192,000n.m-/sec. b. 162,m n.m./sec. c. 175,000n.m./sec. d. 186'000n.m./sec.

163. RDF NULL is obtainedwhen the lmp is in a position with:

a Edgepointing toward the station.
b. Breadthsideto station or at reciprocal bearing.
c. Edgesat right angles(90") fton the station.
d. Noneof these

164. The upper part of the binnacle 0owhich the compassbowl is suspended.
a. Compasschamber c. Compass@urse
D. C;ompass oover d. ComPasserror

of 30 to 300megahertz.
165. A radio frrequency
a. Yeryhighfreqrrcncy c. X-hand
b. Yery low frequency d. Y-band

166. A radio ftequencybelow 30 kilohertz.

a. Yeryhighfrequency c. X-band
b. Yery low ftequency d. Y'band

167. A radio frequencybandof 5,200to 10,900megahertz.

a. {ln D. vLF c. X-band d. Y-band

168. A radio ftequencybandof 2,000to 4,000megahertz.

a. S-band b. X-band c. High frequency b. I,mI frequency

169. Thedeterminationoftbedepthofwaterbymeasuringthetimeintervalbetweenemissionofason
ultrasonic signal and thc rpnrn of its echofrom the bouom is called:
a. Frho sounding D. Echo ranging c. Echo measurement d. Echo meter

170. Massagesconcerningtropical stormstransmitt€dby radiotelephonyare precededby:

a. Mayday D. Pan c. Securite d SOS

171. ThepartoftheamosphereinwhichexcessivebendingofradarwavesoccurdueOthedisribution
temperatureand moisture is called:
Answer: Duct

ElectronicNavigation E5
172. Trapping of radarpulsesin a layer nearthe surfaceof the earth is most likely to occur wbentlere is a
sharpvertical:
Answer: Increasein temperalurethrcugh tlu layers.

173. An instrumentusedto determinethe distanceof an objed by measuringthe time inten al betweenthe

transmissionof a pulse signal ano rec€ptionof a signal. The bearing of the objeA canbe detennined
by noting the orientation of the dilecrional antenna.
Answer: Radar

174. Aninstrument usedto determinethe direction of radio beaconfrom shore.

Answer: RDF

175. A codeusedfor the transmissionof ship wealherreport at sea

Answer : Internalional Weuhcr Code

176. In radar observation,r - m vectorrepresents:

,*swer : Target'srelalive firotion

127. As a ship proceedsinto higher latitudes,the first ice it will encounteris likely to be in the fam of
icebergs,becausesuch large piecesrequire a longer time to disintegrate.This methodis called:
Answer: Ice detection

178. An international sewie which prwides for the automaticpromulgation of meteorologicaland

navigational warnings and urgent messagesto vesselssailing within 400 tilt. of the coast.
Answer : Navtex

179. The NAVTE)( serviceis usingwhat ftequency?

Answer: 518kHz

180. The INMARSAr Systememployswhat kind of satellites?

,utswer: GeostuioturY satellites

86 ElectronicNavigation
 MARITIME LAW
LAW IS DEf,'INED AS:
1. A systemof PrinciPles,and
2. Rule.sof humanconductprescribedor recognized
by the goveming Power.
Intemadonal Law. The rules of conductgenerally
reognized by civilized staies as binding in their
conducttoward erch other.
TWO GREAT LEGAL SYSTEMS
1. Ctvll Law originated in the RomanEmpire and
was codified by Emperor Justinian in 529 AD.
Sane wasincorporatedin the Codeof Napoleon
in lt04 basedmainly on theJustinianCode.Such
ode of laws has been adoptedin Continental
Europe, Iatin America' Japan, Scotland, Que-
ba, and all countries'occupied]bySPain.
2. Commnlaw originatedin England andis now
the basic law of Englan4 lreland, British Do-
minion and Crown colonies and all ex-Ameri-
cancoloniesincluding the U.S.A.
In Roman or Civil Law, an attempt is made to
draft definite rules to govem human conduct and
bave thesentles promulgatedas law by legislacive
authority whereasin the English or Common Iaw
system,a greatpart is never set down in the fqm d
definite rules. Judgesdecidecasesaccordingo (a) time agreementsand tlose governing relationship
custom,and (b) precedent.Where there is no prec- of private entities or individuals'
edent,judgesdecideit asthey think best.Suchdeci-
sionsbecomeprecedencefor future cases.
Rman or Civil Law is a written body of law'
while English or Common law is unwritten.
OTFER, MEANING OF CTYIL LAW
Crldnal Lew as in criminal proceedingsare
instituted by governnent authority. The purposeis
"defendant"to a fine or imprisonment
o sr$ect the
in order b discourageconduct deemedhannful o
prblic in general.
Clvll proacdhF are instihrted by private at-
Marine Laws and ShiPBusiness
"plaintiff'
torneyon behalf of private personscalled
the objectof which to obtain damagesfiom defend-
ant or to have the court order to the defendantto
perform or to refrain from performing a particular
rcL.
COMMON LAW SYSTEM
In English speakingcountries,lawsarenow codi-
"commonlaws". I-aws that are however,en-
fied as
"statutorylaws".
actedby legislaturearecalled
INTERNATIONAL MARITIME LAW
It is the bodyofprinciples and usagesrecognized
by commercialnationsasjust and equitablein regu-
lating the affairs of the sea
ADMIRALTY OR GENERAL II{ARITIME II\}V
Maritime Law is a part of corrrrercial law which
strictly r. lrtes to shippingandits incidents'It is the
law of the seaand governsacts arising out of mari-
rime@rnmerge.
Publlc Marltlme Law. Laws peftining to the rela-
tionship betrweenstatesand/or how statesconduct
their maritime affairs.
hlvate Marltlme Law. Laws dealing with mari-
REAL NATURE OF MARITIME LAWS
Maritime law limits the liability of shipowneror
agentto the:
(a) Actual value ofvessel
O) Freight money
The shipowrrcror agent has the right to retain
cargoand eurbargoor detentionof vesselwhere the
ordinary civil law would not allow more tban per-
sonal action against debor or p€rsonliable. Mari-
time law repealsCivil law wheremortgageproperty
is lost.Thereisno personalactionlien againstowner
w
or agentof the vessel. of aade and navigation of a particular nation.

JURISDICTION OF MARITIME LAW Rtght of vbll The right of a belligerent rassel to

stop and visit neural merchanmen for the purpose
Jurisdiction is: of ascertainingwhether thesevesselsare of the na-
(a) Restrictedto maritime mattersgenerallyand in- tionality they purport to be, and whether they are
cludes maritime @ntracts, maritime torts and attempting to break blockade,are carrying contra-
servicesof maritime in nature. band goods,or are rendering unneutral service to
the enemy.
O) Extendedto all watersnavigable.
The right of visit may be exercisedin time of
(c) Entirely dependentof the comnercial clause' war by all oommissionedvesselsand military air-
(d) To the vesselswhich are instruments of com- craft of belligerents.In time of peacemen-of-warof
merceand navigation. all nationshavetheright of visit only in caseofsus-
picion of piracy. The region where the right may be
DEM'INITION OFTERMS: exercisedis the maritime teritory of eitherbelliger-
Force maJeure.Ioss due to exceptionalcircum- ent and the opensea
stancesor conditions beyondone's control.
Right of convoy.The exemptionof visit and search
Necesslty. Force of circumstances which determines of neutral vesselson the high seasby a belligerent
the course of action a man ought to take. war vesselwhen the former are sailing in convoy
under the protection of a warship of their own na-
Rlght ln rem. A right of action against property, tionality whosecommanderassertsthat there is no
i.e.,againstthething itself,inespectiveofwhoowns This doc-
contrabandon boardthe convoyedvessels.
it" in which the claimant is enabledto havetheprop-,
trine has never been admitted by Great Britain. It
erty arrestedand detaineduntil his claim has been hes
bowever,beenacceptedby the United Statesand
adjudicatedupon.
several European states, these states having fte-
Rlght tn personanLA right againsta person.A sea- quentlyconcededthe rightby treaty.
man who has a claim for wageshas a right against
offtshery. Theright by which vesselsor crafts
the owner of the ship which the wageswereearned. Rlght
areallowedto fish. On thehigh seasit is conunonto
Rlght of navlgatlon. The right by which everyship, all mankind. The right of fishing within territorial
whateverher nationality, is entitled to navigate in waters is usually vestedin the subjectsof the par-
certainwat€rs.The right of navigation in territorial ticular stateby international law.
waters,aswell as on the high seasis corunon to all
exceptin wartime. Right of moring. The right by which vesselsor
crafts are permitted to anchor in certain waters.It
Rlght of pursult. The universally recognizedrule includestbe right to fix mooringsin the soil or bed
by which men-of-war of a littoral statecan pursue of the foresbore.The right of mooring is incidental
into the openseiLseize,and bring back into port for to the right of navigation and it can only be exer-
trial any foreign merchant vesselthat has violated cisedby vesselswhich are themselves usedin navi-
the law while in the territorial watersof that state. gation.
Rlght of search. The right of a corrmissionedbel-
Territorlal stralts. Straitswhich are lessthan 6 n.
ligerent vesselto stop neural merchanEnenon the
miles wide. When a strait of this kind dividesthe
high seasand makesuchexaminationand searchas
and the samestate,it belongsto the ter-
may be considerednecessaryif after the exanina- land of one
ritory of such state.If a strait divides the land of ttpo
tion of the ship's papersby the visiting officer, there
is suspicionof fraud againstthe vessel. different stat€s,it belongsto the territory of both,
and Oe boundaryline runs throughmid-channel.
Rlght of selzure. The right of State or municipal
ju-
authorities to take possessionof a vesselin territo- Terrltorlal waters. The watersunder territorial
rial waters,fa a breachof the revenueliawsor laws risdiction of a state. It is generally admitted that

8E Marine Lawsand Ship Business

thethree-milelimit marksthe outerboundaryof that 8. Conventionon Codefu Liner Conferences,con-
part of the marginal seawhich is under the tenito-
rial jurisdiction of the littoral state. Such a rule is 9. Conventionon the Preventionof Marine Pollu-
not inconsistent with Oe exercise of other rights
(neutrality,custms, fisheries)over the high seas
beyondthe three-6ils limit. With regardto baysand
gulfs, territorial watersfollow the sinuositiesof the
cmst unlessan establishedusagehas sanctioneda
wider limit. Also calledTerritorial Sea.
LIST OF COhTVENTIONS/AGREEMENTS TO
WHICII PHILIPPINF^S IS SIGNATORY
1. Carriageof Goodsby SeaAct or Public Act 521
enactedby the 74th US Congressto give effect
to the BrusselsTreatysignedby the United States
with otherpowen which wasadoptedin the Phil-
ippines as CommonwealthAct No. 65 in April
16, 1936 by the Commonwealthof the Philip-
pines. This act embodiesthe ommonly known
Hague Rules,the governing,internationallaw 14.Convention(ILO No. 23) concerningtheRepa
with respectto bills of lading for the carriageof
goodsby sea.
2. International Convention for the Safetyof Life
at Sea (SOLAS) which was donein London on
June17,1960andenteredinto force the for Phil- 16.Convention(ILO No. 53) concerningMinimum
ippineson November11, 1965and amendedon
November26,1968.
3. IntemationalConventionon [oad Lines, 1966.
4. International Regulationsfor PreventingColli-
sionsat Sea,1972.
5. International Convention for the Preventionof
Pollution of the Seaby Oil, adoptedin lnndon
on May 12, 1954 and enteredinto force fu the
Philippineson January19,196/'.
6. International Convention on TonnageMeasure-
mentof Ships.
7. Special Trade PassengerShips Agreenent.
Adoptedin Londonon October6,l97l and en-
teredinto force for the Philippines on January2,
1974.
COMMON AND PRIVATECARRIERS
COMMON CARRIERS
Common carrien are persons,oorporations,firtrls
or associationsengagedin the businessof carrying
Marine Lawsand ShipBusiness
cludedin Genevaon April 6,1974.
tion by Dumping Wastesand other matt€r, en-
teredinto forcefor the Philippineson August30,
1975.
10. International Conventionfor the hevention of
Pollutionfrom Ships,1973.
11. U.N. Conventionon the Carriageof Goodsby
Sea, 1978. The Conventionwas oncluded in
Ilamburgon March 31,1978.
12. (ASEAN) Agreementfor the Facilitation of
Searchfor Shipsin Distressand Rescueof Sur-
vivors of Ship Accidents which was adoptedin
KualaLumpuron May 15,1975.
13.Conventionon the Inter-governmentalMaritime
ConsultativeOrganization.
triation of Seamenasmodified by the Final Re
vision Convention,1946.
15.Convention(ILO No. 93) on Wages,Houn of
Work and Manning (Sea).
Requirenentsof ProfessionalCapacityfor Mas-
tersandOfficerson BoardMerchantShips,nodi-
fied by Final RevisionConvention,1.946.
17. The STCW Convention(Standardof Training,
Certification and Watchkeepingon Seafarers)
which wasadoptedin london on July7, 1978by
an international conferencesponsoredby IMCO
and ratified by the Philippine government
throughan instrumentof accessionsignedby the
hesident on Januaryll,l98/.. The STCWCon-
vention providesfor the establishmentof inter-
nationally acceptedminimum standardson the
training, certification and watchkeepingof all
seafaren,both officersandratings,includingFili-
pino seafarers.
or transportingp:il$engersor goodsor both, by land,
water,or air, for compensation,offering their serv-
icesto the public.
89
 Under the rew civil code,conunon carrien are (l) Ftoo4 stonn, earthquake,lightning, or otber
requiredto exerciseenraorditwry diligerce.If the natural disasteror calanityi
goodswere damagedor the passengersinjured, a 2) Act of the public enemyin war, whetherinterna-
presumptionexist that the carrier was negligent . tional or civil;
(3) Act or mrission of the shipper or owner of the
PRIVATE CARRIER goods;
PrivateCarrier may bedefinedasa carrier which (4) The characterof thegoodsor defectsin thepacl-
is not a corlmon carrier. There is no p,ovision of ing or in the containers;
law which defines a private carrier (5) Order or act of competentpublic authority.
Privatecarriers are requiredto Ss€rve only due
diligence or ordinary diligence which requires or-
dinary failt in order that a person might become COGSA: DIIEDILIGENCts
liable. Sec.3. (1) The carier shallbe boundbeforeand
at the beginningofthe voyageto exerciseduedili-
CIVIL CODE: EXTRAORDINARY DILIGEIICT genceto:
fut. 1733.Common carriers, ftom the naturc of (a) Make the ship seaworthy;
their businessand for reiasonsof public policy, arc
O) hperly man, equip, and supply the ship;
boundto observeextraoldinarydiligencein the vigi-
lance over the goodsand for the safetyof the pas- (c) Make the holds, refrigerating and cmling
sengerstransportedby them,accordingto all the cir- chembers,and all other parts of the ship in
cumstancesof eachcase. which goodsare carried,fit and safefor their
reception,carriage,and preservation.
Arl. 1734.Commoncarriers are responsiblefor
the loss, destnrction,or deterioration of the goods, (2) Thecarrier shallproperlyandcarefullyload,han-
unlessthe sameis due to any of the following causes dle, stow,carry,keep,carefor, and dischargethe
onlf goodscarried.

CHARTER PARTY
CHARTER PARTY is an agreementby
fhe
I which a $ipowner agreesto placean entireship,
or a part of it, at the disposalof a merchantor otber
person, for the con\€yanoeof goods,binding the
shipownerto transport them to a particular place,
for a sumof moneywhich the merchantundertakes
to pay as freight for the carriage.Sometimescalled
CHARTBR.
Charters are either TIME, VOYAGE, or DE-
MISE. A charter party fo'rmsthe basic shipping pa-
per or agreementbetweenthe chartererand the ship-
ov/neror his agent.It is usuallya lengthydocument
containing detailed clausesas to the tonnage,ca- Tlme Charter. The vesselis leasedto anotherper-
paclty,and condition of the vessel,the courseit is to sonor companyfor a definite perio{ wherehe oper-
pursue,loading and dischargingports, portsofcall,
methodsof loadinganddischarging,signanreof bills
of lading, employmentof stevedues,freetime within
which rassel shall be l@ded and the demurrageper
day payablethereafter,liability and insurance,com-
missionand freightbroker4gedueto the ship broker
and the rate of compensation.
VoyageCharter. It is the useor hire of a ship for a
particular voyageor seriesof vqrages.The payment
for the service vessel'srendered is called "charter
fteight". The masteris particulady oncerned with
lay "tte, demurrageand dispatch.

90 Marirc l-awsandShip Business

 atesthe vesselas thoughit is one of his own fleet. plete cargo" in accordancewith the provisions of
the contract.
DemtseCtarten The charterer appoints the mas-
ter, suppliesthe crew, actsas carrier, and tdkesover Advance Freight. Freight taken from shipperso
the full control of the ship, employing her as if she covership'sdisbursementduring loading.The sum
we,rea unit of his orn fleet.The shipowner'sremu- advancedis shownon the bills of lading and is in-
neration takesth form of hire moneyusually fixed suredby the shippers.
at a certain ftrt€ per ton of summerdeadweightper Back Frelght. Freightchargedto a shipperwhena
calendarmonth, and payablein advance.The ovner vesselcannotdeliverher cargoat intendeddestina-
may retain the right o require the removal of the tion and has to return o the loading port with it.
masterand chief engineer,if dissatisfied' Also remunerationfor expensesincurred in getting
qrgo transshippedand reshippedowing to such
Ship Let on Slmple Tlme Charter. The shipowner
appoints the master and supplies the crew, and is cargo being forbidden at the port of destination.
remuneratedby hire moneypaid' usually,at agreed Lump Sum Frelght. A ship may be charteredon a
rateper month. The chartererdoesnot takeover full lump sum basis implying that a fixed amount of
control of the vessel. freight is payableB the charterer regardlessof
whethera full cargois shippedor not. So long as
In TIME CIIARTER, the masteris particularly
somecargois by somemeansdeliveredat the proper
concernedwith requisition, provision and drydock.
destination, the lump sumis payablein full, though
The paymentfor the vessel'sservie renderedis
"charter hire"' it may be subject to ounterclaim wheregoodshave
termedas
beenstolen,jeCisonedor lost and the shipowneris
'exceptions'.
Open C:harten The charter party that does not not pmtectedby
specr$ the kind of cargo to be loadedor the port of
Frelght on DamagedGoods is due in full but will
destination.
be zubjectto a counterclaimfor damagesunlessthe
Charteier. The personto whom is given the useof carrier is protectedby exceptionsclausesin the con-
the whole of the carrying capacity (earning space) tract of afreightrrent or by commonlaw exceptions.
of a ship for the transportationof goodsor passen- If the gmds are so badly damagedthat they have
gersto a statedport or for a specifiedtime. The re- c€ased to be gmds of the kind shipped,then no
munerationand conditions of the contract are con- freight can be claimed.
tained in the charter PartY. I)foteme Frdght In certain circumstanceswhen it
.qChartened FrclghL Tenn by which freight is lnown is impossibtefor the cargo to be dischargedat the
may be given at
whenpaymentis madefor the cargospaceof an en- agreedport of discharge,delivery
port which is the nearest safeport. tf the
tire vesselor a part thereof under a charter party sme other
distanceto such safe port is substantiallyin excess
aSreement.
of the distanceto the port originally contemplated'
Frefht. The remunerationto which the carrier of extra freight or distancefreight, may becomepay-
goodsby seais entitled on the performanceof his ableby the termsof the C/P.
contractualobligations or otherwise,dependingon
Dbhcss Frelght. At times when the chartering
the termsof the contracr According to the natureof
market is abnorrrally quiet, the ownersof a tramp
the gmds carried and/or the customof tradg freight
ship which might otherwisehaveto be laid up may'
maybepayableat an agreedrateper ton deadweight' "starting parcel", de-
having promiseda tempting
per measurementton, per freight ton or other unit"
cide o place the ship on the berth as a generalship
or on advaloem basis.
and advertiseaccordingly.If they srbsequentlyfind
Deadfrelght. The sum payable to the shipoilner difficulty in obtaining completion cargo at normal
whenthechartererhaq failedto load"afull andcom- or near normal rates, they may in preferenceto

Marine Lawsand ShipBusiness 91

disparchingthe ship with excessivevacantspace CHARTER PARTY FORMS
resortto bookingshipmentsat ratesvery far below
those generally prevailing. Such low rates are re- Austral
ferredto as "distressrates".
In law, no freight is consideredto be earnedun-
til the cargois finally deliveredat its properdesti- Llnertlnre BIMCO Deep Sea Time Charter
nation, but freight which is paid in advanceis not
recoverablefrom the shipownerin the event of the and othertradesall havetheir own forms of Char-
ship being lost.
NOTICE OF READIIYESS
nder a voyagecharter, before the charterer
or the shipperis under an obligationto cotn-
menceloading, threeonditions must be satisfied,
vtz.:-
"arrived ship".
1. Tbe ship must be an
2.T\e ship mustbe in all respectsreadyto load.
3. Noticeof readinessto loadmustbe servedon
the chartereror his agent.
If the ship has merely beenorderedto a named
port"sheis an "arrived ship" assoonas shehasar-
rived within the limits of the port andis at thechar-
terer's disposaland ready to load in a place where
ships waiting fon a berth usually lie, even though
sheis not yet in that part of the port wherethe cargo
of the kind contemplatedis customarily loaded.
For tie ship to be *ready'', her loading appli-
ances,if they are to be used,must be ready,rigged
and in good order; holds and other cargo compart-
mentsto be usedmust be clean,dry, dunnagedand
completelyready to receivethe ergo and, if shift-
ing boardsor other special appliancesare needed,
theymustbe in place.Any necessary permitsto load
andsurveyors'certificates,ifneede4 musthavebeen
obtainedand must be prodwed when serving no-
tice.
The notice of readinessmust be in writing and
must be tenderedduring normal office hours.The
master should prepar€ the notice in duplicate and
insist on the charterersigning his acceptanceon one
copy which the master should retain as a receipt,
and this should state the date and precise time of
acceptance.When the chartererha.saaepted the
92 Marine Lawsand ShipBusiness
The acceptedstandardCharter Party forms are:
At$tralian Grain Charter-Party
Baltlme Unifonn Time Charter
Centrocon RiverPlateCharter-Party (Grain,etc.)
Gencon Uniform GeneralCharter
Medcon EastCoastCoal Charter-Party
The coal,grain, rice, timber,stone,ore,fertilizer,
ter-Party.
noticeof readiness, or at somestipulatedtime there-
after if theC/P soprovides,the time for loadingcom-
mencesto @unt,althoughthis maybevariedby other
C/P termsor by a customof a port.
If the ship is to load at two or more ports, notice
of readingssneedbe given only at the fhst loading
port unlessthe C/P provides to the contrary. If no
noticeis given,but the chartereractudly beginsto
load.the absenceof noticeis immaterial.
Lay Days.This expressiondescribesthenumberof
daysallowed by a charter party for loading and for
dischargingthe cargoor, if so-called"reversible"liay
daysare providedfor, for both processes.
Daysand Runnlng Days. Bothof theseexpressions
meanconsecutive calendardayscountingfrom mid-
night to midnightandunlesscontractor customdic-
tateothenyise,includeSundaysandholidaysufrether
work is actually done,or normally done at the port
or nol
Sundayand HolldaysExcepted.WhereaClPpro-
vides that Sundaysand holidaysare not to count as
lay days, thosedays still do not count even if they
have beenusedfor working by agreementbetween
the masterand the charterer.However,if the agree-
mentin theC/Pis that Sundaysandholidaysarenot
to count'unlessused',tlen Oe positionis different.
The term 'holidays" appliesonly to official public
or local holidays, and not to time arbitrarily taken
offby workmen.
Worklng Days. Unless a custom of the port not
inconsistentwith the provisionsof the C/P gives
the expressiona different meaning, a working day
is a day on which work is normally doneat the port
@noerned,and is a Z-hour day from mid-night to
midnight evenif work doesnotcontinue throughout
the whole period. When lay days are describedas
working days they exclude Sundaysand officially
recognizedholidaYs.
Wcldng DaysolA llours. Eachperiodof 24 hours
in which work is nonnally done countsas one lay
day, even though lbe 24 hours are spreadover two
or more calendardays.Where ;ot sl4lnple, the or-
dinary wotting hours of the port are from 6 a.m. to
6p.m.,aworking dayof?Ahourswouldaflpy two
calendardays.
Weather Worhng Day. A working dayof 24 hours
on which vork is not prevented by bad weather'
wbether work is intended or not. When inclement
weatherpreventswork from being doneduring only
part of a working day (whetherwork is intendedor
not), how much of the day countsas laytime is de-
cidedby omparing the working time when loading
ordischargingis preventedwith the actualtime nor-
mally worked eachdaYat the Port.
Weathcr Worktng Day ol A ConsccudvelIours'
This is a working day where anytime in which bad
weatherhaltscargooperations,or wouldhaveif work
was intended or contemplated' is not to count as
laytime, whether the bad weatheroccursin nonnal
working time at the Port or not"
Wortdng Day, Weathcr Pcrmlttlng. For time to
be lost with this type of day, loading or discharging
must actually be intemrpted or preventedby bad
weather.
BILL OF LADING
FUNCTIONS OF ABILL OF LADING
l. It is a receipt signed by the Master or the agent
on behalf of the shipowner,fc gmds received
on bmrd or elsewhereinto the shipowner'scus-
tody.
2. It is evidenceof a contraclbetweena shipperand
acartier for the carriageof goodsby sea
3. tt is a documentof title to the goodsdescribedin
it.
Marine Lawsand ShiPBusiness
Rcpordng Day. This is tbe day on which the mas-
ter's notice of readinessis tenderedto tbe cbart€rer
or onsignee. If the work of loading or discharging
startsimmediarclythe reporting day will count as a
lay day, unlessthe C/P or a binding customof the
port providesotberwise.
Idetermlnnte Lay deys. Lay dap are said to be
indeterminatewhen a C/P provi<bsfor a ship to be
"ac@rding
loadedor discharged'hscustomary",or
to the customof the port", cr'with all despatch",or
"as fast as steaner can receivd deliver".
Revcrslble Lay Dep. A C/P nay provide that a
ship is to load and dischargea cargoat a given aver-
age rateper day, in which caselay daysare said to
be "reversible".
Laytlme. It is the time lost waiting for berth o
@unt as loading/dischargingtime. The laytime will
commenceto run when the ship starts to wait for a
berthand will continuetorun, unlesspreviously ex-
hausted,until the ship stopswaiting.
Dcmurrage. If the charterer or consigneedetains
the sbip beyondthe agreed.numberof lay days or'
wbere the lay days are indeterminate,detains her
for an unreasonabletime, he will be in breachof
the C/P so that Oe shipowner will be entitled to
"demurrage".
ei0er "danages for detention" or
DcspatchMoney. The shipownerbecomesliable to
paydesparchmoneyto thecharter€ror receiverwhen
the loading or dischargingprocessis completedbe-
fore the laydayshaveexPired.
TYPES OFBILL OF LADING
"clean" when
Clean Btll of Ladlng: It is said to be
it bearsno superimposedclausesexpresslydeclar-
ing a defectivecondition ofthe goodsor packaging.
Foul Blll of Ladlng. It is said to be'foul' whenit
is dirty, uncleanor clansed.
Recetved for Shlpment Btll of Ladlng. This is
issuedo a shipperwhen he deliners goodsinto the
93
 custodyof the shipowneror agentbeforethe carry- the combinedtransponopenrtor(cTo).
ing ship hasarrivedor is readyto receivethegoods.
Open Bill of Ladlng. A B/L giving no indication
ShtppedBlll of Ladtng.Issuedafterth, goodshave whatsoever of whom the goodsareconsigned.
irctuallybeenloadedinto the ship.
Stratght Bill of Lading. This is an Americanrerm
Dlrect Blll of Ladlng. This is a B/L coveringrhe for a B/L issuedsolelyin favorofa narnedconsignee.
carriageof goodsin one ship direct from oneport to
another. Bearer Bill of Ladlng. A B/L makinggoodsdeliv-
erable"to bearer"doesnot requireendorsement. The
ThroughBlll of Ladlng. A B/L usedfor multi-trans- propertypasses by meredelivery.
port which provides evidenceof a contract of cdr-
riage from one place to anotherin separ:ites0ages. Order Bill of Ladlng. This B/L is a negotiabledocu-
ment.Onepart of tie setmustbe surrendered, duly
C.omblnedThansportBill of Ladlng. A negotiable endoned, in exchangefor the goods
or a delivery
documentwhich evidencesa combinedtnansportcon- order.
tract"the taking in chargeof the goodsdescribedby

MATE'S RECEIPTS
Mate'sReceiptis a receipt,given and signed tally bcoks.The ship'sown receiptformsshouldbe
by the mate for goods actually receivedon usedin preferencein signingamendedboatnotesas
boardthe ship,which shouldbe drawnup carefully is sometimes done.
to show the identification marks and numbersfrom

LOAD LINES
Th" INTERNATIONAL CQNVENTION OF
I IIAD LINES was signedin London on 5th
April 1966.TheMerchantShipping(lnadtines)Act
1967 was passedby British Parliamentand came
intooperationin 1968.
The Act provides for the making of Loadline
Ruleswhich statetheonditions of assignmentwhich
have to be complied with, and which concernthe
ship's structuralstrengthand stability,superstnrc-
tures,hatchwaysandovers, machineryspaceopen-
ings, ventilators,air pipes,scuppers,side scuttles,
freeingports,and protectionandaccessfor thecrew.
The Act appliesto all shipsexcept
(a) shipsof war,
(b) sbipssolelyengagedin fishing, and
(c) pleasureyachts.
The loadline Rules contain two tables which
show the minimum permitted freeboardsfor two
tlpes of ship eachof which is assumedto bea stand-
ard form, the freeboardsbeinggiven in millimeters
againstship'slengthin meters.
The InternationalConventionon Loadlineshas
two permanentmnes:
1. Tropicalzone
2. Summgl 2919
The AssigningAuthorityassignsfreeboards to a
ship on the satisfactorycompletion of the loadline
surveyand stateswhich loadlinesare to be marked
on the ship's sidesand Oeir positions.This infor-
mation is shown on the INTERNATIONAL
LOADLINE CERTIFICAIE (1966) issuedro the
ship'sowner,which must be framedand postedup
in someconspicuousplace on board as long as tbe
certificateremainsin force and tbe ship is in use.
The Act laysdownpenaltiesto which the master
is liable if the ship proceedsor attemptsto proceed
to seawithout the certificateand without it being
postedup. It is alsoan offensefo a ship to be over-
loadedby submergingthe appropriateloadline and
such a ship may be detained.The master may be

94 Marine Laws and Ship Business

fmedfsoverloading the $ip, and for furtheroffense
if he takesan overloadedship o sea.
DU'INITION OFTER,MS:
Freeboard. The vertical distancemeasuredon the
vessel'sside amidships from the load waterline to
the uppersideof the freebord deck or a point corre-
ryondingto it.
FneeboardMarks. The disc, lines and letten on a
ship's sidesindicating the maximum permissible
loadline in accordancewith the International
LoadlineConvention.
The Dcck Llne. It is marhed amidshipsand indi-
c:rtesthe positions of the freeboarddeck. Its upper
edgepassesthrough a point whre, if oontinuedout-
wards,the uppersurfaceofthe freeboarddeckwould
meetthe shell.
Statutory Frrcboard. The vertical distancebetween
the upperedgeofthe deck-lineand the upperedges
of the respectiveloadlines as statedon the loadline
certificate.
The Loadltnc Mark. It is marked anidships verti-
cally below the deckline and consistsof a ring with
the upperedgeof a horizontal line passingtbrough
its center.
Load Waterllne. The intersectionof the surfaceof
DICKIJNE
-
l l
t--J
mDD
I- 5l0nn
Marine LawsandShip Business
the ship with the plane of the surfaceof the water
wberethe ship is floating with her designedload on
bmrd, and is perfectly upright in the water.
SummcnFrecbord. The vertical distancebetween
tbe center of the ring and the upper edge of the.
deckline.
Iradltrc Dbc. A disc 300 mm in dianeter marked
amidshipsbelow the deckline and intersectedby a
horizontalline 450mm. long and 25 mn. wide,the
upper edge of which pass€sthrough Oe center of
tbe disc. The letterson eachsideof the disc indicate
theassigningauthority;L.R.,Lloyd'sRegistecA.8.,
AmericanBureau;B.V., BureauVeritas.
Sumrncr Loadllne. The deepestwaterline to which
a merchantvesselis legally allowed to load for voy-
ageswithin specifiedgeographicalzonesin sunmer
months.
Fresh Water Mark. Loadline mark indicating on
ship'ssideminimum pernissiblefreeboandwhentbe
ship is floating in fresh water having a density of
1000.
Loadllne Survey. A surveycarried out annuallyby
a classificationsocietyor CiovemmentAgencyto see
that the conditions under which the loadline of a
vesselwhir-hwasoriginally grantedare being effi-
cientlymarntained.
TF
95
 tARtNE LAWS AltD SlilP BUSII|ESS
1. In tine charter,tbe Masteris particularly oncerned with:
a Iaytime, disparchmoney& demurr4ge c. Requisition,provision & drydoct
D. Cashadvance, crew list, medical report d Demurrage,seniuity bonus& chartcrerbonus

2. Tfu, vessel's"Deratcertificaic" is alwaysissuedby:

a NuionalCargoBureau c. Coastguards
D. Ibalth quarantineofficer d Environmenal ProtocrionAgency

3. Tbe term applied to loo6ewoodsor other similar naterials usedin the ship's hold o p'rotoctthe cargo
is the:
a Sonchions D. Sfingers c. Dunnage d Woodenplanks

4. Beforesailing for a foreign port, what dooments must you get?

a Clearancefc free pratique
D. Clearanceftom custms for cargoloaded
c. Clearanceor official permissionto d€parton voyage
d Clearanetom immigration

5. The distmce betrveentbe upperedgeof the drcklire and the edgeof tbe respectiveloadline:
a. Tropical loadline c. Winter Aecboard
b. Sanrory freeboard a[ Srrmmerhadline

6. Authority o assignloadlinesin the Philippinesis issuodby

a BureauofVerias c. ArcricanBureauofSbip,ping
D. Lloydsof London d PhilippineCestGuard

7. A list of all articles acquiredabroadby the crew. It is appcndedo the list of ship storesand gives the
nme of tbe crew, the descriptiond the article and thc mt value:
a. Billof kding c. Storelist
D. CrewManifest d CrewCustomDeclaration

8. A doornent servedby the Master o the Chartcrersinfcming them that the vesselis ready to l@d
accordingto the t€nnsoutlined in the Charter Party:
a Noticeof Readiness c. DisparchAdvise
D. Arrival Notice

9. At present,Internarional loadlinesassignedto vesselscomplieswith the conventionof:

a. 1966 b. tgfi c. 19t0 d 1990

10. Which of the ff. best indicarcshow many tons of cargoa vesselcan carry?
a bale cubic D. deadweight c. loadeddisplacementd gross tonnage

I I . The ship's registerindicatesall of the ff. exept:

a. vessel'sidentity D. vessel'sos,ner c. vessel'snationality d vessel's pot of call
9,
12. A declaruion madeundermtb by the masterbeforea notary public, onsul or magistrarcwith regards
to cargoapparentlGs or damage:
a marineprotest D. marinelnqutry c. affidavitoflcs d nate'sreoeip

96 Marine Iaws and Ship Business

13. A prcel ticket is a doqment issuedfc valuable goodsof small bulk, normdly carried in a strmg
room.suc,bgoodspay:
a adraloremftei8bt c. forwarder'sfteight
D. specialcarSofteigDt d teminusfreigbt

14. On a voyagechart€rpdty, whenthe cbartererloadsor dischargehis cargoin lesstime than thenumber

of daysallowe4 he earns:
a denurrage b. dispatchmorpy c. overtime d laydays

15. Bill of Lading ould be which of the ff.:

4. acotract c. anegotiableinstrument
D. areoeipt d all of these

16. The chart€f party tbat doesnot specifythe kind of crgo u port of destinationis:
a fixedciarter D. blindcharrcr c. qencharter d tinecharter

17.Seatradewhic,his not cmfined to any particular routeor hartor which operafesb all or my port is:
rl. voyagecharter D. tramPing c. timecbarrcr d oean route

1t. In tbe regulatim, tbe changeover of manual o auomatic stceringshouldbe dme only by:
a thc AB m duty c. the orderdtbe master
D. tbeofficerdtleday d fusecondofficer

19.If during her voyagea ship sustainsan rcident O hull c mrchinery, or if sheis agfoundandrefloafe4
errentbougb tne Om"ge is so slight, that tbereap,pears to be no r€asonwhy sheoouldnot continuem
ter ro5ragi,tbe master shouldm arrival at the next port arrangefu a suvey and to obtain a:
4 @rtificate of clearane c. certificate of service
D.ertificarc of insurance d ertificate of seaworthiness

of a vqsel's cargo whic,hincludesall daa regardingthe shipper,consigneeand

20. A detriled statcnreNrt
cargoquantity.
a cargomanifest D. cargolist c. bill d lading d mate's receipt

21. Tbe periodduring which a vesselis detainedrmtil frreefrromanycontagiousdiseasesamongthe crewis:

4 de@tim D. ftmigation c. demurrage d. quarantine

22. Tfuloadlioe disc uording to Regulation5 of the International loadline cmvention of 1966,should
haveanorrtsfoledimercrof:
a 3(X)mm. D. 150mm. c. 2ffimm. d 2E0mm;

23. Mmftx paid by the shipownerto the chartererfc laytime savedis:

a claims c' dc'murrage
D. disparch d savings

24. Certificaresissuedunder SOLAS onventim of 1974as amendedare:

4 sta$ttryceftiftcates c. radio telephonyertificates
D. cmstnrctioncertificates d $afe.tyertificarcs

25. Mmbs paid by the cbartererfor cargowhicb otherwisecould havebeenloadedbut wasnot

a eeaefeigt D. banatry c. penalty d dispatch

Martne l-awsand ShiPBwiness n

 26. AftEr clearing a deftnite U.S. potq pu receiveda radiogram to proceedto port other than the me
clearpdfor. The Cusoms Officers at the new port you areboundfor must be notified of diversion:
a immedia@lyuponarrival within port limit
b. 24hrs. in advanceof arrival at port limits
c. beforeyou arrive within the port limia
d ,+8hrs. in advanceof arrival at port limits

27., If thechartereror onsignee detainsthe ship beyondthe agreedno. of laydaysor wherethe laydaysare
indeterminate,detainsher fa unreasonabletime, he will be in breachof the charter-partyso tbat the
shipowrer will be entitled o:
a wertime D. demurrage c. disparch d. lay days

2t. A charter tern whercin a sum is payableto the shipownerwhen the chartererhas failed to load a full
and completecargoin accordancewith the provision of the contract:
a. Maritimelien D. Deadweight c. Deadfreight d. Dispatchmoney

29. b tbe MARFOL 73178,lheallowableafflnent which could be thrown overboardat seavia oil-water
s@af,a3oris:
a ?nppm D. l5ppm c. 100ppm d. 50ppm

30. Classificationsocietyis not issuing which dmment?

a. load line certificate c. registerof cargogears
b. safetyequipmentcertificate d deraningcertificate

31. The abcencewithout leaveof a menber of tle crewor failing to join tbe ship in due time after signing
iul agrpem€ntto proceedat sea:
a terminationofcontract c. A.W.O.L.
D. repatriation d desertion

32. Aletter grven by the shipper to the shipowrer wben gmds put on bmrd are not in gmd condition,
holding the shipownerharmlessin respectof any cleim the consigneemay claim is:
a letterofrepisal c. letterof indemnity
b. letterofassuran@ d letterof marque

33. A charter where the vesselis leasedto anotber personor oompanyfa a definite period where he
operatesthe vesselas though it is one of his own fleet is:
a. time charter D. rcyage charter c. d€'nisechartet d. opencharter

J4[. ffisr 6aking certain that the count, descripion and apparcntcondition of cargo with the mate's re-
eipt, who will sign for the Bill of kding?
a. chief officer D. supercargo c. master d dicer on duty

35. This expressiondescribesthe no. of daysallowed by a charter party fc loading and dischargingof
cargo:
a fay days c. c/€atherworting days
b. runningdays d working days

36. If your vesselhas inward foreign cargo but nme for dischargeat the frst port of entry in the Philip-
pines,it will be recessaryto makeup which d the ff. manifest?
4. outwardmanifest c. proformamanifest
D. inwardforcignmanifest d ravelingmanifest

9t Marine Lawsand Ship Business

37. When a vesselbroke down, agroundor had sustainedany damagewhich preventscargo operations
"off-hire". Off-hire is most likelymentioned
thereforecausingdelayto the sailing of the vessel,sheis
in:
a. toyagecharter D. timecharter c. leasecharter d. bareboatcharter

38. A seaman'sbook is alsocalledas:

a. servicerecord book c. Passport
D. identitybook d' continuousdischargebook

39. Bill of Lading, CharterParty,SpecialAgreementand Parcelticketsareconvenientforms of documents

embodiedin:
a. ConractofAfrreighonent c' DamageandRepairReport
b. Notice of Ileadiness d. Berth terms

40. A Bill of Lading which doesnot containa qualification clausein the B/L asto apparentgoodorder and
condition of cargo:
a. shippedB/L b. clemBlL c. throughB/L d. clausedB/L

41. International codefor shipscomplying with the carriageof dangerouschemicalsin bulk:

a. RCH code c. IMO resolutionA-614
b. IIfr convention 147 d. IBC code

42. Detentionof a vesselby the chartereror receiverof the cargoin loadingand unloadingbeyondlaydays
allowed in the charterParty is:
a. laydays b. dispatch c. demurrage d. overtime

43. Carrien requiredto exerciseextraordinarydiligenceare called:

a. commoncarrier b. pnvatecarrier c. bttlkcarrier

44. When the consigneefails to acceptthe gmds at the port of dischargeand thereis no fault or omission
on the part of the shipowner,the expenseof carrying the goodsback o the shipperis known as:
a. deadfreight b. dvancn freight c. lumpsumfreight d' Wk freight

45. The exercisep'racticedby the crew in swinging out, lowering and handling of ship's lifeboat:
a. abandonshipdrill b. stationdrill c. firedrill d. boatdrill

46. Wbenthe vesselviolatesthe oil pollution act who maybe heldresponsible?

a. dutyofficer D. master c. oilerno. I d. chiefengineer

47. International setof rules on carriageof gmds and the useof Bill of I-ading:
a. Ilague-Visby rule c. York-Antwerp rule
D. Ilamburgrule d U.N. rule

48. Laws deating with maritime agreementsand thosegoverning relationship of private entities or indi-
viduals:
a. maritimelaw c. privatemaritimelaw
D. public maritime law d. noneof these

49. A disc 12" in dia. markedanidshipsbelowthe decklineand a horizonal line lt" long, 1" wide, the
upperedgeof which passesthrough the enter of the disc:
a fteeboardmarks D. loadingmarks c. propellermarlcs d. draftmarts

Marine La.wsand Ship Business I

50. A ban on dumping of plastic suchas fhhing netsor garbageinto tbe seais a regulationof:
c. COLREGS D. MARPOL c. IMO d SOLAS

51. taws pertaining to tbe rclationsh.pbetweenstatesand/orhow statesconducttheir maritime affairs:

a. maritimelaw c. privatemaritimelaw
D. public maritime law d. noneof these

52. Per classification society,all ships and their machinerymust be surveyedat prescribedintervals or
specialsuvey normally being held at:
a. 3 yearsinterval D. 4 yearsint€rval c. 5 yearsin0erval

53. When a ship hasbeensurveyedan I duly marked,thereshall be issuedto the owner,on his application
& on paymentof fee a documentcalled:
a. Cert.of Seaworthiness c. Cert.ofClass
D. I-odlineCrrt. d. ConstructionCert.

54. A documentgiven by the shipper to the Master wherebythe personissuing the letter renouncesany
slaim he may havein specifiedcircumstancesis:
a. Mate'sreceipt b. Bankdraft c. I*ttsr of indemnity d. Billof lading

55. A book usually kept by ajunior officer in which the spee4 dfuection,& time of enginemovementsare
enteredis called:
a. Dock abstractlog D. l.og bmk c. Bell book d. Engine abstractlog

56. The securityrequired by the Bureauof Customsfor the releaseof cargoevenprior 0othe paymentof
tax is:
a. I*,ttsof indemnity c. Crstomsbond
b. Cusoms clearance d. Noneof these

57. The period during which a vesselis detainedin isolationmtil freefrom anycontagiousdiseasesanong
the crew is called:
a. Quarrantine D. Fumigation c. Detention d. Demurrage

58. Ibw often must eachlifeboat of a passengervesselbe loweredto the watef?

a. Bimonthly b. Every 3 months c. Monthly d. Weekly

59. Underwhich of the ff. charterpartiesis Oe Masterparticularlyconcernedwith laytine, dispatchmoney,

and demurrage?
a. Vopge b. I-ease c. Time d. Bareboat

60. All steelshipsclassedwith the societyare zu[ect o surveyin accordancewith the requirementsof the
Rules.This sunreyis called:
a. Specialhull sunrcy c. Periodicalsurvey
D. Continuoussurvey d. Annual survey

61. The definition of l-aw is:

,r. systemof principles
D. rules of humanconductprescribedor recognizedby the book
c. bothaandb
d. neitheranorb

100 Marine laws and Ship Bwiness

62. \Vherethe charterparty doesnot provide one,the lien that doesnot extendto d^magesfor detentionat
the loading port is:
a. cborterer D. demurrage c. harbupilot d. ship'schandler

63. Aportionofasearnan'swagemadepayabletoarelativeorotherdesignatedp€rsonortoabankfch
aocormt:
a financial support D. alloment c. cashdvance d welfare fund

64. If a vesselis o be operatedby the charterer,who is to hir€ the crew, pay all exp€nsesof operationand
in generalexercisecommandwer the vesselas the owner, the charter is called:
a. voyagechartel c. bareboator demisecharter
D. timecharter d noneof these

65. Inflatable rescueboatsare constructedto be capableof withstandingexposureafloat in all onditions

for:
a. 15 days D. 20 da1's c. 30 days d. l0 days

66. Obtains when, in Admiralty l.aw, a vesselis treatedas responsiblefor its own failty actions,this is
called:
a. jurisdictioninpersonan c. jurisdictioninshipkeeper
D. jurisdictioninrem

67. T\e International I-oadline Certificate shall be issuedto:

a vesselwbosecountry is a signatory to the convention
b. vesselbuilt by an accreditedshipyard
c. erreryvesselwhich hasbeensurveyedand markedaccordingto presentconvention
d only shipsregisteredin the Philippines

68. International conventionpertaining to standardizationof training and certification of seafarers:

a. STCW c. SOLAS
D. tonnageconvention d noneofthese

69. The distancebetweenthe freeboardline and tbe enter of the disc:

a summerloadline D. sunmerfrceboard c. freshwaterallowanoe

70. A receipt signedby the Chief Mate sipifying that cargo hasbeenreceivedon board:
a. bill of lading D. mate's receipt c. delivery receip d dock receipt

71. The rcord bmk where the masterwrites his order for the day is called:
c. guidebook D. logbook c. nightorderbook d. instructionbook

72. AUrll of lading which is issuedfa goodsrctually shippedon board:

c. clausedBIL D. shippedB/L c. through B/L d cbanBlL

73. ln respeclof spacewhich hasbeenbookedbut wasnot used"no ornmon law lien can arise is:
a. deadfreigbt b. gatepss c. billof lading

74. Documentissuedby the collector of Custom$to a Phil. vesselengagedin the Phil. oastwise or domes-
tic tradeis:
a ship'sclearanceforbondedstse c. ship'sclearancefordeparture
D. ship'senrollment d. ship'sclearanceforcargomanifest

Maine Lawsand Ship Business 101

75. The time allowed in the charter party for loading and dischargingof cargoesis called:
a. disparch D. laydays c. demurrage d. daysofreadiness

76. In the conventionof loadline, the twopermanentzonesare:

a. Tropical and summerzones c' Snmmerand winter zones
b. Srrnmerandwinternorth d. Winterandtropicalzones

77. Apivate organizationwhich supervisesthe constructionof vesselsand during her lifetime setsrules
and standardto maintain vessel'sseaworthiness:
a Classificationsociety c. BureauofVeritas
D. American Bureauof ShiPPing

78. Which of the ff. bills of lading is alwaysnegotiable?

a straightB& b. odetBlL c. throughB& d. opnBlL

79. Which is consideredincorrectas acceptedstandardcharterparty?

a Pandimen D. Centrocon c. Medcon d Gencon

80. The shipownerappointsthe masterand suppliesthe crew and is remuneratodb.to hire moneypaid,
usually at an agreedrate per month is:
a. bareboatcharter c. voyagecharter
D. demisecharter d. ship let on simple time charter

tl. Periodicalsurvpysas statedin the conventionare donewery:

a. lSmonths D. l2months c. Zmonths d. 6months

82. Cargo which is shippedby value is considered:

a insuredcargo c. weightcargo
b. measurementcargo d ad valoremcargo

83. The fmmer nameof InternationalMaritime Organizationwas:

a. IMCO ,. SOLAS c. C'OLREGS d. MARPOL

84. Avessel'sholds,underavoy4gecharterarecleanandreadyoloadcargo.Thenoticeofreadinesscan
be issuedwhen:
a. the vesselhas beengrantedfree pratique and clearedcustoms
D. the vesselhas arrived at the designatedberth or port
c. bothaandb
d. neither a nor b

85. The shipowner'slien for fteight and other chargeson goodsshippd underBill of lading is underthe:
a. timecharter b. voyagecharter c. demisecharter d. bareboatcharter

86. The portion of contractedfreight that nraybe paid on beforecmnencement of loading is:
a. advancefteight b. back freight c' deadfteight d airfteight

87. A bill of lading showing the goodsconsigneddirectly to a personor firm, that is notnegotiable is:
a orderBlL D. straightB/L c. openB/L

88. The other term for renrn clauseis:

d. lylng up clause D. valuationclause c. disbursementclause d. noneof these

r02 Marine Laws and Ship Business

89. Which of the ff. best indicateshow nany tons of cargoa vesselcan carry?
a. loadeddisplace,lnent c. bale cubic
b. grosstonnage d. deadweight

90. If the man overboardhasbeenlost from view, what type of turn causesthe vesselto retraceasclosely
as possibleOe cornseshewas on when the man fell ove'lboard?
a. turningcircle b. turningcenter c. Williamson'sturn d. Robertson'stum

91. A bill of lading is:

a. arueiptof cargoesloaded c. manifestof cargoesto be loaded
b. a receiptof money in freight d list of cargoesloaded

92. Freprotected lifeboatsshouldbe constructedas O protectthe occupantsfuomcontinuousoil fire for a

period of not lessthan:
a. l5minutes b. 20minutes c' l0minutes d l2minut€s

93. proceedingswhich are against particular person/slike the shipowner/sis called:

a. jurisdictioninsalvage c. jurisdiaioninrem
D. jurisdictioninpersonam d' noneofthese

94. Underwhich of the ff. charterpartiesis themasterparticularlyconcemedwith laytime,dispatchmoney,

and demurrage?
a. voyage D. time c. bareboat d. lease

95. A vesselunder IMO conventionwhich is not a brand new ship is onsidered under the new rule as:
a. an approvedship D. existing ship c. current ship d. overed ship

96. Intemational societythat perforursOe markings on loadlinesis the:

a. LloydsRegisterofShipping c. AmericanBureauofShipping
b. Det NorskeVeritas d. Bureauof Trade
"deducledspaces"which are theoreticallynon-earningspaces:
97. This is grosstonnageless
a. deadweight D. registeredtonnage c. underdecktonn4Sed. grosstonnage

98. A documentserving as title of ownershipand stating the nationality of the vesselis:

a. ship'senrolbnent b. ship'sregisfy c. ship'stonnagecert. d. ship'sconstructionc€rt.

99. Tbeseexpressionsmeansconsecutivecalendardayscomting from midnight to midnight, and unless

contractor customdictate otherwise,includesSundaysarid holidayswhether-workis actually doneat
the port or not
a. daysandrunningdays c. laYdaYs
b. weatherworking days d. Sundaysand holidaysexcepted

100. Your rcssel is seaworthyif pu maintain a perfect:

a. cleanliness c. loadingarrangement
D. hogging d. trim and stabilitY

101. Under the standardbareboator demisecharterparty:

a the chartererhas toal control of the vessel
D. the shipownerpaysand employsthe crew
c. bothaandb
d. neither a nor b

Marine l-awsand Ship Business f03

102. Cargoconraminateddue o failure to provide clean holds prior to loading is an exampleof:
a lackofduediligence c. inherentvioe
D. restraintdprinces d la'tentdefect

103. Thc moving of a vesselftom Point A to Foint B pu$uant to a oontractis:

a generalaverage D. salvage c. towage d alloftheabove

104. When a cmpulsory statepilot is on board he:

a advisesthe master c. both a and b
D. bascommandofthevessel d. neitheranorb

105. Which of the ff. must take placein order to havea generalaverageevent?
a You must have a voluntary srcrince that is reasonableand prudent, madein good faith.
D. You must bave a peril existing that is threateningall interestedparties.
c. You must be srrcessful in saving the cargo.
d alloftheaborre

106. Intenrational setof mles relating in generalaverage:

a York-Antwerprule c. I{ague-Visbyrule
b. Ilamburg rule d. U.N. rule

107. It is a particular sun of moneypaid for the hire of a ship for oneparticular service.It is very usefulto
a shipper who is not certain of the actual amout of cargohe is going to ship but desirestoretain the
servioesof a ship fo carriageof a statedmaximum quantity.The amountof freight is payablewhether
the maximum quantity is shippedor not:
a Lumpsumfreigbt c. Deadfreigbt
D. Advancefteight d BacJrfreigbt

108. It is agreedthat palment fc the carriageof the gmds shall be madewholly or partly in advanceand it
is not roverable by the shipper if the cargois lost in transit. If eachfteight hasbeenagree( but not
pald' it is still recoverablefrom the shipperby shipownerevenin the eventof loss:
a Advancefteight b. Lumpsumfreight c. Deadfreigbt d. Bacffreigbt

109.Rrcmmenddion for ships 500 GRT and aboveto carry radar:

a RCHC.ode c. IlOConventionl4T
D. IMO Resolution A-614 d IBC code

110. The relationship betweenthe ship's deadweightcargo carrying ca4rarityand her cubic capacityfor
cargois called:
a. Coefficient of Loading c. Coefficient of Fineness
D. Coefficient of Measure,ment d. Both b and c

111. "The ship shall haveliberty to complywith any order or direction as to departure,arrival, routes,ports
of call, stoppages,destination,delivery or otherwisehowsoevergiven by the governmentof a nation
under whoseflag the vesselsails," is an excerptfrom:
a War risk clause2 c. War risk clarse I
D. Charterhrty d VoyageCharter Party ParamountClause1958

I12. 'No bills of lading to be signebfu any blockadedport and if the port of dischargebe declaredblock-
adedafter bills of lading havebeensigned,"is an excerptfrom:
a War risk clauseI b. War risk clause2 c. CharterParty d. ParamountClause

104 Marine Lawsand Ship Business

113. Underthe Carriageof Goodsby SeaAct (COGSA)all suit for cargodamagemustbe broughtwithin
the limit from delivery date.lbw long it is grantedto file a claim beforeit is barred?
a. Oneyear b. Sixmonths c. Onemonth d. TWoyears

114. What is a negotiabledocument"a prima facie evidenceof shipment of goodson board a particular
vessel,and its legal importanceconsistsin the fact that it is a receiptfor goods,a contractof carriage,
and a title to property?
c. Billof Lading D. Mate'sRceipt c. DeliveryReceipt d. Inroice

115. Where a vesselis charteredto its fuU and omplete capacityin a contract of afteighunent with the
carrier undertakingto carry specialpersononly, the typeof carrier is:
a. Privatecarrier D. Commoncarrier c, gaitingcarrier d. passengercarier

116. Which is consideredexenpted to the Loadline Conventionof 1965?

a. Fishing vessels D. Containerships c. Cargo vessels d. Tankers

117. Which is consideredincorrectas inherent pon ersof a Masterof vessel?

a. To have acopy of Code of Commerceon board
b. To disciplinehiscrewand imposerules& regulations
c. To direct vesseland appoint crew in time of absenceof an agent
d To adopt all the measureswhich may be necessary0oke€pthe vesselwell suppliedand equipped

118. Who is liable for a lossresulting from tbe improper packing or preparationor loading of the goodsby
the shipper or from his neglect to sufficiently identiS the goodsby properly marking them, or his
failure to warn of someconditions which requiresspecialcarein handling?
a Stwedores D. Shippers c. Carriers d. Public enemy

119. Whicb of the ff. is/are orrect regardingthe inherent dutiesof a SecondMate?
a. l*, is o carry out dl lawful orden of the Master
D. Attending to sick crew memberand preparing illness report
c. In-chargeof inventory and control ofbridge supplies,charts,and keepingup-to-dateoorrectionsto
chartsand nautical publications
d. All of these

120. A toll levied on a ship, usually by scaleacording to tonnage,toward the maintenanceof lights, bea-
cons,buoys,etc. is called:
a Lightdues b. Lightboom c. Lightboard d. Lightboat

l2l, A qualified individual possessinglocal knowledgeof shoals,rocks, currents, e0c.,who is taken on

boardat a particular placeto conducta ship through the rivers, roads,or channelsor from or into the
pon.
a. Ilarbo master D. Ilarbor pilot c. Supercargo d. Marine superintendent

122. Ttre price paid o a shipownerfor the transportationof goodsor merchandiseby seafrom one specific
portto another.
a. Commission b. Charterhire c. Freight d. Comnercialfare

123. Permissionor license grantedby the port medical authorities to a vesselupon arrival from a foreign
port.
a. Berthingpemfssion c. Portclearance
D. Fumigationclearance d. Pratique

Marine laws and Ship Business 105

l?4. T\e d€pth d a ressel below the waterline measuredv€ftically to the lowest part of the hull or other
referencepoint.
a. Draft b. Freebmrd c. Lmdlinemarts d Soundings

125. The horizontal line which represenBthe centerof the disc or the sunner loadline shouldbe 18 inches
or:
a. 457.2mm b. 490.0mm c. 480.0mm d 540.0mm

126. T\e owner of the vesselmust keep the ship in a seaworthyondition, and hire may @asewhen the
vesselbeomes unfit to perform her vqrage.This is true with:
a Voyagecharter D. Timecharter c. Bareboatcharter d. Demisecharter

127. T\e total internal volumeof the ship in units of 100cu. ft. is called:
a. Deadweigbttonnage c. Grossregisteredtonnage
D. Displacementtonnage d' Netregisteredtonnage

128. InternationalConventiondefining the minimum standafdsfu merchantships.

a- II-A Convention 141 c. IBC C@
,. RCH Code d IMO Resolution A-614

129. tntemational Conventionthat gaveimmunity to hospital shipsin time of war, and formulatesrules for
the seslenent of intemational disputes.
a. I{agueConvention c' MarpolConvention
D. SolAsConvention d MarinersConvention

130. SafetyConstructionCertifrcates,SafetyEquipmentCertificates,SafetyRadioTelegraphyCertiftcates,
Intemational Lmdline Certificatesare statutorycertificatesissuedto vesselunder:
a. 1974SOLAS Convention c. 1972C0LR.EGSConvention
b. lgTSMARPOLConvention d l966I0ADLINEConvention

106 Marine l-avvsand Ship Business

 CONTRACTS
A contract is an agreementbtween two or more statutethat a @ntract is illegal or voi4 a common
personswhich may be legally enforcedif the law is instanceof suchan illegal contractbeing of a gan-
properly invoked. ing nature.
6. .Pcslbtltty of performancc at the tlme when
ESSENTIALS OF A VALID CONTRACT the contract ls entered lnto. If a conhact is impos-
For a contract to be valid, theremust be: sible of performanceat the dat€ when it is entered
into it is void, but the impossibilitymust be com-
1. Ofrer and acceptance.Theremustbea distinct
plete, and not merely in relation to the party liable
communicationby the partiesto oneanotherof their
to perform the act or frrlfill the promise.
intention. tt is important to determinefrom which
pafty the offer emanates.
DISCIIARGE OF CONTRACT
2. Genulnenessof the consent expresscd ln the Contractsmay be dischargedby agreement'per-
offer and acceptance.It may happenthat consent formance,breach,impossibility,or operationof law.
to the agr€ementmay havebeenso givenor obtained
place (1) by
that it did not expressthe true intention of the con- Discharge by Agreement can take
waiver, (2) by substituted agreement, (3) by condi-
sentingparty.
'Form" m@ns some tion subsequent.
3. Form or comlderatlon.
solemnityattachingto the expressicnof agreement Discharge by performance maybe effectedby ac-
'Consideration" means tual perfonnancewhere eachparty actudly carries
asin the executionof a deed.
valuableonsideration and this mustconsistof some- out his part of the contract"or by paymentwherethe
pay-
thing capableof beingestimatedin money'Consid- liability of oneparty to the other consistsin the
eration is necessaryto the validity of everypromise mentof a sum of moneY.
not underseal. Dlscharge by Breach. Breachof contractmay take
4. Capaclty of the parties to contract. Certain placein the following ways:
parties are by law incapable, wholly or in part, of
1. By renunciation.
binding themselvesby a promise,or enforcing a 2. By one party through his own act making it
promisemadeto them. impossibleto fulfill the con8act.
5. Legality of the obJect. It may be declaredby 3. By failureof performance.

MARINE INSURANCE
A Contract of Marlne lreurance is a conract
wherebythe insurer undertakesto indemnify the as-
sured,in manner and to the extent therebyagreed,
againstmarinelossgs,that is to say,the lossesinci-
dent to marine adventure.This contractof indem-
nity is usually basedon values agreedin advance
which may be greateror less than the valuesactu-
ally at risk.
"premium" the
In considerationof payment of
underwriter agreesto indemnify the assuredagainst
lossor danagecausedby'lnaritime perils'. Mari-
time perils are perils consequenton, or incidental to
the navigation of the se4 that is to say,perils of the
seas,fire, war perils, pirates, rovers, thieves,
craptures,seizures,restraints and detainmentsof
princesandpeoples,jettisons,barratry,and anyother

Marine Insurance IM
perils, either dthe lite kind c which may be desig-
natedby the policy.
The document which embodiesthe oontract is
called a'!olicy" and its wcding covor'sonly mari-
tine perils on insurablepropefty whilr afloat.
ISNDS OF PlOLICIrls
VoyegePollcy. This is a policy in which the limi6
of the risk are dercrminedby placesor termini as,
for example, Manila to lrs Angeles,or New Yort
to Singapore.Suchpoliciesarealuays usedfc goods
insuran@,sometimesfu freight insurance,but only
rarely nowadaysfor hull insurance.
Tlme Foltcy.This isdasignedo giveoverfa sme
specifiedperiodof time, say,fa instan@,from noon,
lst January1994to noon, lst January1995.Time
policies are usual in the case of hull insurance,
though there may be caseswhere an owner pfief€rs
to insure his vessel for separatevoyage under a
voyagepolicy.
llhed Pollcy (or Yoyageand Ttme Polcy). Under
such a policy the hull machiner!, aE., of a vessel
conld be insured fa a namedvoyageand by agrer'
ment for sme stipulatedp€riod after arrivd at her
destination,fa examplg ftom Rouerdamto Tubarao
and for thirty daysafter arrival at Tubarao.
C-onstructbn Pollcy (or Bullder's Po[cy). This is
designedto cov€r the risks incidental to the build-
ing of a vessel,usuallygiving coverfrom the time d
laying the keel until completion d trials and hand-
ing overto onners.
Port Follcy. This is to cover a rcssel during a pe-
riod in port againstrisks peculiar to a port asdistin-most god faith", an4 if the utsnostgood faith be
guishedfrom volage risks.
Vetucd Pollcy. This is me which specifiesthe agreed voided by Oe aher pdty. Accordingly, the assured
valueof the sr[ect matter insured,whicb is not nec- must disclme to the underwriter everymat€rial cir-
essarily the actual value. Swh agreedvalue is re- @mstancelnown to him, Oat is everything which
ferred to as the "insured value".
Unvalucd Pollcy. This is one which doesnot sp€cify
the value of the zubjectmatt€r insured, but leaves following neednot be disclosed:
what is called'insurable value" to be subcequently
ascertainedin the manner provided for. Section 16 (a) Any circumstancewhich lessensthe risk.
"In insurance
of the Marine InsuranceAct states:
on freight, wltcther paid in advarce or othctwise,
tlu insurablevalue is tlu grossMrount of tlu freigltt
u tlu risk of thc assured,plus tlu clwrges of insur-
atce."
Open Covers. In order to arrangetheir marine in-
surancein advanceand to be assuredof correru all
times, and also to avoid the efrectsof pocsiblyrap-
idly fluctuating rates, it is the practice of regular
importen and exportersto avail themselvesof some
kind of "blanket" insurance.One way of achieving
'open @vers". An opencoveris
this is by meansof
an agreementbetweenthe assuredand his under-
writen under which the forrrer agreesto declare,
and thela6ertoacc€pt, all shipmentscomingwithin
the scopeof tbe open cover during somestipulated
period of time.
Iloadng Pollcy. This provides another method of
obtaining a long-tenn contractfo goodsinsuran@,
which nay be used insteadof or in addition o an
open oover.A floating or open policy describesthe
insurancein generalterms leaving the namesof the
ship or ships to be defined by su@uent declara-
tion. Sucha policy hasthe advantageofbeing a valid
marine policy, in all respecrsfully complying with
the requirementsof the Marine InsuranceAct.
Genlng Pollcy (or lVagerhg Poltcy). This is a
policy issuedwithout there being any insurable in-
terest,or a policy bearing evidencethat the insurer
is willing o dispenseanyproofof interest.Suchpoli-
cies bave inserted in them the words 'lolicy prof
d interest", or "interest or no interest", or some
similar phrase.
DISCI,OSI.IRE
The Marine InsuranceAct lays down that a confact
of marine insuranceis a oontractbaseduponthe 'tt-
not ds€rved by either party, the oontract may be
wonld influence the judgnent of a prudent insurer
in fixing the premium or in deciding whetheror not
to e€pt tbe risk. But, in the absencedinquiry, the
O) Any circunstance known or presumed to be
lnown by the insurer; that is anything which he
ought to lnos, in the ordinary oourseofhis busi-
n6s.

106 Marine Insurance

(c) Any circumstance as to which infonnation is
waivedby Oe insurer.
(d) Any circunstance which it is superfluous to
discloseby reasonof an exp'ressor implied war-
ranty.
Excessiveadditional insurancesby policies on
freight and disbursemenBmust be disclose4 also
orrer-valuation,of cargo, but not over-valuation of
hull as the underwriter is assumedto be aswell able
as the assuredo estimarethe proper value of the
hull.
WARRANTIES
Section33 (1) of the Marine InsuranceAct &fines a
waranty as a prmissory warranty' that is to say a
warrantyby which the assuredundertakesthat some
particular thing shall or shall not be done, or that
sme ondition shall be frtlfille4 or wherebyhe af-
firms or negativesthe existenceof a particular state
of ftcts.
Impltcd Warranty. It is onewhich, from customor
usage,is implied witbout being neessarily men- l. Subjecto the provisionsof this Act, everyperson
tioned in the policY.
The two very important implied warranties are
as follows:
l. In everyvoyagepolicy it is implied that the vessel
shall be seaworthywhen the risk commences.
2. In evty policy (voyage,or time, or mixed) it is
implied that the adventureshall be lawful.
With regard to the warranty of seaworthiness,
wherethe risk attacheswhile Oe ship is in port it is
implied that the ship is fit to encounterthe perils of
the poG and where a voyageis perfumed in stages DEVIATION
it is implied that the ship is at tle ommencement of
roh stageseaworthYfor that stage.
In a time policy thereis no implied warrantythat soever".This expression,
the ship is seaworthyat any stageof the adventure,
but where,with theprivity of theassured,the ship is
sentto seain an unseaworthystate,the underwriter
is not liable for lossattributableto unseaworthiness' discharged
Warrandes. Tbe Act provides that an ex-
@ress
prcss warranty may be in any fonn of words ftom
which the intention to warrant is to be inferred; that
it must be included in or written upon the policy, or (a) the routedesignated
must be containedin somedocnmentincorporated
by reference into the policy and tbat an express
warranty doesnot excludeimplied warranty unless
it is inoonsistenttherpwith.
Supposefor example,that thepolicy conains the
'Warranted not nortb of 70 deg. N latitude".
clause
If the ship in fact prooeedsbeyond that limit, the
warranty would be breachedand the uderwriters
would haveno further liability under the policy.
Irdtute Warrandes" In policies on vesselsof the
'lined' class it is usual to include a warranty that
suchvesselswill be employedonly in their normal
regular s€f,vices,that is to say within well deftned
limits. Ownersof vesselsof the'tramy''class, how-
ever,will require freedouto tradewithin very much
wider limits.
INSURABLE INTEN,BST
Any personwho effectsor atlemptsto effect an
insurancemusthavean insurableinterest,or at least
musthaveareasonableexpecationof acquiringsuch
"insurable in-
an interest.The Act definesthe temt
teresf in Section5 as follows:
has an insurable inter€st who is interestedin a
maritimeadventure.
2. In particular a personis interestedin a maritime
adventurewherehe standsin any legal or equi-
tablerelation to the adventureor to any insurable
propeftyat risk therein,in consequence ofwhich
he may benefit by the safety or due arrival of
insurable property,or rnay be prejudicedby ia
loss or by damagetbereto, or by the detention
thereof,or may incur liability in respectthereof.
A voyagepohcy may enumerateports of cdl' or
"any ports or placeswhat-
it may give leaveto call at
hotrever,is very restricted
in its meaningand the liberty given is only to call at
the usual ports on the particular voyage.If the ship
deviateswithout lawful excuse,the underwritersare
from liability ftom the time of Oe devia'
tion, and it is immaterial that the ship may have
regainedher route before loss occun'
There is a deviation whenever:
by tbepolicyis departedfrom;
(b) if no route is designated, the usual route is
departed from.

Marine Insurance 109

 An intention to deviatewill not roid the policy if
a lossoccursbeforethe ship actudly deviates.In the
caseof a \ryyagepolicy, the royage must be pros-
ecutedwith reasonabledispatch. Any unreasonable
delaywill void the policy.
Section49 of the Act providesthat deviation or
delayin prosecutingthe voyagecontemplatedby the
pohcy is excused:
(a) where authorized by any special term in the
polrcy; or
O) where caused by circumstancesbeyond the
control of the masterand his ertployeq or
(c) where reasonablynecessaryin order to cmply
with an exptressor implied warranty; or
(d) wherereasonablynecessaryfor the safetyof the
ship or subject-natter insured; or
(e) for the purposeof savinghuman life, or aiding a
ship in distresswherehumanlifemaybe in dan-
ger; or
(D where reasonablynscessaryfu the purposeof
obtaining medical or surgical aid for anyperson
on bmrd the ship; or
(g) where causodby the barratrousconduct of the
rnasteror cre'sr,if barratry be one of the perils
insured against.
When the causeexcusing the deviation or delay
oeasesb operate,the ship must resumeher course,
and prosecuteher voyage,with reasonabledispatch.
IDRILS OFTTTnSEAS
The term 'lerils of the seas"refers mly to for-
tuitous accidentsor casualtiesof the seas.It does
not include tbe ondinary action of the winds and
waves.
Plrate The term'pirates" includespassengers ufro
mutiny and rioten who attack the ship from the
shore.
"thieves" does not over clan-
Ihleves. The term
destinetheft or a theftcommitted by any one of the
ship's company,whe0er crew or passengefs.
"atrresqetc.,dkings,
Restraht of prlnces. The t€rm
prines, and people" refen !o political or executive
actsand doesnot include a loss causedby riot or by
ordinaryjudicial process.
110 Marine Insurance
Barraby. The term'tarratqtz includeswery wrong-
ful act willfully committedby the masteror crew !o
the prejudiced the owrer, or, as the casemay be,
the charterer.
Mcn-of-war. This term applies o warships,gener-
ally, both hostileand friendly. ff, for instance,a mer-
chant ship was capturedas prize by an enemyand
then recapturedby a friendly wanhip whosegunfire
causeddmage to the merchant ship, that wonld be
'han of war".
a loss recoverableas a lossby
Flrr. Lossesby fire are normally recoverableunder
the policy. The policy doesnot oovercargo fired by
spontaneous courbustionif the underwritercanprove
that the cargo was shippedin a condition likely to
give rise to spontaneouscombustion.That wonld be
a lcs due to inherent vice of goods,which is not a
peril insured against.
Enemlcs.This termincludesallnavalunitsandair-
craft of the enemyin time of war.
Rovcrs.This meansmuchthe sameas'!irates", The
distinction p'robablywasthat, whereaspiratesoper-
'trovers" rove the seas
aled in a particular locality,
with the objeaof interceptingand rot$ing merchant
vesselscarrying valuablecargo.
Jettbms. It means throwing overboard cargo or
equipmentto lighten or relieve a vesselin pedl, or
to refloat a strandedship, or to right a ship badly
listed or on her beamends.
Surprbals and lbHng et Sea.The former term has
much the samemeaningas'tapture", while the lat-
ter appearsto relate to the stop,pingof neutral mer-
chant ships in wartime if they are suspectedcarry-
ing contraban( and taking tbem into port ftr ex-
amiaalisa and possiblemfiscation of ontraband
goods.
LLOYD'S FORM OF FOLICY
The standardform of marine policy is Uoyd's
S.G. Folicy. Opinion is divided as to themeaning of
the lettersS.G.Sme favor'Ships and Cioods",oth-
ef,stake them !o mean'Salutis Gratia" (fc the sake
of safety).
IMPORTAIYT CI-AUSES IN LLOYD'S POLICY
Sueand Labor Clause. The wording of this clause
is as follows:
'And in case of any loss or misfortune it slnll be
tawfulto tlw assured,tluirfactors, servantsand as'
signs,to sue,labor,and travelfor in and abouttltc
defense,safeguardsandrecoveryofthz said goods
and merchandisesand ship, etc., or anypart tlureof,
witlnut prejtdice to this insurance; to tlu clarges
wlureof we, tltc assurers,will couribute each one
accordingto the rate and quantiry of his swn lurein
assured".
Waiver Clause. This has a twofold effect, as fol-
lows:
(l) If in a caseof constructivetotal loss,the assured
has given notice of abandonmentto the under-
writers and they have decline to accept it, any
measuretakenby theassuredto savetheproperty,
or any part of it, is not to be takenas a waiver or
withdrawal of the notice of abandonment.
(2) Similarly, any action taken @ the underwriters
to savethe property shall not be regardedas ac-
ceptanceby them of the notice they have previ-
ouslydeclined.

MARII\E LOSSES
TOTALLOSS Generalaverageacts include swh things as:
1. Actual total loss. Occurswhen the subject-mat- . [ttting into a port of refuge to effect necessary
ter is destroyedor is so damagedas to ceaseto be a repairs.
thing of the kind insured, or when the assuredis . Volunary strandingto avoid sinking.
irretrievably deprivedof it.
Generalaveragesacrificesinclude:
2. kesud total l,oss.When the ship concerned .
Jettison, for the corlmon safety,of cargo from
in the adventureis missing her total lossmay,after underdeck.
the lapseof a reasonabletime, be presumed.Ordi- .
Jettisonof cargofrom the deckif carriedon deck
narily, it will be presumedthat the loss arosefrom
'lerils of the sea''which is an ordinary marinerisk. by virtue of awell recognizedqrstomof the trade.
. Cutling awayof mast and sparsto right a ship
3. C-onstuctlve total loss. This oocurs when the dalg;rously listedor on her beamends.
srbject mattef is reasonablyabandonedon account
of its actual total loss appearingto be unavoidable, Generalaverageexpendituresinclude:
or becauseit could not be preservedfrom actual to- . Cost of discharging cargo to refloat a stranded
tal loss without an expenditure that would exceed ship or to carry out necessaryrepairs at a port of
its value after the expenditurehad been incurred. refuge.
. Hire of tug to assist refloating a strandedship
PARTIAL LOSS with cargo.
1. Parttcular av€rage loss. A partial loss of the Jettbms meansthrowing overboardcargoor equip-
subjectmater insured causedby a peril insured mentto ligbten c relievea vesselin peril, or to refloat
against which is not a general averageloss. It is a a strandedship, or to right a ship badly listed or on
partial loss-arising from any kind of accident. A her beamends.
particular ayelzrgeloss falls directly upon the party Jctsam are goodscastor lost overboardfrom a ship
interestedin the subject-matter. which are recoverablethrough being eventually
2. Gmeral av€ragc loss. A partial loss causedby, washedashore,or remainingsubmergedin relatively
shallow water.
or following as a direct oonsequenceof, a general
averageacL There is a General Average Act when, Flobam are goodscastor lost overboardwhich are
and only when, any extraordinary sacrifice or ex- recoverableby reasonof their remaining afloat.
penditure is intentionally and reasonablymade or Lagan or Llgan are goodscast overboardand bu-
incurred fu the oo{nmonsafetyfor the purposeof opd so as to renderthem recoverable.
preserving ftom peril Oe property inrohad in a Derellct is a vesselremaining afloat but ompletely
oommonmaritime advennre. abandoned.

Marine Insurance 111

 LIENS
Pmcssory or Gcneral Ltco is theright which arises menB.
by customin certaintradesor professions,or by con- 2. Danuge liens ari* principal$ from ollision
tract, to reain goodsnot mly util any sum due in damage.Equitable Lien is the right to have
r€spectofthem is paid; but also in respectofany certain propertyapplied in a particular manner.
srm which maybe owing by tbeowner of the goods
to tbe personin possessionof them. Rcspodenda. Contract in which a master of the
ship pledgesfreight and cargoas securityfor loan of
Merlttne Lten is a right against a ship and the moneynecessaryto enablevesselto reach her dis-
ftreightshemay be earningat the time wbich givesa cbargingport.
claimant power to havetbe prop€rtyarrestd an( tr
neoessary,tealized so that ttre proceedsmay be Bottomry. Pledging a ship or the fteight sheearns
applied in satisfactionof a claim. to raise mon€y neoessaryto omplete voyage.Re-
paymentis contingent on safearrival of the vessel.
l. Contractwl lieas arethosewhich arisein respect If the ship is lost the bond is voided.
of paymentdue under somecontract. Examples
are bottmry, respondentia sdnage, seamen's Subrogadon.The uansferof all rights andremedies
w68€s,masterwages,ma$t€r'sclaim for wrong- of an assuredparty, who has suffered a loss, to a
ful dismissal, and master's claims for disburse- party who has indemnified him fe1 the loss.

CLAUSES
Jansen Clruse. It reducespremiums fu the ship- to extendthe underwriter's liability to coverrisks of
owne$ and it lessensliability of the underwriten. a kind which are not included within tbe ordinary
meaningof maritime perils.
New Jason Clausc. A ship o\ilner cannotescapeli-
ability fo loss causedthrough his personalnegli- Runn@ Down Clause.In an ordinarymarinepolicy
genceor default. Ifa salving ship is ovned or oper-
the assuredis coveredin respectof the danage sus-
atedby the carrier, salvageshall be paid for as fully
tainedby his own ship in caseof collision, but such
asif the salving ship or shipsbelongedto strangers.
coverdoesnotextend to his liability for the dan4ge
Incbmaree or Negllgence Clruse. This is designed doneto the other ship.

NOTE OF PROTEST
A Note of hotcst is a declarationby the master
of circumstancesbeyondhiscontrol which may givg
or may havegiven, rise to lossor damage.Suchdec-
laration must be madebefore a notary public, mag-
istrate, Filipino consular officer or other authority.
Usually, statenents under oath will be taken from
the masterand other membersof the crew and these
statementswill bave to be supported@ appropriate
log book entries. At the time of noting protest the
rnastershouldhave the right to extendit.
In my of tbe circumstancesennmeratedbelow,
it is advisablefor the masterto note a protest.
1 , Wheneverduring the rroyage,the ship has en-
count€redconditionsof wind and seawhich may
result in damageto cargo.
When from any cause,the ship is damaged"or
there is reason to fear that damage may be
suslained.
When through stressof weafherit has not been
practicable to adopt nonnal p,recautionsin the
matter of ventilation of perishablecargo.
4. When cargois shippedin such condition that it
is likely o sufierdeteriorationduring the voyage.

tt2 Marine Insurance

 In Ois case,however,the protestwill not be ef-
fective rmlessthe bill of lading wereendorsedto
show the condition of the cargo at the time of
shipment.
5 . Wben any seriousbrcach of C/P terms is com-
mitted by the charterer or his agent, such as
refrsal to loa{ undulydelayinglmding, improper
cargo,refusal to pay demurrage,refusal to accept
bills of lading in the fonn signedby the master'
etc.
6. When consigneesfail to dischargecargoor take
delivery thereof, and pay freight in accordance
with C/P or B/L terms.
7. In all casesof general average. Prot€stshould
be noted as soonaspossible,oertainly within 24
hoursof arrival in port, and in the caseofcargo
protestbeforebreaking bulk.
hotest are admissible in evidencebefore legal
fibunals and in nuny cases,are essentialto the es-
ablishment of a claim.
EXTENDED PR,OTESTS
It often happensthat at the time when a protest
is originally noted it has not beenesablished defi-
nitely whether,in fact, lossor damagehasoccurred
or not. Even wheresomelms or damageis certain,
the firll extent of it will not be known. Should it
transpirethat thereis no lossor damage,then there
will be no need to carry the matter any further.
Otherwise,it will benecessaryto extendthe protest.
In placeswbere a master's prctest aftirmed by the
otricial sealof a notaryor other authority is rccepted
as conclusiveevidenceof the facts stated,it is most
important that an extended protest should be
availableoosupportclirims.
If necessary,a protest may be noted at the port
and extendedat another.

WRECKAND SALVAGE
WRECK DTF'INED
Wreck usuallymeanstheremainsof a vesselthat
has srffered in a maritime casualty.It usually in-
cludesa ship, or parts of a ship, or her equipmentor
crgo, found in or about the seaor tidal waters. A
wrec* may be a derelict. abandonedby its owner
without hope or intention of recoveryor it may be
clearly and obviorsly in someperson's ownership
or, much more likely, its ownenhip, may be doubt-
ful or disputed.
a duty, to deliver the sane to the nearestCollector of
the Port He cannotjust removethe wreck found in
Philipprir' watersand sell it.
SHIPWRECK
Shlpwreckmeansa shipv'r[lg[ hasreceivedin-
juries rendering her incapableof navigation. It is
alsodefinedasthelossofa vesselat sea"eitherbeing
swallowed up by the waves,by running against a
thing at se4 or on the coast.

RE|CETVER.SOF WRECK SALVAGE

"all
Underqr RevisedAdninisrative Code mer- The term salvageapplies o:
chandisepickedup at sea derelict,or recoveredfrom (a) The serviceperformedby a salvor, and
abandonedwtecks, shall be taken possessionof in (b) The reward paid to a sahor in respect of his
the port or district where it shall first arrive and be
successfulservices.
retained in the custody of the Collector. If not
claime4 it sball be dealt with as unclaimed prop- The right to salvagecan arise only in respectof
erty.When brought into port by a rassel,suchvessel maritimeproperty,which term doesnot includeev€ry
shall make an entry by manifest of her cargo." The kind of property found in tidal waters.Vesselsused
recei'ver'smain function is to preservethe wreck, in navigation, whether registered or not, their
deal with theclaims, and collectcustomsdutiesand apparel, cargo and wreckagethereof do oonstitute
tares in appropriarccases.If the weck is found in maritime property,and sodo rafts but not suchthing
Philippine waters,or on the shore,the finder is under as lighwessels,hroys or other floating marks.

Marine Insurance 113

SALVAGE AWARD
Threeonditions must be fulfilled beforetheres-
cte of maritimeprcpertycanglve rise to a validclaim
for a salvagesward. Theseare:
(1) The propertymust be in danger
(2) The service renderedmust be of a voluntary
character,i.e., the salvormust not be underany
contractor ofhcial duty to renderassistance,
(3) The servicemust be successful'
Salv4gewck undertakenin accordancewith a
salvageagreementis not of a roluntary in nature,
but the existenceof someother kind of agreement
may still allow a valid claim to salvageto exist in a
propercase.This mayoccur,for instance,wherethere
is a contractof towageor pilotageand salvageserv-
icesare renderedby the tug or pilot, as the casemay
be.
LIFE SALVAGE
Originally thelaw of salvagedid not providefor
rewarding salvon of hurnan life, as the reward is
payableoutof propertysaved.Somethingmorethan
life must be savedin order to form a fund out of
which salvagecanbe paid. Nowadays,the principle
appliesthat if property is savedas well as life, then
life salvageis payable.The ship, cargoand freight
savedmust all contribute.
DEVIATION
To deviatefrom the contractroute to savelife is
alwaysjustifiable, but deviation to saveproperty is
justifiable urly when the contract of affreightment
reservesthe right to deviatefor that pufpose.
PARTIES TO A SALVAGE OPERATION
The two partiesto the tnrnsactionare:
(1) The salvorswho are entitled to the reward, and
theyarein mostcasesthe owner,masterandcrew
of the salvingshiP,and
(2) The o$'nersof the salvedpropertywho are liable
to pay salvage,namely, the owners of the ship'
cargo and freight salved.
nIGIfTS AI\D OBLIGATIONS OF SALVORS
Whenin caseofshipwreck,the vesseloritscargo
rl4 Marine Insurance
shall be beyondthe @ntxolof the crew or shall have
been abandonedby then and picked up and con-
veyedtoa safeplaceby otherpersons,the lcter shall
be entitled to a reward for the salvage.Thosewho,
not being included in the foregoing, assistin saving
a vesselor its cargo from the shipwreck, shall be
entiued to like reward.
LIENFOR SALVAGE
There is a maritime lien on all property salved
giving the right to arrest the property evenifit haq
changed hands,in orderto haveit soldsoftx16leims
can be satisfied. This lien ranks in priority over all
previous liens on the property,and is consideredto
be such goodprotectionthat salvorsarenotnormally
allowed to retain possessionof salvedpropefty and
therebypreventthe ownen of it from making useof
ir.
SALVAGE AGREEMENTS
The form of agreementalmost universally em-
ployed nowadaysis the Uoyd's StandardForm of
SalvageAgreemcntwith which a numberof advan-
tagesareassociated. Theseareas follows:
1. Theowrpr of thepropertyin dangerbenefitsfrom
the "No cure- No pay" PrinciPle.
2. Tbe salvor benefits by having an agreement
which can be obtained in a few moments and
which is not likely to becontssted.He alsoretains
his right of lien.
3. All parties benefit from the provision of the
agreementthat the salvor'sremunerationshall
bereferredto arbitration (unlessthe partiesagree
otherwise).
4. Underwriters of the property in danger benefit
becausetheir liability, cannot be increasedbe-
"No cure
yond liability for otal loss. Under the
- No pay" principle, they will not becomeliable
for suing and laboring chargesas well as in the
eventof total lossoccurring.tn lvlay 1980,a new
versionofthe Lloyd's StandardForm of Salvage
Agreementwasintroducedwhich, with theobject
of trying to reduce oil pollution following an
accident,provides fu the paymentof expenses
to a salvorevenwhenhe hasnot beensuccesful.
 TOWAGE
TThe masterof a ship always has the authority o trary, it will be implied that the tow is under an ob
joint operatim'
I tog.g" the servicesofurgs wheneverihey are ligation o play her properpart in the
reasonablyrequired for the proper performanceof that thoseon board the tow will we all reasonable
the voyage,and any contract he makesin thosecir- skill and diligence and will not increasethe risk in-
cumstances will be binding on the shipowner so long cidental0o the serviceB my kind of negligenceor
as the terursof the contract are rpasonable. misconduct, and that any material fact afiecling the
nature of the servicerequiredwill be disclosed.
A towage conbact is a ontract of service,that
is to say a oontractto tow a vesselftom one named Concealmentof material facts may result in the
placeto another,and failure to perform that service tug owner becomingentitled to rocoverdamagesin
will bar the tug owner's claim for remuneration.Not respectof additional expensesincurred.It nay also,
only must tbe nrg be fit to perfonn the particular in somecases,give the tug owner the right to rcpu-
servicecontractedfor, but her crew,tackleandequip- diatethe towagecontractand claim a salvageaward.
ment must be adequateto the task in the weather
andcircumstancesreasonablyto be expected.There
LIABILITY OF TUG
is an implied term in everytowagecontractthat if in
the courseof the owage the tow is placedin danger Exceptin specialcases,asfor instancewherethe
dre to someextraordinaryand unforeseenperil, the tow is a wreck or unmannedvesselor ra& the ow
tug must render all necessaryassistance.In doing has 6pagpl of the towage operations.IIer owners
so, the tug may b€cme entitled to salvage. will be liable for any danage which the tug may
inflict on a third party. In addition, the tug will be
liable aswell.
OBLIGATIONS OF THE TOW
In the absenceof expressagreement0othe con-

Marine Insurance 115

 IIARTNE INSURANGE
l. Ifa salvagingvesselis owned or operatedby the carrier, salvageshall be paid for as fully as if said
salvageship or ships belongedto strangers.This statementis included in:
a. both to blame collision clause c, paramountclause
D. new Jasonclause d. no cure no pay basis

2 The transferby the insuredof all his intereststo the insurerwith no chanceof recoveryor indemnity is:
a respondentia D. salvage c. subrogation d warranty

3. Deliberatethrowing orrerboardof goodsor fittings fu the preservationof the ship in peril is:
a. jettison D. Jansenclause c. salvage d. jetsart

4. Marine insuranceterm fq lossescausedby an act of God:

a actualtotalloss c. Crod'swill
D. forcemajerne d. constructivetotal loss

5. Your vesselis agrormddue to an error in navigation.Danage to the hull causeswater to enterto cargo
hold #3. Deck cargo is thrown overboardto help refloat the vessel.The vesselsuccessfullyreturnsto
port in this oondition. Which of the ff. is consideredas general average?
a. d^magetotbehull
D. loss of deck cargo and cargo danage in hold #3
c. cargodamagein hold#3
d. loss of deck cargo

6. Expe,nses incurred by Oe insured for the commonsafetyor preservationof the subjectmatter insured
is:
c. salvage c' generalaveragecontribution
D. yarticular averagelcs d. generalaverageloss

?. A partial loss of the ur$ect matter insured causedby a peril insured against which is not a general
averageloss is:
a geteralaverage c- prticularcharges
D. particularaverage d partialcharges

8. When a vesselnrns agroundwith the possibility of refloating her but owner relinquishing all rights to
the insurers for paymentof the full value of Oe vessel.
a. onstructive total loss c. particular loss
D. total loss d. none of these

9. The fansfer by Oe insuredof his interestto the prop€rtyinsuredto the insurer with all the chancesof
recov€f,yand indemnitYis:
a. bottomry D. reryondentia c. subrogation d. warranty

10. Entirely to vacatea ship and to relinquish or to repudiateall dutiestowardspreservationis:

a. abandonsbip b. jettison c. aberration d' avetage

ll. Goodscast or lost ovefioard from a ship which are recoverablethrough being eventually washed
ashoreor remaining submergedin relatively shallowwater is:
a. jetsan D. jettison c. lagan d. flotsant

rl6 Marine Insurance

t2 A masterwould be well-advisedto file a note of protestif:
a portions of his vessel'scargowereillegally impounded
D. cargoreceivedat ship sidewasdamagedin land transit
c. the vesselenoounteredheavyweatherwhich might havecausedbofion damage
d vesselis delayeddue to strike

13.Lossdue to an act of God is considered:

a. generalsalvage b. generalaverage c. particularaverage d. gcneralclaim
are disclarged if 6e
14. The mortgageof the cargo mly as securityto the senderand wberpobligations
ship and cargo were lost afterward:
a. bottomry D. demurrage c. dispatch d. reryondentia

marine insurance
15.Dam4geto another vessel'scargo causedby a collision is coveredunder which
policy?
a. hull c. fire
D. protectionand indemnitY d. none of these

16.what do you call fu the goodsor cargoesjettisoned or thrown overboard?

a. jetsam D. flotsam c' lagan d' allof tbeabove
receivedor collectedis:
1 7 . The act of holding a propertyor cargo from releaseunlesspaymenthasboen
a. maritimesalvage D. maritime claim r maritime lien
essentialfacts o the
1g. A principle of maritime insurancethat no party to a contfact must repr€sent
other party:
a. indemnity D. insurableinterest c. srreand labor d. uunost good faith
policy?
1g. The shipowner's liability for cargodamageis coveredunder what marine insurance
a. hull c. cargo
D. protection and indemnitY d. pollution
ashore?
20. Whatdo you call to ship's cargoesor any part thereofwhich havebeenwasbed
a. ligan D. 1"t""* c' flotsam d' wrck
presenrationof ship and cargo is:
21. The expenditurethat hasbeenincurred by a shipownerfor the
d. jettison D. salvage c. actofGod d. genenalarrerage
port:
22. Amandattr]ylien to be paid as requiredby law or regttllltiottsof the
a. maritime lien b' pmsessory lien c' statutory lien d. all ofthese

vesseland her cargois:

23. Everywrongfulact willfully committedby the masteror srsiv againsttheir
a. mutinY e
c' ltgrglilli:tit
b. banatrY d' PiracY
any of the crew withut tbe
24. l.slywillful act of violenceto the ship or her cargo,doneby the masteror
oonsentof the shiPowneris:
D. banarry c' bottomry d' breachof conErct
c. desertion
to propertyon which claims
25. The primary duty of tbemastefwhen an accidentoccursinvolving damage
may anse rs:
a. o promptly inform the owner c. O PromPtlYinform the PCG
D. o noe a marine Protest d. to cdll a cargo sltrveyff

Marine Insurance tt7

6. A principle of marine insurancethat an assuredcan only recoverundera policy if he hasan insurable
interest in the subjectmatter insured:
a unnostgood faith D. sueand labor c. indemnity d insurableinterest
27. T\ere are m:rny kinds of lossesrvhich fall under extraneous'risks" due to damagecausedby the tr
hook holes,oil taint, sweat,mud, stains,acidsand non-deliveryof goods.This falls ordinarily under:
a total loss c. particularloss
b. generalaverage d. not overed by marine insurancepolicy

28. The temr usedto denotea quantity of changein somecargoes,which damagesthe cmmodity itself.
'Ihis
kind of damageis allied to that of spontaneousheating in the goodsin the vicinity of those
srbject cargoestbat may sharein the dnmagefron said causeis:
o. heatingdamage b. inherentvie c. cargomixture d. dustandstaindanrage
29. \\e other namefor P & I club is:
a. self-insurance D. classinsurance c. re-insurane d. mutualinsufamce

30. The condition of a wreck when the oostof salvageexceedsthe valueof the vessel:
a. generalaverage c. onstructive total loss
D. maritinelien d. particularaverage

31. Which of the ff. marine insurancepolicies is not normally purchasedby the shipowner?
a. @rgo c. pollution
D. protection and indemnity d. hull

32. The financial loss causedby damageor partial loss to ship, cargo or freight mon€y,and which are
borne by ownersof the property lost or danaged, or their insurers:
a. averagebond b. generalaverage c. particularaverage d. goodfairaverage

33. Croodscast overboardand buoyedso as to render them recoverableis:.

'd. jettison
a. laryrm b. jetsam c. flotsarn

34. When a vesselruns agroundwith a possibility of refloating her but ownersrelinquishing all rights to
the insurers fu paymentof the full value d the vessel.
a. presumedtotal loss c. @nstructive total loss
D. rctud total loas d. none of tbese

35. Any accidentof the seadisabling the vesselto navigateis a gromd for:
a. fore majeure c. laid-up vessel
D. deviation from destination d. arrival under disress

36. Supposeyou had incurred lossesduring the voyagewhich are subjectfor generalaverage.Upon ar-
rival in port, you should:
a. make a written report to the Customsofficers
b. file a note of marine protest
c. make a written report to the Coastguard
d. advisethe consigneeand charterer
37. To exenpt purself and all the crew aswell as'theowner from any liabilities while cruising on heavy
weather,you shouldprepareat oilceyour:
a. notice of readiness c. marine protest
D. disparchcoinputation d. gmd laydays

118 Marine Insurance

3g. Whenthemasterusedapartofhiscargooffueloilinordertoreachhisdestination,itformsapartot
c. generalaverage c. respondentia
D. particularaverage d. none of these

39. Goodscastor lost overboardwhich are recoverableby reasonoftheir remainingafloat is:

a. jetsam b. Wan c. flotsam d. none of these

40. Throwing overboardcargoor equipmentO lighten or relieve a vesselin peril, or to refloat a stranded
shipor to right a shipbadlylisted,or on her beamend.
a. jetsam b. flotsam c. jettison d. all of these

41. Inchmareeclauseprovidesfor the insuranceto coverlossor danage to hull or machinerydirectly

causedby:
a. Accidents in loading, dischargingor shifting of cargo or fuel
D.-Contact with aircraft
c. Bothaandb
d. Neithera nor b

42. Representativeswhose duties are to protect underwriters from fraud, negligence,and needlessex-
pensesare the:
a. l-toyos agents D. NBI agents c. ship agenS d secret agents

43. Supposea vesselfinds anothership I ,000miles at seaand Ows her within a mile from shoreand then'
ofan accident'lossesher, sheis: t
Uy-reason
a. Not entitled to salvage c. Partly entitled to salvage
D. Entitted to salvage d. Liable of the losses

44. The term for the loss se6ledby undenvriterswhen goodswhich havebeendamagedby a peril insured
againstare sold at a port of refugebecausecarrying them on further would result in them losing still
more of their value:
a. Salvageloss c' Creneralaverageloss
b. Particularaverageloss d. Bothbandc

45. The employmentof vesselto expeditethe voyageof anotherand nothing more is requiredof her:
a. Tou,age b. Salvage c. Particularaverage d' Generalaverage
"avefage"hasSpecialmeaningin marineinsurance,it means:
46. The term
a. Loss b. Contribution c. Risks d' Mean

47. Usedin marine insuranceto denotethat the subjectof insurancehasbeencompletelylost, or hasbeen

so danaged.
a. Actual total loss b. Actual los c. Actual partial loss d. None of the above

48. What do you call to ships and cargoesor any part thereofwhich havebeencaston shoreby the sea?
a. Wreck b. Ligan c. Jetsam d' Flotsam

49. Which is/are consideredcorrect as requisitesof a generalaverage?

o. Existenceof a commondanger
b. Expensesand damageswere irlcurred or inflicted after the requiredlegal stepshadbeen taken
c. Successfulsaving ofthe vesseland cargo as a consequence ofthe expensesand danragescaused
d. All of the above

Marine Insurance 119

50. Which is/are consideredcorrect with regardsto groundsof arrival under distress?
a. Lr,kofProvision
D. Well founded fear of seizureof pirates
c. Seizureby repair yard for unpaid service
d. aandbonlY
51. The transfer of gods ftom the vesselstipulated in the contract of affreightment to another vessel
beforethe plrce of destination has beenreached.
a. Throughcargo b. Lightering c. Transshipment d. Barging

52. Ano0er el6mentof a salvageclaim is:

a. Successofthe adventure c. Crew exerted effort
D. Crew effort beyondworking hours d. None of these
of a
53. A person who officially calculatesthe ontribution due from each bereficiary as consequence
GeneralAverageAct'
a. Salvor b. Assessor c. Arrerageadjuster d. Salvageassociation

54. The fint elementof a contract,the point where negotiationusually begins.

c. Mustbe in written form c. Theremustbean agreement
D. A considerationis paid d. An offer is made

55. An associationof ship ownersthat mutually contribute to a fund to oovermember's lossesnot nor-
mally coveredby regularhull insurance.
a. Cargolnsurance D. Hult coverage c. P&Iinsurance d. Freightinsurance

56. A marine insurancepolicy in which the limits of the risk are deterurinedby placesor terurini.
a. Time polLy b. voyage policy c. Port policy d. valued policy

57. pledging a ship or the freight sheearnsto raise moneyn@essaryto completethe voyage'Repaynent
is contingent on safearrival of the vessel.
a. Bottomry D. Respondentia c. Barratry d. Srrbrogation

58. S.G.in Lloyd's standardform of marinepolicy means:

a. Shipsandcoods b. SalutisGratia c. Bahaandb d. Neitheranorb

59. The act of saving life and propertyat seawith the hopeof reward.
a. Salvage b. Rescue c. Tmrage d. None of these
"salvage"appliesto:
60. The tern
a. The serviceperfonnedby a salvor.
D. The reward paid to a salvor in respectof his srccessfulservices.
c. Bothaandb
d. Neither a nor b

120 Marine Insurance

 THE INTERNATIONAL CODE OF SIGNALS
TIIECODEFLAGS
The set of Code Flags consists of 26 alphabet
flags, 10 numerical pendants,3 substitutesand the
answeringpendant-40 flagsin all. The subatitutes
are intended o indicate a repeat of a flag or pen-
dant"in a hoist, so that double or eventreble letters
or figuresmay be conveyedin the samehoist by one
set of flags only.
SINGLE.LETIERIIOISTS
Single-lettersignalsrelateto phraseswhich are
very urgent, important or of very commonuse.
Sns,r-r,nrrrrSterers
l"lay bemadeby anymethodof signaling'
A I havea diver down; keepwell clear at
slow speed.
* B I am taking in, or discharging,or car-
rying dangerousgoods.
* "The significance
C Yes (affirmative or
of the previurs should be read in the
affirmative").
* D Keep clear of me. I am maneuvering
with diffiailty.
E arr altering my courseto starbald.
F am disabled;conmunicate with me.
G require a pilot. When madeby fish-
ing vesselsoperatingin closeproxim-
"I
rty on tbe fishing groundsit means:
amhaulingnets".
* I I I have a pilot on board.
* I I am altering my oourseto Port.
J I am on fire and bavedangerouscargo
on board; keepwell clear of me.
K I wish to cmmunicate with You.
L You shouldstop your vesselinstantly.
M My vesselis stoppedand making no
way through thewater.
N No (negativeor'"The significanced
the previous group should read in the
Signaling and Communications
negative").This signal may be given
only by visually or sound.For voiceor
radio transmission,tbe signalshouldbe
"NCr'.
o
Man overboard.
In harbor.All personsshouldreporton
P
boardas the vesselis aboutto proceed
to sea.
At sea.It may be usedby fishing ves-
"
selsto mean: Mynets havecomefast
to an obstruction."
My vesselis "healthy" and I request
a
ftee pratique.
* s I am operatingasternpopulsim.
* T , Keepclearof me; I3m engagedin pair
trawling.
U Youarerunning into danger.
v I requestassistance.
w I require medical assisranoe.
x Stop carrying out your intentioos and
watchfor my signals.
Y I an draggingmy anchor.
z I require a tug. When madeby fishing
vesselsoperatingin closep'roximityolt
'I
the fishing gronndsit means: am
shootingnets."
Notes:
"*"
l. Sigruls of letten marked uien madeby somd
mayonly bemadein mpliance with therequire-
ments of the Internatioral Regulationsfor Pre-
ventingCollisionsat Sea.
2. SignalsK andS havespecialmeaningaslanding
signals ff small boatswith personsin distress.
(Internationd Convention fa Safety of Life at
Sea.)
Snvcls-Lrrrrn Srcxrr,s wns Coupr,IMENTs
Single-letterwhen followed by numeralshavea
specialsignificationandmaybemadeby anymethod
of signaling.
l2l
 A with threenumerals.Azimuthor Bearing
c with threenumerals.Course
D with two, four, or six numerals.Date
G with four or five nunerals. Longitude(the
last two numeralsdenoteminutesand the
rest degrees).
K with one numeral.I wish to communicate
by (methodin ComplimentsTable1).
with four numerals.Latilude (thefirst nvo
denotedegreesand the rest minutes).
with one or more numerals.Distance in
nauticalmiles
s with oneor morenumerals.Speedin knots
T with four numerals.Local time (the fust
two denotehoursand the restminutes).
with one or more numerals.Speedin
kilometersper hour.
with four numerals.GMT (thefirst two de-
notehoursand tle restminutes).
TWO.LETTERSIGNALS
Twoletter signals cover the generalsectionto
USE OF ST]BSTITUTES
SubstitutesareusedwhenaCodegroupor a Nu-
meralgroupcontainsa repetitionof a letteror a fig-
ure.
The rulesto be followedwhendecidingwhich
substitute!o use are:
1. The first substitutealwaysrepeatsthe uppermost in the samegroup.
signal flag of the classof flags which inmediately 5. The answeringpendantwhenusedas
precedesthe substitute,
2. T\e secondsubstitutealways repeatsthe second stitute to use.
signalflag countingfrom trrctop of thatclassof flags
RECEPTIONOF SAFETYMESSAGES
Any messagewhich you hear prefixed by one of
the following wods concemsSAFETY.
Itfiayday Indicatesthat a ship, aircraft or other
(Distress) vehicleis threatenedby graveand im-
minent dangerand requestingiumedi-
ate assistance.
hn Indicatesthat the calling station has a
(Urgency) very urgent messageto transmit con-
122 Si gnalin g and Conununicatbw
the "InternationalCode"which dealswith Distress;
Emergency;Casualties;Damage;Aids to Navigation;
Manoeuvers; Miscellaneous;Meteorology;Weather;
Communicationsand InternationalHealthRegula-
tions. In certaincases,the meaningof a twoletter
signalmaybevariedby including a numeralpendant.
THREF-LETTERSIGNALS
The three-lettersignalscover the Medical Sec-
tion of the "InternationalCode" and the fi$t letter
is alwaysM.There arethreemedicaltablesof com-
pliments which consist of two numeral pendants
which relateto Regionsof the Body; List of Com-
mon Diseasesand List of Medicaments.
FOUR.LBTTER SIGNALS
Four-lettergroupsrefer 0othe identity of ships
for thepurposeof makinga ship'sknownat sea.The
Signal lettersand the ship's radio call sign are the
same.The frst letter or numberand in somecases
the frst two letters indicate the nationalitv of the
ship.
which immediatelyprecedesthe substitute.
3. The third substitutealwap repeatsthe third sig-
nal flag counting from the op of that classof flags
which immediatelyprecedesthe substitute.
4. No substitutecan ever be usedmore than once
a decimal
point is o bedisregardedin determiningwhich sub-
cerningthe safetyofa ship, aircraftor
other rehicle, or the safety of a per-
son.
Securlte Indicates that the station is about to
(Safery) transmit a messageconcerningsifety
of navigationor giving importantme-
teorological warnings.
 SHIP IN DISTRESS
A ship in distressshouldtransmitthe appropri-
ate alarm signal followedby distresscall.andmes-
sageon one or both of the international distressfre-
quencies,namely, 500 kHz (radiotelegraphy)and
2182 kHz (radiotelephonY).
( ANNEXrV )
coLLrsIoN REGULATTONS
DISTRESS SIGNALS
L The following signals,usedor exhibitedeither
togetheror separately,indicate distressand needof
assistance:
(a) a gun or otherexplosivesignalfued at intervalsof
abouta minute;
O) a continuoussoundingwith any fog-signaling
appatatus;
(c) rocketsor shells,throwing red starsfired oneat a
time at short intervals;
(d) a signal madeby radiotelegraphyor by any other
signalingmethodconsistingof the group
...- - a... (SOS)in theMorseCode;
(e) a signalsentby radiotelephonyconsistingof the
"Mayday'';
ryoken word
(D theInternationalCodeSignalof distressindicated
byN.C.;
(g) a signalconsistingof a squareflag havingabove
or belowit a ball or anything resemblinga ball:
(h) flamesqr the vessels(asfrom a burningtar barrel'
oil barrel,etc.);
(i) a rocketparachuteflare or a hand flare showinga
ST]BMARII\ES
A sunkensubmarinewill try to indicateher plight
and positionby:
1. Releasingan indicator buoY.
2 By firing pllow, white or red smokecandlesor
Si gnaling and Cownunic ations
In certaincases,it may in addition be helpful o
transmitthe distresscall andmessage on 156.EMHz
(VHF Channel16).The useof emergencyposition-
indicating radio beacon(EPIRB) may b a further
meansfor alerting shipsin the vicinity.
redlight;
f) a smokesignalgiving off orange-colmedsmoke;
(k) slowly andrepeatedlyraising and lowoing anns
outstretchedto each side:
(1) theradiotelegraph
alarmsigml;
(m)theradiotelephonealarm signal;
(n) signals transmitted by emergencyposition-
indicating redio beacons.
2.Tbe useor exhibitionof any of the foregoingsig-
nals exceptfor the purposeofindicating distressand
needof assistance andthetse of othersignalswhich
may be confi.rsedwith any of the above signals is
prohibited.
3. Attentionis drawn to the relevantsectionsof the
InternationalCode of Signals,the Merchant Ship
SearchandResoe Manualandthe following signals:
(a) a pieceof orange+oloredcanvasswith either a
black squareand circle or otherappropriatesym-
bol (tbr identificationfrom theair);
O) adyemarker.
pyrotechnits.
3. By pumpingoil o the surface.
4. Byblowingoutair.
r23
 INTERNATIONAL MORSE CODE AND CONVENTIONAL SIGNALS

I Tobe usedfor all generalpublicserviceradiocommunication. (1) A dashis equalto threedots;(2)

thespacebetween partsof the sam: is
letter equaltoonedot;(3) thespacebetweentwo lettersis
equalto threedots;(4)thespacebetweentwowordsis equalto sevendots.l

A . - Period(fullstop)............ a - a - a -

B - . . .
Comma - - o a - -

c - . - . - - - a a a
D - . . Co|o1,..........."
E . (Alsousedfor"pleaserepeat
Interrogation
F . . - .
G
H
- - .
o . . .
:lllllllllil;;,
ill _rlrT::::::: o o - - a o

I . . ^Pverr vl/r rs

- a a a o -
J o Hyphenor dash
K - . -
Solidus(fractionbar or divisionsign) ...(NR)
l o
M Parentheses:
- . " ( ' . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . - a - - a
N L e f th a n db r a c k e t
")'
o Righthandbracket ................. F a - - a -

P . - - .
- - . - lnvefted commas........ a - a a - a

O
R . G . Doubledash (Break)... ...........(Br) - a a a -

S . . . D i s t r e s sc a l l. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (sos)
........ a o o - - - a a a

T .....
callto precedeeverytransmission
" - Attention
U
V . " - ...........(cr) -a -a -

W . c - General call............
enquiry ..........(co) - a - o - - a E

x -..-
Y - . - -
z --..
Wait.............. (AS) a - o a a
....................
Understood ..........( vE)
........ a a a - o

Errar a a o o o a a a
l o
I e . - - - ' -o
R e c e i v e d( O K ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(.R )
3 . . . --
. . . . - Positionreport(toprecedeallposition
4 - '-'
o . . . . messages) ........................(TR)
$
6 - . . . . Endof message;alsocrossor additionsign
7 - - . . .
8 - - - . .
- - - - . linished(endof work)
Transr!,ission
I
iconclusionof corresPondence) ( V A ). . . - ' -
U

124 Si gnaling and Communications

BASICCONCEPTOF THEGLOBALMARITIMEDISTRESSSYSTEM

EPIRBSYSTEM
BASICCONCEPTOFTHEL-BANDSATELLITE

INMARSAT
SATELLITE

----Z----1-1
<-ffi4
[*,
\ \

-f
\ \

,/
I <t?crtr\G,r. I

t-TJ

Signaling and Communications t2s

 STORM SIGNALS

SMALL CRAF"T

WHOLE GALE HURRICANB

t2I;
 SIGNALTNGAND COMMUNTGATIONS
1. The letter HOTEL when hoistedmeans:
a. I require a doctor c. I havea pilot on board
b. I require a pilot d. I havea doctor on board
"S" indicate:
2. Figuresprecededby the letter
a. destination b. speed c. ship'sheading d. a question
'R." indicate:
3. Figuresprecededby letter
a. latitude D. distane c. bearing d. noneof these

4. In signaling by International CodeFlags, what is the significanceof four-letter signals?

a. urgentmessages d. oommonmessages
b. geographicalsignal &signal station d. genenl vocabulary

5.Whenbunkeringorloadingexplosives,myflaghoistshouldbe:
a. Delta D. Charlie c. Bravo d November

6. The call for unknown station and generalcall:

a.W b.C c.T d.AA

7. What will you hoist whenyou havea diver down and requireshipsto keepclear?
a. Alpha D. Bravo b. Charlie d. 7-rtlu

8. Whennavigatingat night" you seea vesselflashingby light the letter KILO, you will reactby:
a. stoppingyour engine c. answeringin the samemanner
b. calling the master d. changing@urseto stbd

9. Two flag signal "QQ" means:

a. My ship is infected, I had a caseof infectious diseaseless than 5 daysago
b. My ship is healthy,I requestfree pratique
c. My ship is suspect,I havea caseof infectiousdiseasemorethan five days3go
d. noneoftheabove

10. What internationalsignal letter is usedwhencalling anothervesselby light signal?

a. November b. Della c. Bravo d. Kilo

11. The signalsof soundcomposedof dotsand dashesis known as:

a. telegraphicsignals c. telephonicsignal
b. internationalcode d. Morsecode

12. A setof codeflags on a vesseltotals:

a. 36pcs. b. 26pcs. c. 60pcs. d. 40pcs.

13. If at se4 you sightedan internationalorangebuoy aboutthreefeetin diameter,what doesit mean?

d. it indicatesa submarinein distresson the bottom
b. an approachbuoy newly painted
c. abuoy usedin yachtracing
d. a ship is in distress

Signaling and Communi

cations 127
14. In a set of codeflags, how many substitutesare there?
a. l0 b.3 c . 4 d.2
'OSCAR" is holsted,it signifies:
15. When the codeflag
a. I am going astern c. I am stoppingmy engine
D. a vesselin distress d. a man overboard

16. Whenrequestingfor freepratique,which singlehoist is exhibited?

a. Lina b. Quebec c. X-ray d. Bravo
"TANGO" on her foremast.What does
1 7 . While navigating in a roadstead,anothervesselhoist the letter
it mean?
a. Sheis requestingnot to passaheadof her
b. Sneneedsadoctor
c. There is a man overboard
d. noneof these

1 8 . The useof3 figure signalsdenotes:

a. bearingor azimuth c. longitude
b. distance d. time
"VIC'IOR" is hoisted,it means:
19. When the letter
a. I require assistance c. I an disabled
b. Do not passaheadof me d. You are running into danger

20. Hoist which relatesto phraseswhich are very urgent"important and of commonuse:
c. four lener hoist b. three letter hoist c. single letter hoist d. noneof these

21. An all round white light which flashessimultaneouslywith the ship's whistle when signifying a
coursechange:
a. anchorlight b. Morselight c. signallight d. maneuveringlight

22. The top letter of the numeralhoist when signalinglongi0de is:

a. Golf b. Lima c. X-ray d. Tbngo

23. The top letterof the numeralhoist when signalingcourseand bearingis:

a. Alpha b. Charlie c. Brarro d. Papa

,4. A vesselwhich sound on her whistle 7 successiveshort blasts and followed by 1 prolonged blast
means:
4. man overboard b. abandonshiP c. fre drill d. boat drill

25. Two prolongedblass followedby one shortblastmeans:

a. I am calling a Pilot c. Ineedadoctor
b. I request free Pratique d. I require assistance
26. The vertical dimensionof a flag is called:
a. Weft b. Hoist c. Tabling d. Thck

27. The horizontal dimensionof a flag is called:

a. Thck b. Wrap c. Irngth d.Av
28. In undergoinga speedtrial, what will pu hoist?
c. Bravo b. Papa c. Alpha d. T,ulu

t?3 ations
Si gnaling and Communic
Zg. Wben sendingthe safetysignalsby radiotelegraphy, it is usuallysenton the frequencyof:
a . 5 0 0 k h z b . 1 5 6 . 8 k h z c ' 2 1 8 2 1 l J l z d ' 6 0 0 Y ' h z
"IJ" or the letter"fl'by blinker?
30. What is indicatedby the flag
a. You are standinginto danger c' I requireassistance'
b. I requirea tug. d' I havea fire on board'

31. Which word implies graveand imminent dangerand a requestfor assistance?

a. PAN b. MAYDAY c' SECURITE

32. Which word indicatesa messageof urgency?

a. PAN b. SECURITE c' MAYDAY

33. Which word preludesa navigationalor meteorologicalwarning?

a. PAN ,. MAYDAY c' SECURITE

S4.Datemaybesignaledbytwo,fourorsixnumeralsprecededby:
b. Lima c. PaPa d' Zttlu
a. Delta
"T" (local time)
usedprecededby
35. Time is denotedby the useof the 24-hourclock.Four numeralsare
or (GMT).
b. Zttlu c' PaPa d' Delta
a. Alpha
"M" indicates:
36. Three-letterhoistsbegin with the letter
a.Maneuveringsignalsc.Meteorologicalwarning
b. Medical signals d' Master'sadvise

3.1. A visual signal displayedto indicatea weatherforecastis called:

a.WeathersignalD.Weathermessagec.Weathercodingd.Synopticsign
meaningasa messagesentby fadio-
38. A radiotelegraphmessagecommencingwith XXX hasthe same
telephonecommencingwith:
a. TTT c. The spokenword URGENCY
,. sos d. The spokenword PAN

39. The verticalmotionof a white light or armsindicates:

a. This is the best waY to land, c. Both a and b
b. Affimtative. d. Ndither a nor b

Thereare no vesselsvisible in your

40. You seea red flare descendingfrom a height of about300 feet.
vicinity or on radar.This signalwhenobservedat seaindicates:
a. Submarinein distresstrying to surface'
b. A planein distressreadyfor ditching
depth'
c. Submarineis aboutto cometo periscopedepthfrom belowperiscope
d. Landing hereis highly dangerous'
used for transmissionof
4l . When using tbe marine radiotelephone,what frequenciesare coillmonly
distresssignals?
b. l56.8MIIz c. Channel16 d' Allof theabove
a. 2l82WIz

Si gnaling and Communications t29

42. Any personmaintaining a listening watch on a bridge to bridge radiotelephonemust be ablOto:
a. SpeakEnglish b. Repairthe unit c. SpeakSpanish d SendMorseCode

maritime mobile s€rviceshall keep watch on the International disfressfrequency

' All stations of the
43.
500 kHz fu three minutes twice an hour. Thesetimes are:
a. 00 to 03 min. and 30 to 33 min. after the hour.
b. 15 to lE min. and 45 to 48 min. after the hour.
c. 12 to 15 min. and 45 to 48 min. after the hour.
d. 15 tD 18 min. and42to 45 min. after the hour.

4. iq allowed to be transmiced on the radiotelephonewithout the

Which of the following messagfas
authority of the Master?
a. Urgencysignal c. Disuesssignal
D. Safetysignd d. None of the above

45. A plane circles your vessel,crossesyour cou$e at a low altitude openingand closing his throttle and
headsoff in a direction which you are to be directed. How would you indicate your INABILITY to
comply?
a. Hoist the International codeflag November(t9.
D. Flash the Morse Code proceduresignal T.
c. Hoist the answeringpennant.
d. Emit large quantities of black smokefrom your stack.

46. In aclnowledging receiptof a distressmessage,what codewould be sent on the radiotelegraphto let

the vesselin distresslrrow that the messagewas received?
a.R b.W c.OK d.QRT

47. You seea 3-footinternationaloftrngemarkerbuoy.This indicatesa :

Answer: Submarineon thc bottomunableto surface.

48. IIow would 1030GreenwichMean Time be sentby blinker?

Ansper: Z 1030
"Y[.1".This would indicate:
49. Ifiby flasning light" you see
Answer : Thefollowing messageis from the inlenmtional codegroup.

50. In flag signalingthe answeringpennantcould be usedto :

Answer: Indicae a decimalpoint.

130 Si gnalin g and Commanicatio ns

WREGT]LATIONSFORPW
COLL$IONS AT SEA
These Rahs are applicable inbrnatiorully as from Ist september, 1989

PART A.GEITTERAL
Rule 1 Rule 2
APPlication ResPonsibilitY
(a) TheseRules shall apply to all vesselsupon (a) Nothing in Oeserules shall exonerateany
the high seasand in all waters connetted therewith vessel,or the owner, master or crew thereof, from
navigableby seagoingvessels' the consequences of any neglect to comply with
theseRulesor of theneglectof any precautionwhich
(b) Nothing in the.seRules shall interferewith may be requiredby the ordinary practiceof seamen,
the operationof specialrules made by an appropri- or by the special circumstancesof the case'
ate authority for roadsteads,harbors, rivers, lakes
(b) [n construingand complying with these
or inland watenilaysconnectedwith the high seas
andnavigableby seagoingvessels.Suchspecialrules Rules dueregard shall be had to all dangersofnavi-
shall conform as closely as possibleto theseRules.
gation and collision and to any special circum-
star@s,including the limitations of the vesselsin-
(c) Nothing in theseRules shall interferewith volved,which maymakea deparnrrefrom theserules
the operationsof any specialrules madeby the Gov- necessaryto avoid irunediate danger.
ernmentor any Statewith respectto additiond sta-
tion or signal lights or shapesor whistle signals for
ships of war and vesselsproceedingunder convoy, Rule 3
or with respectto additional station or signal lights General Definitiotts
or shapesfor fishing vesselsengagedin ftshing as a For the purpose of theseRules,exceptwherethe
fleet Theseadditionalstationa signallights' shapes context otherwiserequires.
or whistle signals5hall, so far as possible,be such (a) The word "vqssel" includes every descrip-
that they cannotbe mistaken for any light' shapeor tion of watercraft, including non-displacementcraft
signal authorizedelsewhereunder theseRules. and seaplanes,used or capableof being usedas a
(d) Traffic separationschemesmay be adopted meansof transPortationon water.
by tbe Organization for the purposeof theseRules' (b) The term "power-driven vessel"meansany
(e) Wheneverthe Crovernmentconcernedshall vesselpropelled by machinery.
have determinedthat a vesselof special construc-
(c) The term "sailing vessel"meansany vessel
tion or purposecannotcomply fully with the provi-
propelling machinery if fit-
sions of any of these Rules with respect to the undersail providedthat
number,position, range or arc of visibility of lights ted, is not beingused.
or shapes,as well as to the disposition and charac- (d) The ternt"vesselengagedin fishing" means
teristicsof sound-signalingappliances,as her Gov-
any vesselfishing with nets, lines, trawls or other
ernmentshall havedeterminedto be the closestpos-
fishing apparaurswhich restrictmaneuverability'but
sible compliancewlth theqeRulesin respectof that
doesnot include a vesselfishing with trolling lines
vessel.

Collision Regulations 131

or other fishing apparatuswhich do not restrict covery of aircraft;
maneuverability. (v) a vesselengagedin mine clearanceop-
(e) The wcd "seaplane"includesany aircraft erations:
designedto maneuveron the water. (vi) a vesselengagedin a towing operation
(0 The term "vessel not undef command" such as severelyrestricts the towing vessel
and her tow in their ability to deviate from
meansa vesselwhich through someexceptionalcir-
their course.
cumstanceis unableto maneuverasrequircdby these
Rulesand is thereforeunableto keepout of the way (h) The tenn "vesselconstrainedby her draught"
of another vessel.
meansa power-drivenve.sselwhich becauseof her
(g) The temr 'tessel restrictedin her ability to draught in relation to the availabledepthand width
maneuver"meansa vesselwhich from the nature of of navigablewateris severelyrestrictedin her abil-
her work is restricted in her ability to maneuveras ity to deviatefrom the oourseshe is following.
required by these Rules and is therefore unable to
keepoutof thewayof anothervessel. The temr'!es- (i) The word 'tnderway'' meansthat a vesselis
selsrestrictedin their ability to maneuve/' shall in- not at anchor,or madefast to the shore,or aground.
clude but not limited to: "lengtl" and "breadth"
(i) a vesselengagedin laying, servicingor 0) The words of a ves-
sel meanher length overall and greatestbreadth.
picking up a navigation mark, submarineca-
ble or pipeline; (k) Vesselsshall be deemedto be in sight of
(ii) a vesseleng4gedin dredging,sunreying one anotheronly when one can be observedvisually
or underwateroperations; ftom the other.
(iii) a vesselengagedin replenisbment or 'testricted visibility'means
0) The term any
transferring persons,provisions or cargo condition in which visibility is restricted fog,
by
whileundenvay; mis1,falling snow,heavy rainstorms,sandstormsor
(iv ) avesselengagedin thelaunchingonre- any other similar causes.
/

PART B . STEERING AND SAILING RULES

Secdonl. Conduct ofvessels ln anv condltlon of speedso that she can take proper and effective ac-
vlslblllty tion to avoid collision and be stoppedwithin a dis-
tanceappropriateto theprevailing circumstances and
Rule 4
conditions. In determining a safespeedthe follorr-
Application
ing factorsshall be amongthosetakeninto account:
Rulesin this Sectionapply in any condition of vis-
(a) By all vessels:
ibility.
(i) the stateof visibility;
RuIe 5
(ii) the traffic densityincluding.oncentra-
I-ookout
tions of fishing vesselsor any other vessels;
Every rassel shall at all tines maintain a proper
look-out by sight and hearing as well asby all avail- (ittl the maneuverabilityof the vesselwith
able means appropriate in the prevailing circum- special reference to stopping distance and
stancesand conditions soasto makea full appraisal tuming ability in Oe prevailing conditions;
of Oe situationand the risk of collision. (iv) at night the presenceof background
light suchas from shorelights or from back
Rule 6 scatt€rof her own lights;
Safe spced (v) the stateof wind, seaand current, and
Every rrcsselshall at all times proceedat a safe the proximity of navigationalhazards;

132 Collision Regulatioru

 (vil the draught in relation to the available
depth of water;
O) Additionally, by resels with operational
radar
0 Oe characteristics,dficiency and limi-
tationsof the radar equiPment;
(iil any constraints impoced by the radar
range scalein use;
(iiil the effect on radar detectionof the sea
state,weather and other sourc€sof interfer-
enoe;
(iv) thepossibility that small vessels,ice and
other floating objectsmay not be detectedby
radarat an adequaterange;
(v) the number,locationandmovementof
vesselsdetectedby radar;
(vil the more exact assessmentof the vis-
ibility thatmay bepossiblewhenradaris used
to determinethe range of vesselsor other ob
Fcts in the vicinity.
Rule 7
Risk of coUkion
(a) Every vesselshall use all available means
appropriateto the prevailing circumstancesandcon-
more time to assessthe situation, a vesselshall
ditions to detennineif risk of collision exists. If
slackenher speedor take all way offby stopping or
there is any doubt such risk shall be deemedto ex-
reversingher meansof propulsion.
ist.
(b) Proper use shall be made of radar equip-
ment if fined and operational,including long-range
scanningto obtain early warning of risk of collision
and radar plotting or equivalentsystematicobserva-
tion of detectedobjects.
(c) Assumptionsshall not be madeon the ba-
sis of scantyinformation, especiallyscantyradar in-
fornation.
(d) In determining if risk of ollision existsthe
followingconsiderations shallbeamongthosetaken
into account:
0 srrch risk shall be deemed to exist if the
@mpassbearing of an approachingvessel
doesnot appreciablychange;
(iil such risk may sometimesexist even
wben an appreciablebearing changeis evi-
dent, particularly when approachinga very
Collision Regulations
large vesselor a tos' or when approachinga
vesselat closerange.
Rule 8
Action to avoid collisbn
(a) fury action takento avoidpollision shall, if
the circumstanoesof the case a4mig be positire,
made in ample time and with dud regard to the ob-
servanceof gmd seamanship.
(b) Any alteration of ourse and/or speedo
avoid oollision shall, if the circumstanceof the case
admit, be large enoughto be readily apparentto an-
other vesseloboervingvisually or by radar; a suc-
cessionof small alterationsof courseand/or speed
shouldbe avoided.
(c) If there is sufficient seartnm, alteration
of coursealone may be the moot effective action to
avoid a close-quarterssituation provided that it is
madein goodtime, is substantialand doesnot result
in another close-quarterssituation.
(d) Actiontakentoavoidcollisionwithanother
vesselshall be suchas to result in passingat a safe
distane. The effectivenessof the action shall be
carefullycheckeduntil the othervesselis finally past
and clear.
(e) [f necessaryto avoid collision or allow
(t) (il A vesselwhich by any of theseRulesis
required not to impede the passageor safe
passage of angthervesselshall, whenrequired
by the circumstances of the case,take early
action to allow sufficient sea room for the
safepassageof the other vessel.
(iil A vesselrequirednot to impedethepas-
sageor safepassageof another vesselis not
relievedof this obligationif approachingthe
othervesselsoas to involve risk of collision
andshall, uhen taking action,havefrrll regard
to the action which may be requiredby the
Rules of this Part.
(iiil A vesselwhosepassageis not to be ;n-
pededremainsfully obliged to comply with
the Rules of this Part when the two vessels
are approachingone anotherso as to involve
risk of collision.
133
 Rule 9
Norow cllrlllrz,els
(a) A vesselproceedingalong th: courseofa
narrow channelor fainvay shall keep es near to the
outer limit of the channel or fainvay which lies on
her starboardside as is safeand practicable.
(b) A vesselof less than 20 neters in length or
a sailing vesselshall not impedethe passageof a
vesselwhich can safelyn4vigateonly within a nar-
row channelor fainnaY.
(c) A vesselengagedin fishing shall not im-
pedethepassageof anyothervesselnavigatingwithin
a narrow channelor fairwaY.
(d) A vesselshall not crossa narrow channel
or fairway if suchcrossingimpedesthe passageof a
vesselwhich can safely navigate only within such
channel or fairway. The latter vesselmay use the
soundsignal presoibed in Rule 34 (d) if in doubtas
to the int€ntion of the crossingvessel.
(e) (i) In a narrow channel or fairway when
overtaking can take place only if the vessel
to be overtakenhas to take action to permit
safepassing,the vesselintending to overtake
shall indicate her intention by soundingthe
appropriatesignal presoibed in Rule 34 (c)
(i). The vesselto be overtakenshall, if in
agreement,soundthe appropriatesignal pre-
scribed in Rule 3a (c) (ii) and take stepsto
permit safepassing.If in doubtshemay sound
the signals prescribedin Rule 34(d).
(iil This rules doesnot relieve the overtak-
ing vesselof her obligationunderRule 13'
(O A vesselnearing a bendor an areaofa nar-
row channelor fairway whereother vesselsmay be
obscuredby an intervening obstructionshall navi-
gatewith particular alertnessand caution and shall
soundthe appropriatesignal prescribedin Rule 34
(e).
G) Anyvesselshall,if thecircumstances of the
caseadmit, avoid anchoringin a narrow channel.
Rulc 10
Traffrc scPuation schemc
(a) This Rule applies to traffic separation
r34 Collision Regulations
schemesadoptedby the organization and doesnot
relieve any vesselof her obligation under any other
rule.
(b) A vesselusing a raffic separationscheme
shall:
(i) proceedin the appropriatetraffic l{te
in the generaldirection of traffic flow for thbq
lane;
(iil sofar aspracticablekeepclear of a traf-
fic separationline or separationzone;
(iii) normally join or leave a traffic lane at
the terrrination of the lane, but whenjoining
or leaving from either side shall do so at a
small angle to the general direction of traf-
fic flow as practicable.
(c) A vesselshall, so far as practicable,avoid
crossing trafftc lanes but if obliged to do so shall
crosson a headingas nearly as practicableat right
anglesto the general directions of traffic flol.
(d) (r) A vesselshall notuse an inshoretraffic
zonewhen shecan safelyusethe appropriate
traffic lane within the adjacenttraffic sepa-
ration scheme.However,vesselsof lessthan
20 metersin length, sailing vesselsand ves-
selsengagedin fishing may usethe inshore
traffic zone.
(ii) Not withstandingsubparagraph (d) (i),
a rresselmay usean inshoretraffic zonewhen
en foute to or from a port" offshore installa-
tion or structure, pilot station or any other
placesituatedwithin the inshoretraffic zone
or to avoid inunediatedanger.
(e) A vesselother than a crossingvesselor a
vesseljoining or leaving a lane shall not normally
enter a separationzone or cross a separationline
except:
0 In casesof emergencyto avoid imme-
diatedanger;
(iil To engagein fishing within a separation
mne.
(f) A vesselnavigatingin areasnear thetemti-
nationsof traffic separationschemesshall do sowith
particular caution.
(g) A vesselshall so far as practicable avoid
other in a line or nearly in a line and or both side-
lights and by day she observesthe oorresponding
aspectof the other vessel.
(c) Whena vesselis in any doubtasto whether
srrcha situation exists she shall assumethat it does
exist and act accordingly.
Rulc 15
Crosshg sitrutbn
When two power-drivenvesselsare crossingso
as to involve risk of collision, the vesselwhich has
the other on her own starboardside shall keep out
of the way and shall, if the circumstancesof the case
admit, avoid crossingaheadof the other vessel.
Rule 16
Action by give-wayvessel
Every vesselwhich is directed to keepout of the
way ofanother vesselshall, so far as possible,take
earlyand substantialactionto keepwell clear.
Rule 17
Action by stand-on vessel
(a)(i) Whereoneof thetwo vesselsis to keep
out ofthe way,theothershallkeepher course
and speed.
(ii) The latter vesselmay howevertakeac-
tion to avoidcollisionby her maneuveralone,
as soonasit becomesapparentto her that the
vesselrequiredto keepout of the way is not
takingappropriateactionin compliancewith
theseRules.
(b) When,from any cause,the vesselrequired
to keepher courseand speedfinds herselfso close
that collisioncannotbe avoidedby theactionof the keep well clear of all vesselsand avoid impeding
give-wayvesselalone,sheshall 0akesuchactionas their navigation.In circumstances,
will bestaid to avoid collision. risk of collision exists,she shall comply with the
Rulesof ttris Part.
(c) A power-drivenvesselwhich takesaction
in a crossingsituationin accordance with sub-para-
graph (a) (ii) of this Rule to avoid collision with
anotherpower-drivenvesselshall, if the circum-
stancesof the caseadmit" not alter course!o port
for a vesselon her oriln port side.
(d) This rule doesnot relievethe give-wayves-
sel of her obligation to keep out of the way.
136 Collision Regulations
Rule lE
Responsibilitiesbetween vessels
ExceptwhereRules9, 10 and 13 otherwisere-
quire:
(a) Apower-drivenvesselunderwayshallkeep
out of the way of:
(i) a vesselnot under command;
(iil a vesselrestricted in her abititv to
maneuver;
(iii) avesselengagedin fishing;
(iv) asailingvessel.
(b) A sailing vesselunderwayshall keepout of
the way of:
(i) a vesselnot undercommand;
(ii) a vesselrestricted in her abilitv to
maneuver;
(iii) avesselengagedin fishing.
(c) A vesselengagedin fishing whenundenvay
shall, so far as possible,keepout of the way of:
(i) a vesselnot undercommand:
(ii) a vesselrestricted in her abilitv to
maneuver.
(d)0 Any vesselother than a vesselnot un-
der commandor a vesselrestrictedin her
ability to maneuvershall,if ttrecircumstances
of the caseadmit, avoid impeding the safe
passageof a vesselconstrainedby her
draught,exhibitingthe signalsin Rule 28.
(iil A vesselconstrainedby her draughrshall
navigatewith particularcautionhavingfrrll re-
gardto her specialcondition.
(e) A seaplaneon the water shall, in general,
however,where
Section III. Conduct of vessels
ln restricted vislbillty
Rule 19
Conduct of vessels in restricted visibility
(a) This rule applies to vesselsnot in sight of
anchoringin a traffic separationschemeor in areas
near its terminations.
(h) A vessel not using a traffic sep4ration
schemeshall avoid it by aswide a margin asis prac-
ticable.
(i) A vesselengagedin fishing shall not im-
pedethe passageof any vesselfollowing the raffic
lane.
0) A ve.sselof less than 20 metersin length or
a sailing vesselshallnot impedetqe safepassageof
a power-drivenvesselfollowing.atraffic lane.
(k) A vessel restricted in her ability to
maneuvervfren engagedin an operationfor themain-
@nanceof safetyofnavigation in a traffic separa-
tion schemeis exemptedfron omplying with this
Rule to the extent necessaryto carry out the opera- RulesofPart B, SectionsI and II, any vesselover-
tion.
0) A vessel restricted in her ability to
maneuverwhenengagedin an operationfor the lay-
ing, servicing or picking up of a submarinecable, when coming up with another vesselfrom a direc-
within a traffic separationscheme,is exemptedfrom tion more than22.5degreesabafther bean, that is,
complying with this Rule to the extent nec€ssaryto in sucha position with referenceto the vesselsheis
carry out the oPeration.
Sectlon II. Conduct of vesselsIn slght
of one another
qrp ir
ApPlication
Rules in this Section.applyin sight of one an-
other.
Rule 12
Sailing Yesseb
(a) When two sailing vesselsare approaching
me anotherso as to involve risk of collision, one
of them shall keep out of the way of the other as
follows:
O when each has the wind on a different
side,the vesselwhich hasthe wind on theport
side shall keepout of the way of the other;
(iil when both have the wind on the same
side, the rassel which is to windward shall
keep out of the way of the vesselwhich is to
leeward;
Collision Regulations
(iii) if a vesselwith the wind on the port side
seesa vesselto windwatd and cannot deter-
mine with certaintywhetherthe othervessel
has the wind on the port or on the starboird
side, she shall keep out of the way of the
other.
_
(b) For the purposesof this Rule the windward
side sha^lbe deemedto be the side oppositeto that
of which the main sail is carried or, in the caseof a
square-riggedvessel,the side opposite to that on
which the largestfore-and-aft sail is carried.
Rule 13
Overtaking
(a) Notwithstandinganything containedin the
taking any other shall keepout of the way of theves-
sel beingovertaken.
(b) A vesselshall be deened to be overtaking
overtaking,that at night shewouldbeableto seeonly
the stefirlightof that vesselbut neither ofher side-
lights.
(c) Whena vesselis in doubtasto whethershe
is overtaking another,she shall assumethat this is
the caseand act accordinglY.
(d) Any subsequentalteration of the bearing
betweenthe two vesselsshall not make the overtak-
ing vessela crossingvesselwithin the meaning of
these Rules or relieve her of the duty of keeping
clear of the overtakenvesseluntil sheis finally past
and clear.
Rule 14
Head-on situatbn
(a) When two power-driven vesselsare meet-
ing on reciprocal or nearly reciprocal coursesso as
to involverisk ofcollision eachshallalterhercourse
to starboardso that eachshall passon the port side
of the other.
(b) Such a situation shall be deemedto exist
when a vesselseesthe other aheador neady ahead
andby night shecould seethemastheadlights of the
135
one anotherwhen navigating in or near an areare- sists of an alteration of course, so far as possible
sfficted of visibilitY. the following shall be avoided.
0 an alterationof courseto port for a ves-
(b) Every vesselshall proceedat a safp speed sel forward of the beam,other than for a ves-
adaptedto the prevailing circumstancesand condi- sel being overtaken;
tions of restricted visibility. A power-driven vessel
(ii) an alteration of coursetowardsa vessel
shall have her engines ready for immediate
abean or abaft the bean.
maneuver.
(e) Exceptwhereit hasbeendeterminedthat a
(c) Every rrcsselshall have due regard to the
risk of collision doesnot exist every vesselwhich
prevailing circumstancesand conditions of re-
hears apparentlyfuward of her beamthe fog signal
stricted visibility when complying with the Rulesof of another vessel,or which cannot avoid a close-
SectionI of this Part. quarterssituation with anothervesselforward of her
(d) A vesselwhich detectsby rydar alone the beam, shall reduce her speedto the minimum at
presenceof another vessel shall determine if a which she can be kept on her course.She shall if
in any eventnavi-
close-quarterssituation is developingand/or risk of necessarytake all her way off and
she shall take avoiding action gate with extreme caution until danger of collision
collision exists.If so,
in ample time, provided that when suchaction con- is over.

PART C - LIGIITS AND SIHPES

Rule 20 over the fore and aft centedine of the vesselshow-
APPlication ing an unbrokenlight over an arc ofthe horizon of
225 degrerrsand so fixed as to show the light from
(a) - Rulssin this part shall be complied with in
right aheadto22.5 degreesabaftthebeamon either
all weathers.
side of the vesel.
(b) The Rules concerninglights shall be cout'
(b) "Sidelights"meansa greenlight on the star-
plied with ftom sunsetto sunrise,and during such
boardsideanda red light on the port sideeachshow-
iimes no other lights shall be exhibited, exceptsuch
ing an unbrokenlight over an arc of the horizon of
lights as cannotbe mistakenfor the lights specified
112.5degres abaft thebean on its respectiveside.
in the.seRules or do not impair their visibility or
In a vesselof lessthan 20 metersin length the side-
distinctive character,or interfere with the keeping
lights may be combined in one lantern caried on
of a proper lookout.
the fore and aft centedine of the vessel.
(c) The lights prescribedby theseRules shall,
(c) "sternlight" meansa white light placedas
if carried, also be exhibited from sunriseto sunset
nearly aspracticableat the stern showingan unbro-
in restricted visibility and may be exhibited in all
ken light over an arc ofthe horizon of 135 degrees
other circumstanceswhen it is deemedneoessary.
and so fixed as to show the light of 67'5 degrees
(d) The rules conceming shapesshall be corn- from right aft on each side of the vessel.
pliedwithbyday.
(d) "Towing light" meansa yellow light having
(e) The lights and shapesspecified in these the sarnecharacteristicsas the "sternlight" defined
Rules shall comply with the provisions of Annex I in paragraph(c) of this Rule.
to theseRegulations.
(e) "All roundlight''meansalight showingan
unbrokenlight wer an arc of the horizon of 360 de-
Rule 21 glees.
Dcfititions
(a) 'Mastheadlight" meansa ufrite light placed (O 'Flashing light" meansa light flashingat

Collision Regulations 137

regular intervals at a frequencyof 120 flashesor
moreper minute.
Rule 22
Visibility of lighb
The lights prescribedin theseRules shall have
an intensity as specified in Section8 of Annex I to
theseRegulationsso as to b visible at the follow-
ing minimumranges:
(a) In vesselsof 50 metersor more in length:
. a mastheadlight, 6 miles;
.asidelight"3miles;
.asternlight,3miles;
. a towing light, 3 miles;
. a white, red, green or yellow all-
roundlight, 3 miles.
(b) [n vesselsof 12 metersor more in length
but lessthan 50 metersin length;
. a mastheadlight, 5 miles; exceptthat
wherethe length of the vesselis less
than 20 meters,3 miles;
. a sidelight,2 miles; ( (iii) The mastheadlight or all-round white
.asternlight,2miles;
. a towing light, 2 miles;
. a white, red, greenor yellow all-round
light, 2 miles.
(c) In vesselsof lessthan 12 metersin length:
. a mastheadlight" 2 miles;
.asidelight,lmile;
.asternlight,2miles;
. a towing light, 2 miles;
. a white, red. greenor yellowall-round
light,2 miles.
(d) In inconspicuous,partly submergedvessels
or objectsbeing towed: exhibit:
. a white all-roundlisht, 3 miles.
Rule 23
Pow erdriv en vesselsunderway
(a) A power-driven vesselunderwayshall ex-
hibir:
(i) amastheadlight foruard;
138 Collision Regul.ations
(ii) a secondmastheadlight abaft of and
higherthan the fonvardone;exceptthat a ves-
sel of lessthan 50 metersin lengthshall not
be obliged to exhibit such light but may do
so;
(iir) sidelights;
(iv) . a sternlight.
(b) An air-cushionvesselwhenoperatingin the
non-displacementmode shall, in addition to the
lights prescribedin paragraph(a) of this Rule, ex-
hibit an all-roundflashingyellowlight.
(c) (i) A power-driven vesselof less than 12
metersin length may in lieu of the lights pre-
scribedin paragraph(a) of this Rule exhibit
an all-roundwhite lightand sidelights;
(ii) A power-drivenvesselof less than 7
metersin lengthwhosemaximumspeeddoes
not exceed7 lnots may in lieu of the lights
prescribedin paragraph(a) ofthis Rule ex-
hibit anall-roundwhitelight andshall,if prac-
ticable,alsoexhibit sidelights;
light on a power-drivenvesselof less than
12 metersin length may be displa$d from
the fore and aft centedine of the vesselif
centerlinefitting is not practicable,provided
that the sidelightsare combinedin one lan-
tern which shall be carried on the fore ad aft
centedine of the vesselor located as nearly
aspracticablein the samefore and aft line as
themastheadlight or theall-roundwhite light.
Rule 24
Towing and pashing
(a) A power-drivenrresselwhen towing shall
(i) insteadof the lights prescribedin Rule
23 (a) (r) or (a) (ii), trn'omasthead
lights in a
vertical line. When the length of the tow,
measuringfrom the stprn of the towing ves-
sel to the after end of the tow exceeds200
meters, three suchlights in a vertical line.
(ii) sidelights;
(iii) a sternlight;
 (iv) a towing light in a wrtical line above cept that draoonesneednot exhibit a light at
the sternlight; or near the forward end.
(v) whn the length of the ow excgeds200 (ii) if it is 25 meters or more in breadth,
meters,a diamond shapewhereit canbestbe two additionalall-roundwhite lights at ornear
seen. the extremitiesd its b'readth;
(iii) rf it exceeds100 neters in length, ad-
(b) When pushing a vesseland a vesselbeing
ditional all-round white lights betweenthe
pushedaheadare rigidly onnected in a courpooite
lights pnesoibedin sub-paragaphs(i) and(ii)
unit they shall be regardedas a power-drivenvessel
so that the distancebenveenthe lights shall
and exhibit the lights prescribedin Rule 23.
not exceed100 meters;
(c) A powerdriven vesselwhenpushingahead (iv) a diamondshapeat or nearthe aftermost
or towing alongside,except in the caseof a com- extremity of the last vesselor objectbeing
positeunit, shall exhibit: towed and if the length of the tow exceeds
(i) instead of the light prescribedin Rule 200 metersan additional oramondshape
23 (a) (1)or (a) (ii), lq,emestheadlights in a whereit can bestbe seenand locatedas far
vertical line; forwardas is practicable.
(ii) sidelights;
(h) Where from any sufficient causeit is im'
(iii) asterntght.
practicable for a vessel or object being towed to
(d) A power-drivenvesselto which paragraph exhibit the lights or shapesprescribedin paragraph
(a) or (c) of this Rule applies shall also comply with (e) or (g) of this mle, all possiblemeasuresshall be
Rule 23 (a) (ii). taken to light the vesselor dject towed or at least
o indicate the presenceof such vesselor oQiect.
(e) A vesselor object being towed, other than
thosementionedin paragraph(g) of this Rule, shall (i) Where from any sufficientcauseit is im-
exhibit: practicablefor a vesselnot normally engagedin tow-
(i) sidelights; ing operationsto display the lights prescribedin
(ii) asternlight; paragraph (a) or (c) ofthis Rule, such vesselshall
not be requiredto exhibit thoselights whenengaged
(iir) wben the length of the tow exceeds200
in towing another vesselin distressor otherwisein
meters,a diamond shapewhereit can bestbe
need of assistance.All possiblemeasuresshall be
seen'
taken to indicate the nature of the relationship be-
(0 Providedthat any number of vesselsbeing tweenthe towing vesseland the vesselbeing towed
toweddmgside or pushedin a group shall beligfot€d asauthorizedby Rule 36, in particular by illuminat-
as one vessel. ing the towline.
(i) avesselbeingpushedahea( notbeing
part of a cmposite unit, shall exhibit at the
forward en4 sidelights; Rule 25
(ii) a vesselbeing towedalongsideshall ex- Sailing vesscls undovay and vessels
hibit a sternlight and at the forward en4 side- undcr ots
lights. (a) Asailing vesselunderway shall exhibit:
(i) sidelights;
G) An inconspicuous,partly zubnergedvessel
(ii) a sternlight.
or object, or ombination of such vesselsor object
being oweG shall exhibit: (b) In a sailing vesselof lessOan 20 meten in
0 if it is less than 25 meters in hpadth, length the lights prescribedin paragraph(a) ofthis
me all-round white light at or near the for- Rule may be cmbined in one lantern carried at or
ward end and one at or near the after end ex- ne,arthe top of the mast where it can best be seen.

Collision Regul,ations 139

 (c) A sailing vesselunderwaymay,in addition o
the lights prescribedin paragraph(a) of this Rule,
exhibit at or near the op of the masL':&ere theycan
best be seen,two all-round lights in a vertical line,
the upperbeingred and the lower grc:n, but these
lights shall not be exhibited in conjunctionwith the
combinedlantern permiued byparagraphO) of this
Rule.
(d) (i) A sailing vtssel of lessthan 7 metersin
length shall, if practicable,exhibit the lights
prescribedin paragraphs(a)a O) of thisRule,
but if she doesnot, she shall have ready at
handan electrictorch or lighted lantem show-
ing a white light which shallbe exhibitedin
sufficient time to prevent collision.
(ii) A vesselunderoarsmay exhibit the lights
prescribedin this Rulefor sailingvessels,
if shedoesnot, she shall have ready at hand
an electric torch orlighted lantern showinga
white light which shall be exhibited in suffi-
cient time to prevent collision.
(e) A vesselproceedingunder sail when also be-
ing propelled by machinery shall exhibit forward
whereit canbestbeseena conicalshape,apexdown-
wards.
Rule 26
Fishing vessels
(a) A vessel engagedin fishing, whether
undenvayor at anchor,shall exhibit only the lights
and shapesprescribedin this Rule.
(b) A vesselwhenengagedin rawling, by which
is meantthe draggingtbroughthe waterof a dredged
net or other apparatusused as a fishing appliance,
shall exhibit:
0 two all-round lights in a v&tical line,
the upperbeing greenand the lower white, or
a shapeconsisting of two cones with their
apexestogether in a vertical line one above
the other: a vesselof less than 20 neten in
lengthrray insteadof this shapeexhibit a bas-
ket;
(ii) a mastheadlight abaftand higher than
the all-round greenlight; a vesselof lessthan
50 meters in length shall not be obliged o
exhibit sucha light but may do so;
140 Collision Regulations
(lll) whenmaking waythrough the water,in
addition to the lights prescribedin this para-
graph,sidelightsand a stemlight.
(c) A rressel engagedin fishing,otherthantrawl-
ing, shall exhibit:
0 two all-round lights in a vertical line,
the upperbeing red and the lower white, or a
shapeconsisting of two cones with apexes
togetherin a vertical line oneabovetheother;
a vesselof lessthan 20 metersin length may
insteadof this shapeexhibit a basket;
(ii) when there is outlying gear extending
more than 150 meten horizontally from the
vessel,an all-round white light or a coneapex
upwardsin the direction of the gear;
(iir) whenmaking waythrough the water,in
but
addition to the lights prescribedin this para-
graph,sidelightsanda sternlight.
(d) A vesselengagedin fishing in closeprox-
imity to other rasselsengagedin fishing may ex-
hibit the additional signalsdescribedin Annex II to
theseRegulations.
(e) A vesselwhen not engagedin fishing shall
not exhibit the lights or shapesprescribedin this
Rule, but only thoseprescribedfor a vesselof her
length.
Rule 27
Vcsselsnot under command or restricbd
in their ability b maneaver
(a) A vesselnot under commandshall exhibit:
(i) two all-romd red lights in a verticalline
where they can best be seen;
(ii) tlo balls or similar shapesin a vertical
line where they can bestbe see
(iii) whenmaking waythrough the water,in
addition to the lights prescribedin this para-
graph,sidelightsand a sternlight.
(b) A vcsselrestrictedin her ability !o maneuver,
except a vesselengagedin mine clearanceopera-
tions,shall exhibit:
(i) three all-round lights in a vertical line
wherethey canbestbe seen.The higbestand
lowest of these lights shallbe red andthe
 middle light snattbe white;
(iil three shapesin a vertical line where
they canbestbe seen.The highestand bwest
of theseshapesshall be balls and the middle
oneadiamond;
(lil) wben making way through the water,a
mastheadlight or lights, sidelights and a
sternlight, in addition tothe lights prescribed
- in sub-paragraph(i);
(iv) whenat anchor,in addition to the lights
or shapesprescribedin subparagraphs(i) and
(ii), the light, lights or shapep'rescribed'in
Rule 30.
(c) A power-drivenvesselengagedin a bwing
operationsuch as severelyrestricts the towing ves-
sel and her tow in their ability to deviatefrom their
courseshall, in addition to the lights or shapespre- signals of vesselsin distressand requiring assist-
scribedin Rule !1 (a), exhibit the lights or shapes ance;suchsignalsarecontainedinAnnex IV to these
prescribedin sub-paragraphs(b) (i) and (ii) ofthis
Rule.
(d) A vesselengagedin dredging or underwa-
ter operations,when restricted in her ability to
maneuver,shall exhibit the lights and shapespre-
scribedin subparagraphs (b) (i), (ii) and (iii) ofthis
Rule and shall in addition, when obstructionexists,
exhibit:
0 uno dl-round red lights or two balls in
a vertical line to indicate the side on which
the obstruction exists;
(iil two all-round green lights or two dia-
monds in a vertical line o indicate the side
on which anothervesselmaYPass;
(iii) whenat anchor,thelights or shapespre-
scribedin this paragraphinsteadofthe lights
or shapeprescribedin Rule 30.
(e) Wheneverthe size of a vesselengagedin
diving operationsmakesit impracticableto exhibit
all lighs and shapesprescribedin paragraph(d) of
this Rule, the following shall be exhibited:
0 three all-round lights in a vertical line
wherethey can bestbe seen.The highestand
lowest of these lights shall be red and the
middle light shall be white;
(it) arigid replicaof the InternationalCode
fl4g "A"not lessthan I meterin height.Mea^s-
ures shall be taken to ensure its all round
Collision Regul.ations
visibility.
(0 a vesselengagedin mine clearanceopera-
tions shall in addition o the lights presoibed for a
pwer-driven vesselin Rule 23 or to the lights or
shapeprescribed fua vesselatanchorin Rule 30 as
appropriate,exhibit tiree all-round green lights or
three balls. One of these lights or shapesshall be
exhibitednearthe fcemast headandoneat eachend
of the fore yard. Theselights or shapesindicate that
it is dangerousfor anothervesselto approachwithin
1000 meters of the mineclearancevessel.
(g) Vesselsof less than 12 metersin length,
exceptthoseengagedin diving operations,shall not
be required to exhibit the lights and shapespre-
scribedin this Rule.
(h) The signalsprescribedin this Rule are not
regulations.
Rule 28
Vesselsconstrained by their draught
A vesselconstrainedbyher draughtmay,in addi-
tion to the lights presoibed for power-drivenves-
selsin Rule 23, exhibit wherethey can bestbe seen
threeall-roundred lights in a verticalline, or a cyl-
inder.
Rule 29
Pilot vessels
(a) A vesselengagedon pilotagedutyshall ex-
hibit:
(i) at or near the masthead,two all-round
lights in a verticalllne, the upperbeingwhite
andthe lowerredl
(iil when underw;ryin addition,sidelights
anda sternlight;
(iii) whenatanchor,in additionto thelights
prescribedin sub-paragraph(i), the light,
lights or shapeprescribedin Rule 30 fo'rves-
selsat anchor.
(b) A pilot vesselwhen not engagedon pilot-
age duty shall exhibitthe lightsor shapesprescribed
for a similar vesel of her length.
t4l
 Rule 30
Anclnrcd russalsand vcsselsagmand
(a) A vesselat anchorshall exhibit whereit can
b€st be seen:
O in the fo're,partan all-roun.' white light
or one ball;
(iil at or near the stern and at a lower level
than the light prcscibed in sub-paragraph(i),
an all-round white ligbt.
(b) A vesselof less than 50 meters in length
mayexhibit an all-round white light where it canbest
be seeninsteadofthe lights prescribedin paragraph
(a) of this Rule.
(c) A vesselat anchormay,and a vesselof 100
metersand more in length shall, also usethe avail-
able uorking or equivalent lighs to illuminate her
decks.
(d) A vesselaground shall exhibit the lights
prescriH in paragraphs(a) or (b) ofthis Rule and
in addition, where they can bestbe seen:
PART D - SOUND AND LIGIIT SIGNALS
Rule 32
Defuitions
(a) The word "whistle" means any sound
signaling appliance capableof ptoducing the pre-
scriH blastsand which complies with the specift-
cationsin Annex III to theseregulations.
(b) The term "short blast''meansa blastof about
oe second'sduration.
(c) The term 'lrolonged blast" meansa blast
of ftromfour to six second'sduration.
Rule 33
Dquipmentsfor sound sisnols
(a) A vessel of 12 meters or more in length
shall [s providedwith a whistle anda bell and a ves-
sel of 100 metersor more in length shnll, in addi-
tion, be provided with a gong, the tone and soundof
which cannct be confrrsedwith that of the bell' The
whistle, bell and gong shall cmply with the speci-
fications in Annex Itr o theseregulations.The bell
or gong or both may be replacedby other equipment
r42 Collision Regulations
(r) two all-rotmdredlights in a verticalline;
(ii) threeballs in a vertical line.
(e) A vesselof less than 7 meters in length,
whenat anchor,not in or nearanarrow channel,fair-
way or anchoragg or where other vesselsnormally
navigate,shall notbe requiredto exhibit the lights
or shapesp'reseribedin paragraphs(a) and O) of this
Rule.
(O A vesselof less than 12 meters in length,
when aground shall not be required to exhibit the
lights or shapesprescribedin sub-paragraphs(d) (i)
and (ii) of this Rule.
Rule 31
Seaplancs
Where it is impracticable fm a seaplaneto ex-
hibit lights and shapesof the characteristicsor in
the positionsprescribedin the Rules of this Part she
shall eafui$fllights and shapesas closely sinilar in
characteristicsand position as is possible.
having the same respectirrcsound characteristics
providedthat manualsoundingof the presoibed sig-
nals shall alwaysbe possible.
(b) A vesselof less than 12 meters in length
shall not be obliged to carry the soundsignaling ap-
pliancesprescribedin paragraph(a) ofthis Rule but
if shedoesnot,sheshall beprovidedwith someother
meansof making an efficient soundsignal.
Rule 34
Maneavering and warning signals
(a) When vesselsare in sight of one another,a
poner-drivenvesselunderway,wbenmaneuveringas
authorizedor requiredby theseRules,shall indicate
that maneuverby the following signalson her whis-
tle:
. one short blast o mean, "I am altering
my courseto starboard."
. two shOrt blasB to mean, "I arn alter-
ing my coli$e to port."
. three short blasts to mean, "I ant op-
 erating asternPropulsion."
(b) Any vesselmay supplepentthe whistle sig-
nals prescribedin paragraph(a) of this Rule,bylight
signals,repeatedasappropriate,whilst Oe maneuver
is being carried out:
These lights shall have the following
0
significance:
. one flash to mean, "I an altering mY
courseto starboard."
. two flashesto mean, "[ am altering ny
" tanc€ apart of more than 100 meters, one whistle
oourgeto port.
. three flashesto mean, "I em operating
asternProPulsion."
(ii) the duration of eachflash shall beabout
one second,and the interval betweensuoces-
sivesignalsshall benot lessthan ten seconds;
(iii) thelight usedfor this signal shall, if fit-
ted, be an all-round white light' visible at a
minimum rangeof 5 miles, and shall conply
with the provisionsof Annex I to theseRegu-
lations.
(c) When in sight of one another in a narrow
channelor fairwaY :
a vesselintending to overtakeanother
0
shall in compliance with Rule 9 (e) (i) indi-
cateher intention by the following signalson
her whistle:
. two prolonged blasq followed by one
"I'intend to overtake
short blast to mean,
)'ou on Yourstarboardside'"
' two prolonged blasts followed by two
"I
shortblass to mean, intend to overtake
)'ou on your port side."
(ii) the vesselabout to be overtakenwhen
acting in accordancewith Rule (9Xe) (i) shall
indicate her agreementby the following sig-
nal on her whistle:
. oneprolonge4 oneshort"oneprolonged
and one short blast' in that order.
(d) When vesselsin sight of one another are
approachingeachother and for any causeeither ves-
sei taits to understandthe intentions or actibns of
the othet or as in doubt whether suffrcientabtion is
being taken by the other to avoid collision, the ves-
sel in doubt shall immediately indicate such doubt
by giving at least five short and rapid blasts on the
Collision Regulations
whistle.Suchsignalmaybesupplementedby alight
signal ofat least five short and rapid tlashes.
(e) A vesel nearinga bendor an areaof a chan-
nel or fairway whereother vesselsmay be obscured
by an intervening obstructionshall sound one pro-
longed b$st. Such signal shall be answeredwith a
prolongedblast by any approachingvesselthat may
be within hearing aroundthe bendor behind the in-
tervening obstruction.
(f) If whistles are fitted on a vesselat a dis-
only shall be usedfor giving maneuveringandwarn-
ing signals.
Rule 35
Sound signals in restricted visibtlity
In ornear an areaof restrictedvisibility, whether
by day or nighl the signals prescribedir this Rule
shall be usedas follows:
(a) A power-drivenvesselmaking waythrough
the water shall soundat intervals of not more than 2
minutes one prolongedblast.
(b) A power-driven vessel underway but
stoppedandmaking no way through the water shall
sound at intervals of not more than 2 minutes two
prolonged blasts in successionwith an interval of
about 2 secondsbenpeenthem.
(c) A vesselnot under comman4 a vesselre-
stricted in her ability to maneuver, a vessel con-
strained by her draught, a sailing vessel,a vessel
engagedin fishing anda vesselengagedin towing or
pushing anotler vesselshall, instead of the signals
prescribedin paragraphs(a) or (b) of tlis rule sound
at intervals of not more than 2 minutes threeblass
in suocession, namely one prolongedfollowed by
two short blasts.
(d) A vesselengagedin fishipg, uhen at alrchc,
anda vesselrestrictedin her abilityfo maneuverwhen
carrying out her work at anchor,shall insteadof the
sigrnls prescribedin paragraph(g) of this Rule,somd
the signal prescribedin paragraph(c) of this Rule.
(e) A vesseltowed or if moie than one vessel
is towed the last vesselof the ow, if manned,shall
at intervals of not more than 2 minutes soundfour
blastsin su@ession,nanely oneprolongedfollowed
r43
by threeshort blass. When practicable,this signal nals but, if shedoesnot, shdl make someother ef-
shall be made immediately after the signal madeby ftcient soundsignal at intervals of not more than 2
the towing vessel. minutes.
(0 When a pushingvesseland a vesselbeing () A pilot vesselwhen engagedon pilotage
pushedaheadare rigidly oonnectedin a composite duty mayin additionto the simals prescribedin para-
unit theyshall be regardedasa power-drivenvessel graphs(a), (b) or (g) of this Rule soundan identity
and shall give the signals prescribedin paragraphs signal consistingof four short blasts.
(a) or O) of this Rule.
(g) A vesselat anchorshall at intervalsof not Rule 36
morethan oneminutering thebell rapidly for about Signals to attact attentian
5 seconds.In a vesselof 100 meters or more in
If necessary0o attract the attention of anotler
length the bell shall be soundedin the forepart of
vesselany vesselmay make light or soundsignals
the vesseland immediatelyafter the ringing of the
that cannotbe mistakenfor any signal authorized
bell the gong shall be soundedrapidly for about5
elsewberein theseRules,or may direct thebeamof
secondsin the af0erpart of the vessel.A vesselat
her searchlightin the direction of the danger,in such
anchormay in additionsoundtlree blastsin succes-
a way asnot to embarrassany vessel.
sion,namely:oneshort"me prolongedandoneshort
blast,to give warningof her positionandof thepos- Any light to attractthe attentionof anotherves-
sibility of collision to an approachingvessel. sel shall be such that it cannotbe mistaken for any
(h) Avessel agroundshall givethe bell signal aid to navigation.For the purposeof this Rule the
useof high intensityintermittentor revolvinglights,
and ifrequired the gong signal prescribedin para-
graph (g) of this Rule and shall, in addition,give suchas strobelights shall be avoided.
three separateand distinct strokes on the bell im-
mediately beforeand after the rapid ringing of the
Rule 37
bell. A vesselagroundmay in additionsoundan ap-
propriate whistle signal. Disbess Signals
When a vesselis in distressand requiresa.ssist-
(i) A vesselof less than 12 metersin length ancesheshall useor exhibit the signalsprescribed
shallnotbe obligedto givethe above-mentioned
sig- in Annex [V to theseRegulations.

PART E- EXEMPTIONS

Rule 38 (b) The installationof lights with color speci-

fications as prescribedin Section 7 of Annex I to
Exemptions theseRegulations,until four yearsafter the date of
entry into force of theseregulations.
Any vessel(or classof vessels)providedthat she
complieswith the requirementsof the International (c) The repositioningof lights as a result of
Regulationsfor PreventingCollisionsat Sea,1960, conversionfrom Inperial to metric units and round-
thekeel offwhich is laid or which is at a correspond- ing measurement fi gures,permanentexemption.
off
ing stageof constructionbefore the entry into force
of theseRegulationsmay be exemptedfrom com- (d) ft) Therepositioningof mastheadlightson
pliance therewitb as follows:
vesselsof lessthan 150metersin length,re-
(a) The installationof lights with rangespre- sulting ftom the prescriptions of Section 3
scribedin Rule 22, unt:J.four yearsafter the dateof (a) of Annex I to theseRegulations,perma-
entry into force of theseRegulations. nentexemption.

IM Collision Regulations
 (iil The repositioningof mastheadlights on
vesselsof 150 meters or more in length, re-
sulting from the prescriptions of Section 3
(a) of Annex I to theseReguliations,ulitil nine
yearsafter the dateof entry into forceof these
Regulations.
(e) The repositioningof mastheadlights result-
ing ftrom the prescriptions of Section 2 O) of An-
nex I, to theseRegulationsuntil nine lears after the
date of entry into force of theseRegulations.
(O The repositioning of sidelights resulting
ANNEX I
Posltionlng and technical details of lights and shapes
1. Deftnitiots.
The term "height abovethe hull" meansheight
abovethe upp€rmostontinuous deck. This height
shall be measuredfrom the position vertically be-
neaththe location of the light.
2. Vertlcal pmitioning and spaclng of llghts.
(a) On a power-driven vesselof 20 meten or
more in length the mastheadlights shall be placed
as follows:
0 The forward mastheadlights, or if only
onemastheadlight is carrie4 thenthat light'
at a height abovethe hull of not lessthan 6
meters, and, if the bneadthof the vesselex-
ceeds6 meters,then at a height abovethe hull
not less than such breadth, so however that
thelight neednotbplaced at a great€rheight
aoo-veoe hull than 12 meters;
(iil whentwo mastheadlights arecaniedthe
after one shall be at least 4-5 meters verti-
cally higher than the fuward one.
(b) The vertical separationof mastheadlights
of power-tlrivenvesselsshall be suchthat in all nor-
mal conditions of trim the after lights will be seen
over and separatefrom the fonrard light at a dis-
tance of 1,000 meters frromthe stem when viewed
from sealevel.
(c) The mastheadlight of a power.drivenves-
Collision Regulations
from the prescriptionsof Sections2 (g) and 3 (b) of
Annex I to theseRegulationsuntil nine yearsafter
the date of entry into force of theseRegulations.
(g) The requirementsfor sound signal appli-
ancesprescribedin Annex III, to theseRegulations
until nine )€ars after the date of entry into force of
theseRegulations.
(h) The repositioningof all-round lights result-
ing from the prescription of Section9 O) of Annex
I to theseRegulations,permanentexemption.
.1
sel of 12 metersbut less than 20 meters in length
shall be placedat a heightahve the gunwaleof not
lessthan 2.5 meters.
(d) A power-drivenvesselof lessthan 12 me-
ters in length may carry the uppennostlight at a
heighi of lessthan 2.5 metersabovethe gunwale"
When howevera mastheadlight is caried in addi-
tion to sidelightsand a stern light or the all-round
light of Rule 23 (c) (i) is carriedin additionto side-
lights, thensuchmastheadlights or all-round light
shallbecarriedat leastI meterhigherthan the side-
lights.
(e) Oneof the two or threemastheadlightspre-
scribedfor a power-drivenvesselwhen engagedin
towing or pushinganothervesselshall be placedin
the sameposition as either the forward masthead
light or the after mastheadlight; providedthat, if
carried on the aftermast,the lowest after tle mast-
head light shall be at least 4-5 meters vertically
higherthantheforwardmastheadlight.
0 0 Themastheadlightorlightsprescribed
in Rlle 23 (a) shall be soplacedasto beabove
and clear of all other lights and obstructions
exceptasdescribedin subparagraph (ii).
(iil Whenit is impracticableto carry theall-
round light prescribedby Rule 27 O) (i) or
Rule 28 below the mastheadlights, they
145
 maybecaried abovetheaftermastheadlights, length of the vesselbut neednot be more than 700
or vertically in benveenthe forwardmasthead meters.The forward light shall be placednot more
ligh(s) andaftermastheadlight(s),provided than one-quarterof thelength of the vesselfrom the
that in the latter casethe requirementof Sec- stem.
tion 3 (c) of this Annex shall be complied
(b) On a power-driven vesselof 20 meters or
with.
more in length the sidelights shall not be placedin
(g) The sidelights of a power-driven vessel ftont of the forward mastheadlights. They shall be
shall be placedat a height abovethe hull not greater placedat or near the side of the vessel.
than three-quartersof that of the fuward masthead
light. They shall not be so low as to be interfered (c) When the lights prescribedin Rule 27 O)
with by deck lights. (i) or Rule 28 areplacedvertically benreenthe for-
wardmastheadligh(s) andtheaftermastheadlight(s)
(h) The sidelights,if in a combinedlantern and theseall-round lights shall be placedat a horizontal
carried on a power-drivenvesselof not less than 20 distanceof not less than 2 meters ftom the fore and
metersin length,shall be placednot lessthan I me- aft centerlineof the vesselin the athwartshipdirec-
ter belowthe mastheadlight. tion.
(i) When the Rules prescribedtwo or three
lights to be carried in a vertical line, they shall be 4. Detalls of locatlon of dlrectlon-lndtcatlng
spacedas follows: llghts for flshtng vessels,dredgers and vessels
(i) on a vesselof 20 meters in length or engagedln urderwater operadons.
moresuchlights shallbespacednot lessthan (a) The light indicating the direction of the
2 metersapart, and the lowestof theselights outlying gear from a vesselengagedin fishing as
shall, exceptwherea towing light is required" prescribedin Rule 26 (c) (ii) shall be placed at a
be placedat a height of not lessthan 4 me- horizontal distanceof not lessthan 2meters and not
tersabovethe hull. more than 6 metersawayfrom the two dl-round red
andwhitelights.This light sballbeplacednot higher
(iil on a vesselof less than 20 metersin
than the all-roundwhite light prescribedin Rule 26
lengthsuchlights shall bespacednot lessthan (c) (i) andnot lower than the sidelights.
1 meter apart, and the lowest of theselights
shall, exceptwherea towing light is required, (b) The lights and shapeson a vesselengaged
be placedat a height of not lessthan 2 me- in dredgingor underwateroperationsto indicate the
tersabovethe gunwale. obstructedside and/or the side on which it is safeto
(iii) when three lights are carried they shall pass,as prescribedin Rule 27 (d) (i) and (ii), shall
be equally spaced. be placedat the maximum practical horizontal dis-
tance, but in no caseless than 2 meters from the
() The lover of the two all-round lights pre- lights or shapesprescribedin Rule 27 ,(b) (i) and
scribedfor a vesselwhen engagedin fishing shall be (ii). In no c{Neshall the upper of these;lights or
at a height abovethe sidelightsnot lessthan twice shapesbe at a greaterheight than the lower of the
the distancebetweenthe two vertical lights. threelights or shapesprescribedin Rule 27 (b) (i)
(k) The forward anchorlight prescribedin Rule and(ii).
30 (a) (r), when two are carried, shall not be less
than 4-5 metersabovethe after one. On a vesselof 5. Screensfor sldelights.
50 meters or more in length this forward anchor The sidelights of vesselsof 20 meten or more
in length shall be fitted with inboardscreenspainted
light shall be placrd at a height of not less than 6
metersabovethe hull. matt black, and meeting the requirementsof Sec-
tion 9 of this Annex. On vesselsof lessthan 20 me-
3. Ilorimntal posttloning and spacing of llghts. ters in length the sidelights, if necessaryto meet
(a) When two mastheadlights are prescribed the requirementsof Section 9 of this Annex, shall
for a power-driven vessel, the horizontal distance be fitted with inboard matt black screens.With a
betweenthem shall not be less than one-half of the combined lantern, using a single vertical filanent

16 Collision Regulatiow
and a rrery narrow division betweenthe green and
red sections,external screensneed not be fitted.
6. Shapes.
(a) Shapesshall be black and of the following
sizes:
(i) a ball shall have a diameterof not less
than 0.6 meter;
(ii) a coneshall havea basediameterof not
lessthan 0.6 meterand a height equalto its
diameter;
(iii) a cylinder shall have a diameter of at
least0.6 meter and a height of twice its di-
arneter;
(iv) a diamond shapeshall consistof two
conesas defined in (ii) abovehaving a com-
mon base.
(b) The vertical distancebetweenshapesshall
be at least 1.5 meters.
(c) In a vesselof lessthan20 metersin length
shapesof lesserdinension but cotrnnensuratewith
the size of the vesselmay be usedand the distance
apart may be correspondinglyreduced.
7. Color speclflcatlon of llghts.
The chromaticity of all navigation lights shall
conform to the following standards,which lie with
the bwndaries of the area of the diagran specified
for eachcolor by the International Commissionon
Illumination (Cre;.
The boundaries of the area for each color are
givenby indicating thecomercoordinates,which are
as follows:
(il White
x 0-5250-5250452 0-3100-3100443
y 0-38204ta 0440 0-348 0-2830-382
(ii) Green
x 0-0280-0090-3000-203
y 0-3850-7230-5110-356
(iii) Red
x 0-680 0-660 0-7350-72r
y 0-320 0-320 0-265 0-259
Collision Regulations
(iv) Yellow
x 0-612 0-618 0-575 0-575
y 0-382 0-382 0425 0406
t. Intemtty of llghts.
(a) The minimum luminous intensity of lights
shallbe calculatedbyusingthe formula:
I = 3 . 4 3 xl 0 t x T x D x K - D
rvftereI is luminousintensity in candelasunderserv-
ice onditions,
T is thresholdfactor 2 x 10'7lux.
D is range of visibility (luminous range) of
the light in nauticalmiles,
K is arnospheric transmissivity.
For prescribedlights the value ofK shall be
0.8, correspondingto a meteorological
visibility of approximately 13 nautical
miles.
(b) 'A selectionof ftguresderivedfrom the for-
mula is given in the following table:
Rangeof Utsibility Dtminow intensity of
(luminous range)of light in candelasfor
light in nautbal miles K=0.8
I 0.9
2 4.3
3 t2
4 27
5 s2
6 94
Note: The maximum luminous intensity of naviga-
t4il
tion lights should be limit€d to avoid undue glare. (b) In the caseof sailing vesselsunderwaythe
This shall not be achievedby a variable conrol of vertical sertors of electric lights as fitted shall en-
the lrrminous intensity. surethat:
(i) at leastthe requiredminimum intensity
9. Ilorlzontal sectors. is maintained at all angles from 5 degrees
(a) (il In the forward direction, sidelights as aboveto 5 degreesbelow the horizontal;
fitted on the vesselshall showthe minimum required (ii) at least50 percentof therequiredmini-
intensities. The intensities must decreaseto reach
mum intensityismaintained.from25 degrees
practical cut-off between 1 degree and 3 degrees
aboveto 25 degreesbelow the horizontal.
outside the prescribed section.
(c) In the case of lights other than electric
(ii) For sternlightsandmasthed lights and thesespecificationsshall be met as closely as pos-
at 225 degreesabaft the bean for sidelights, the sible.
minimum required intensities shall be maintained
over Oe arc of the horizon up to 5 degreeswithin 11. Intcnslty of non-electric llghts.
the limis of the sectorsprescribedin Rule 21. From Non-electricligha shall so far as practicable
5 degreeswithin the prescribed sectorsthe inten-
comply with the minimum intensities,as specified
sity may decreaseby 50 percentup to the prescribed
in the Table givenin Section8 of this Annex.
limits, it shall decreasesteadily to reach practical
cut-off at not more than 5 degreesoutsidethe pre-
12. Maneuvering llght.
scribed sectors.
Notwithstandingthe provision of paragraph2 (f)
of this Annex the maneuveringlight describedin
(b) All-round light shallbe so locatedasnot to Rule 34 O) shall be placedin the samefore and aft
be obscuredbymasts, topmastsor structureswithin vertical plane as the mastheadlight or lights and,
height of 2 meters
angular sectorsof more than 6 degrees,exceptan- wherepracticable,at a minimun
chor lights prescribedin Rule 30, which neednot be vertically above the fonvard masthead lightprovided
placedat an impractical height abovethe hull. that it shall be carried not less than 2 metersverti-
cally aboveor below the after mastheadlight. On a
10. Vertlcal sectors. vessel where only one mastheadis carried, the
(a) The vertical sectorsof electric lights as fit- maneuvering light, if fitted, shallbecarriedwhereit
ted, with the exception of lights on sailing vessels can best be seen, not less than 2 meters vertically
undenvayshall ensurethat: apart from the masthead light.
O at leastthe requiredminimum intensity
is maintained at all angles from 5 degrees 13. Approval.
aboveto 5 degreesbelow the horizontal; The constructionof lights and shapesand the in-
(iil at least60 per centof the requiredmini- stallation of lights on board the vesselshall be to
mun intensityis mainained ftom 7.5 degrees the satisfactionof the appropriate authority of the
aboveto 7.5 degreesbelow the horizontal; Statewhoseflag the vesselis entitled !o fly.

ANNEX II
Addltlonal slgnals for flshlng vesselsftshlng in close proxlmity

1. General. but at a lower level than ligha prescribedin Rule 26

The lights mentionedhereinshall, if exhibitedin O) (i) and(c) (r). The lights shallbevisibleall aromd
purswmceof Rule 26 (d) be placedwhere they can the horizon at a distanceof at least I mile but at a
bestbe seen.They shall be at least 0.9 meter apart lesser distancethan the lights prescribedby these

14t Collision Regulations

Rules for ftshing vessels.
2. Signals for trawlers.
(a) Vesselswhenengagedin trawling,whether
usingdemersalor pelagicgear,may exhibit:
(i) when shooting their nets: two white
lights in a verticalline;
(ii) whenhaulingtheirnets:onewhitelight
over one red light in a vertical line;
(iii) when the net hascomefast upon an ob'
struction:two red lights in a verticalline
(b) Eachvesselengagedinpair tJawlingmayex-
hibit:
(i) by night, a searchlight directedfuward
and in the direction of the other vesselof the
Eair;
(ii) when shooting or hauling their nets or
when their nets have come fast upon an ob'
struction,the lights prescribedin?(a) above'
3. Stgnals for prrse selncrs.
Vesselsengagedin fishing with pune seinegear
rny exhibit two yellowlights in a verticalline' These
lights shall flash alternately every secondand with
equallight andoccultationdrnation.Theselights may
be exhibitedonly when the vesselis hartperedby its
fishinggear.

ANNEX M
Techntcal details of sound slgnal applianccs

1. Whbtles. level in at least one l/3rdoctave band within the

(a) Frequenciesand range of audibility. Tltc rangeof frequencies180-700Hz (+l-l per cent) of
shalllie within
of the sign"al not less than the appropriatefigure given in the ta-
fundanuntatfiequency
70-700H2. ble.
thc range
The range of audibility in the table below is for
Therangeof audibilityof thesignalfrom a whis-
information and approximatelythe rangeat which a
tle shall be determinedby thosefrequencies,which
whistle may be heard on its forward axis with 90
may include the fundanental and/or one or more
percentprobability in conditionsof still air on board
higherfrequencies,which lie within the range180-
a vesselhaving averagebackgroundnoiselevel at the
700H2(+/-1 percent)and which providethe sound
listeningposts(takento be68 dB in the octaveband
pressurelevels specifiedin paragraph I (c) below'
centeredon 250 Hz and 63 dB in the ocave band
(b) Limits of fundanentalfrequencies.To en- centeredon 500 Hz).
sure a wide variery of whistle characteristics,the
be-
fundamcntalfrequency of a whistle shall be
tweenthg following limits: level at I meter in range in
(i) 70-200 Hz, for a vessel200 meters or
morein length; I*ngth of dB refened to nautical miles
(ii) 130-350Hz, fot a vesselT5 metersbut vesselin 2xl0'sN/m2
lessthan 200 metersin length;
(iii) 250-7m ltz, for a vesselless than 75 meters
metersin length
200 or more 143 2
(c) Sound signal intensity and range of au- 75 but lessthan 200 1 38 1.5
dibility. 20 but lessthan 75 130 I
A whistle fitted in a vesselshall provide, in the Less than 20 r20 0.5
direction of maximum intensity of the whistle and
at a distanceof I meter from it, a sound pressure

Collision Regulations 149

 In practice the range in which a whistle may be field of a single whistle or of one of the whistles
heard is extremely variable and dependscritically referredto in paragraphI (f) aboveis likely to have
on weatheronditionq the values gir en can be re- a zone of greatly reducedsignal level, it is recom-
gardedastypical but underconditionsof strongwind mendedthat a combinedwhistle systembe fitted so
or high ambient noise level at the listerring post theas to overcomethis reduction. For the purposesof
rangemaybe muchreduced. the Rules a combinedwhistle systemis to be re-
gardedas a single whistle. The whistlesof a com-
(d) Directional properties. bined systemshall be locatedat a distanceapart of
The soundpressurelevel of a directional whistle not morethan 100metersandarrangedto besounded
shall be not more than 4 dB below the prescribed simultaneously.I'he frequencyof any one whistle
soundpressurelevel on the axis at any directionin shall differ from those of the others h at least 10
thehorizontalplanewithin +145 degrees of theaxis. I1z.
The sound pressurelevel at any other direction in
the horizontalplane shall be not more than 10 dB 2. Bell or gong.
below the prescribedsound pressurelevel on the (a) Intensity of signal.
axis, sothat therangein any direction will beat least A bell or gong, or other devicehaving similar
halfthe rangeon the forwardaxis. The soundpresure soundcharacteristicsshall producea soundpressure
level shall be measuredin that 1/3rd octaveband level of not lessthan 110dB at a distanceof 1 me-
which determinesthe audibility range. ter from it.
(e) Positioning of whistles. (b) Construction.
When a directionalwhistle is o be usedas the Bells and gongsshall be madeof corrosion-re-
only whistleon a vessel,it shall be installedwith its sistantmaterial and designedto give a clear tone.
maximumintensitydirectedstraightahead.A whis- The diameterof the mouth of the bell shall be not
tle shall be placedashigh aspracticableon a vessel, lessthan 300 rm for vesselsof 20 metersor more
in order to reduceinterception of the emitted sound in length,and shallnotbe lessthan200mm for ves-
by obstructionsand alsoto minimize hearingdam- selsof 12 metersor more but of lessthan 20 me-
age risk to personnel. The sound pressue level of tersin length.Wherepracticable,a power-drivenbell
the vessel'sown signal at listening postsshall not sriker is recommendedto ensureconstantforcebut
exceed110dB (A) and as far as practicableshould manualoperationshallbe possible.The massof the
not exceed100 dB (A). striker shall be not lessthan 3 percentof the mass
of bell.
(fl Fitting of more than one whistle.
If whistlesare fitted at a distanceapart of more 3. Approval
than 100metres,it shallbe soarrangedthat theyare The constructionof soundsignal appliances,their
not soundedsimultaneously. perfomranceand their installation on boardthe ves-
sel shall be to the satisfaction of the appropriate
@) Combinedwhistle systems. authorityof the Statewhoseflag the vesselis enti-
If due to tie presenceof obstructionsthe sound tled to flv.

150 Collision Regulations

 GOLLTSTON
REGULATIONS
l. The signalby soundgiven by a vesselwho wantsto alter courseto port is:
c. 2 long blasts D. 2 short blasts c. 1 short blast d. all of these

2. When 2 power-drivenvesselsare meeting on reciprocal or neady reciprocal course,so as to involve

risk of collision. eachshould:
a. reducespeed c. stopher engine
b. alter ourse to stbd d. alter @urse to port

3. A vesselconstrainedbyherdraft shall exhibit during the day:

a. a black cylinder c. 3 black balls
b. Zblack balls in a vertical line d. 2 cones,apex together

4. Underinternationalrule:
a. vesselsdeadin the water shall turn off range lights
D. vesselslessthan 150ft neednot carry an after rangelight
c. all vesselsmust carry an after light
d. vesselsover 65 ft must carry both range lights from sunset!o sunrise

5. The giving way vessel,or the one of 2 vesselswhich is directedby therules !o keepclearof the other
is temred:
a. crmsing vessel c, overtakingvessel
b. burdenedvessel d. vesselmeeting end on

6. A sailing vesselof 40 ft or more in length, undenvaymakesher fog signalon a:

d. gmg c. bell
D. whistle d. horn

7. When navigating in a fainvay during the daytime you observea vesselshowing Zblrc,k balls in a
vertical line. The vesselis:
a. dredging c. atanchor
D. not undercommand d. fishing

8. A ve.sselproceedingalong the courseof a narrow channel shall keep as near to the outer limit of the
channelwhich lies on her:
a. starboard b. inboard side c. outboard side d. port

9. What signal should be made by an overtakenvesselin answerto 1 or 2 blasts signal from a vessel
which is overtakingher?
a. 3 prolonged blasts
b. I prolonged blast
c. 2 prolonged blasts followed by 1 short blast
d. none of these

10. Abasket day signalis displayedby:

a. vesselslessthan 65 ft in length engagedin fishing
D. vesselsmore than 65 ft in length engagedin fishing
c. cable layers
d. dredgers

Collision Regulations 151

11. Vesselsobservedby radar,underthe de is:
a. @med notto be in sight c' deemedto be in sight
b. deemedto be underway d. deemedto be dangerous

12. When2 power-drivenvesselsarecrossing,soasto involverisk of collision,who hasthe right of way?

a. the vesselwhich has the other on her stbdside
b. the vesselwhich soundedher whistle first
c. the vesselwhich has the other on her port side
d. the vesselwhich gaveout her distresscall

13. When ship bells are usedasfog signals,what is the durationof the rapid ringing?
c. 15 seconds b. 2 seconds c. 10 seconds d. 5 seconds

14. Itrowoften are power-drivenvesselsunderwayin foggy weatherrequiredto give soundfor fog sig-
nals?
d. at interval not exceeding3 minutes c. at interval not exceeding5 minutes
b. at interval not exceeding60 seconds d. at interval not exceeding2 minutes

15. At night you seea red light and mastheadlights of a vesselat your stbdbow.What is your action?
a. stop the engine c. alter courseto port
b. alter courseto stbd d. maintain courseand speed

16. Are both the burdenedvesseland the privilegedvesselobligedto soundwhistle signals?

a. burdenedvesselonly c. both vessel
b. privileged vessel
only d. none ofthem

17. You areproceedingtowarda wide channeland yousight a vesselshowingan all-roundwhite light on

the bow and on the stern,togetherwith 2 all-roundred lights in a vertical line amidships.Her lights
indicatethat the vesselis:
a. a mine sweeper c. aground
b. a trawler d. dredging

18. Rule 35 statesthat a pilot vesselwhenengagedin pilotageduty in additionto the signals,soundfour

short blasts.Rule 35 contains:
a. exemption c. distresssignals
b. soundsignals on restrictedvisibility

lg. That one of 2 vesselsapproachingeachother so ils to involve risk of collision, which is directedby
the Rules to keep her courseand speed?
a. meeting vessel D. burdenedvessel c. crossingvessel d. privilegedvessel

20. The vesselis underwaYwhen:

c. sheis aground c. she is made fast to sho're
b. sheis atanchor d. none of these

Zl. During foggy weather,you heard a fog signals at intervals of not more than 1 minute, 3 blasts in
namely 1 prolongedblast followedby 2 shortblasts.This meansthat the vesselis:
succession,
c. not under contmand c. towing
b. engagedinfishing d. all of these

152 Collision Regulatians

22. Rule 10 scatesthat a vesselusing traffic separationschemeshall:
I. proceedin the appropriatetrafftc lane in the generaldirection of raffic flow for that lane
IL so far as practicable,useuaffic separationline or leave a traffic lane as shemay do so
III. norrrally join or leavea traffic lane'atthe tenninationof the lane
c. IandtrIonly b. Iandllonly c' IIandIIIonly d- I,l\andIII

23. The arc of visibility of the sidelightis:

a. 125 &g b. 22.5 de1 c. 1125 deg d- 90 deg

24. When the ship is not undercommand,yourbestactionwould be:

a. approachher c. keePclear of her
D. soundthe ship's whistle d. stopyour engine

25. In what2 situationsat searnaya privilegedvesseluse5 shortrapid blastsprovidedby theRulestr:call

the attention of the burdenedvesselto its obligation to keep clear:
a. in theheadonandovertakingsituation c. in thecrossingandovertakingsituation
D. in the crossingandheadon situation d. all of these

26. Everypower driven vesselwhich is undersail and not underpoweris consideredto be:
a. a sailing vessel c' a deadvessel
b. apower-drivenvessel d. avesselunderway

27. On hearingthe fog signalsof anothervesselcloseahead,what signal shouldbe soundedby a 6rwer-

driven vesselwhich hasrevenedengineandactuallyhassternway?
a. 3 short blasts
6. I prolongedblast at intervalsof not more than 2 mins.
c. 5 short rapid blasts
d. none of these

Zg. When the Rule on Lights prescribed2 or 3 lighs carriedin a vertical line, in a vesselmore than 20
metersin length the lights shouldbe spaced:
a. not lessthan 2 metersabovethe gunwale c. not less than 2 metersapart
b. I meter apart d' none of these

29. Vesseltowing asternwhen lengtb of tow exceeds200 metersshows:

a. basket D. red ball c. black ball d. black diamond

30. Whenis apower driven vesselrequiredto carryan additionalmastheadlight?

a. when sheis towing anothervessel c. when sheis 50m or more in length
b. whensheisnotunderconunand d. noneof these

31. The rulesconcerninglights shall be omplied with:

a. underallweather c. duringsunset
D. when it is raining d. when the vesselis underway

32. In Annex I of the Rules on shapes,balls, conesor cylinders shouldbe colored:

a. greer- b. white c. rcd d' blrck

3.3. What doesit meanwhena vesselexhibits3 all-roundred lights in a verticalposition?

4. not under command c. vesseldrifting
b. constrainedby her draft d' vesseldredging

Collision Regulations 153

34. A vesselconstrainedbyher draft shall exhibit during the day:
a. 2 black balls c. a black cylinder
b. 3 black bdls d. 2 coneswith apex together

35. You sight a vesselshowinga green light over a white light. This would indicate:
c. engagedinunderwateroperation c. surveying
D. trawling d. fishing with nets

36. Sternlight meansa white light placedasnearlyaspracticableat the sternshowingan unbrokenlight

over an arc of the horizon of :
a. 90 deg b. D5 eg c. 135 deg d. 225 deg

37. In fog, a power-drivenvesselhearing forward of the beamanothervessel,the position of which is not

ascertainedshall so far a.sthe circumstancesof the caseadmit:
a. put the enginesto standby c. reduce to half-speed
b. reduce to low speed d. stop her engines

38. The rules for preventingcollisionsat seais applicable:

a. in rivers and lakes c. in all navigablewaters
D. in the high seasonly d. none of these

39. The word vesselin the Rulesincludes:

I. every description ofwater craft
II. non-displacementcraft and seaplane
III. craft usedor capableof being usedas a meansof transportationin the water
a. Iandllonly D. IandtrIonly c. IIandIIIonly d. I,II,andItr

40. The tenn "engagedin fishing" includes:

a. vesselstrawling c. both of these
D. all vesselsfishing d. none of these

41. Whistle signalsto denoteconrsechangemust be sounded:

a. when the vesselsare in sight of one another
D. in fog
c. everytime you alter course
d. none of these
'lower-driven" meansany vesselpropelledby:
42. The term
a. diesel b. turbo electric c. steam d. machinery
"visible" whenappliedto lights means:
43. The word
a. visible on dark nighs with a clear aunosphereto naked eye
b. visible at daylight
c. visible during fog

44. When a vesselexhibits a black ball forward where it can bestbe seen,it signifies:
a. avesseldrifting c. avesselaground
D. a vesselin distress d. a vesselat anchor

45. The arc of visibility of a ship'smastheadlight is:

a. 225 &g b. tl5 &,g c. 22.5 &'g d. ll.5 deg

154 Collision Regulations

46. Approachingport you hear3 strokesof the bell followedby ringing of the bell. 3 strokesof the hell
followedby a gong,this would indicate:
a. a fishing vessel c. a vesselat anchor
b. a vessel not under command d. a vesselaground

47. A vesselrestrictedin her ability to maneuvershall exhibit in addition{o her runninl lights:
c. 3 all-round lights, red-white-redin a verticalline
b. 2 red ligha
c, greenover white light
d. redover white light
48. A vesselin the high seasthat is not underoommandshall displaywhatday signals'l
a. 2 black balls b. 2 red balls c. 3 black balls d. red hall

49. If youblow your whistle 3 shortblasts'you mean:

a. your ship is ready to leave c. you are calling a pilot
D. you are on astern ProPulsion d. none of these

50. What fog signal is soundedby a vesselbeingtowed?

a. I long and 3 shortblasts c. 2long and I shortblasrs
b. ringing of bell d. 2 short blass

5 1 . What is the positiveevidencethat risk of collision is presentin a crosbingsituation'l

a. whenthe bearingof the approachingvesseldoesnot appreciablychange
D. when the bearingof the approachingvesselis increasing
c. when the bearingofthe approachingvesselis decreasing
d. none of these

52. Thrcall-roundlight" white over red light is displayedby:

a. pilot vessel b. fishing vessel c. trawlers d. dredgcrs

53. Annex II of the Rulesfm Preventingcollision dealsprimarily with:

a. additionalsignalsfor fishing vessel c. distresssignals
b. maneuvering signals d. lights andshapes

54. Annex IV of theRulcsdealsprimarily with:

a. lightsandshaPes c, additionalsignalsfor fishing vcsscrl
D. disress signals d. none of these

55. Everyvesselunderpower,whetherundersail or not is said to be:

c. a power-driven vessel c. avesselunderway
b. asailing vessel d. none of these

56. Everypower-drivenvesselwhich is under sail and not underp,owerislconsideredto be:

a. asailing vessel c. avesselunderway
D. a power-driven vessel d. a deadvessel

5 7 . In fog, a bell forward and a gongaft mustbe soundedby anchoredvesbeiwhoselengthis over

a. 200 ft D. 300 ft c. 350 ft d' 250 tt

5 8 . You havea vesselundersail and steamapproachingoffyour port bow.Ycrushould:

c. stop you.rengine c. alter to Port to P:rssastern
b. altexto stbd to Passahead d. hold your courseand sPeed

Collision Regulations 1s5

59. When a power-drivenvesselis approachinga bendhaving high banksobstructingthe view around it:
a. sheshall soundoneprolongedblast c. bothaandb
b. sheshall round the bend with caution d. neither a nor b

60. According to the COLREGS, dl of the ff. are engagedin fishing except:
a. a vesselsefiing nets c. a vesselshooting dredgenets
D. a vesselengagedin trawling d. a vesselengagedin trolling

61. Which of the ff. tenn will mean a situation where collision is inevitable by action of the give-way
vesselalone?
a. In extremh c, Collision imminent
D. In personal d. None of these

62. A vesselnearing a bend shouldnavigatewith particular cautionand shouldsoundthe appropriatesig-

nal prescribedin:
c. Rule 34 (e) b. Rule 26 (a) c. Rule 3a (c) (i) d. Rule 29 (d)

63. In a narrow channel, if the overtaking vesselwants to overtaketo the port side of another,shehas to
sound:
a. Zprolotgedblassand I shortblast c. 5 shortrapidblasts
b. 2 prolongedblasts and 2 short blasts d. 2 short lrlass

il. In a narrow channel,if the overtakingvesselwantsto overtaketo the starboardsideof another,shehas

to sound:
a. 2 prolongedblastsand I short blast c. 5 short rapid blasts
b. 2prolonged blasts and 2 short blabts d. 2 short blasts

65. A yellow light having the sarnecharacteristicas the stemlight:

a. Ma.stheadlight D. Towinglight c. Sidelight d. Anchorlight

66. A vesselengagedin fishing when underwayshall so as far as possiblekeepout of the way ot

a. Vesselnot under command c. Poner driven vessel
D. Sailingvessel d. Seaplane

67. A seaplaneon the water shall keepclear ot

a. Ponerdriven vessel c. Vesselengagedinfishing
D. Sailing vessel d. All of the above

68. A light showingan unbrokenlight overthe horizonof 360 deg.:

a. Mastheadlight D. All-roundlight c. Sidelight d. Sternlight

69. A trawling vesselduring day time shall fisplay shapesin a vertical line me abovethe other:
a. 2 cmes with apexestogether c. 2 coneswith baseogether
b. Cylinders d. Balls

70. Rules in this section apply to vesselsin sight of one another.

a. Rule 11 D. Rule 8 c. Rule 9 d. Rule 10

7 | . The arc of the light sector,designedby its timiting bearing as observedat poinB other than the light.
a. Arc of visiblity b. kc of sector c. Sectorof light d. None of these

156 Collision Regulations

72. The word whistle meansany sornd signaliag appli6acecapableof producingthe prescribedblastsand
whici complies with the speciftcationsin Annex Itr of theseRegulrtions.
a. Rule 32 D. Rule 31 c. Rule 30 d. Rule 33

73. This Rule apptes b vesselsnot in sight of oneanotherwhennavigating in or near an areaof restriced
visibility.
a. Rule 19 D. Rule 20 c. Rule 17 d. Rule 18

74. When two sailing rresselsare approrching one another so as io involve risk of oollision, one of the'm
shall keep out of the way of the otber.
a. Rule 12 D. Rule 10 c. Rule 11 d. Rub 13

75. Every rassel which is directed to ke€p out of the way of another vesselshall so far as possibletake
early and substantialaction to keep well clear.
c. Rule 12 D. Rub 13 c. Rule 16 d. Rule 14

76. What is the best OesaipUonof a vesselnot under command?

a. For sme exceptionalreasonit is unable to maneuver.
D. There is no Captain.
c. Sheisagromd.
d. She is re.strictedof its maneuverability.

77. What light in addition to her sidelightsa vesselunder tow displays?

a. Towing light b. Flashinglight c. Sternlight d. Speciallight

7t. A vesselis rmderwaywhen sheis:

a. \llfie fast to shore c. Agromd
D. Atanchor d. Noneof theaborc

79. A vesselshall be operaredat safe speedat all fimes so that shecan be stoppedwithin:
a. lf2 the distance of visibility
D. Distance of visibility
c. Distanceat which a vesselfrom head30st€rncan go
d. Disance appropriarcto the existing circumsunces

80. In an overtaking sinration, when is the orertaking vessel'smaneuveronsidered cmplete?

a. lVhen the overtakenvesselis 2 points abaft the bean
D. When the situation becmes a crossing sinntion
c. When out of sigbt
d. When the 2 rrcsselsare abr€ast

81. ln a trafEc separationscleme, a vesselghalljoin a traffic lane ftom either side:

a. Only in caseof emergency
,. At rigbt angle o the generalflow of the traffic
c. With engineon slow down
d. At a small angle to tb generalflow d the traff,c

t2. What rction is permited in a trafric separationscheme?

c. Crossing the separationscheme c. Inpeding alarger vessel
D. Yac[tracing d. Anchoring due o emergency

Collision Regulatioru ts7

83. Rulesrequirea powerdriven vesselunderwayto f,eepout of the way of all the ff. vesselexcept:
a. Vesselengagedin fishing c. Vesselrestrictedin her ability !o maneuver
b. Pilot vessel d. Vesselnotundercorunand

84. You are undenvayin fog and h^ar a fog signal of 2 prolongedblastson your stbdquarter.What action
will you take?
a. Maintain course& speed c. Changecounleo stbd
D. Changecourseto port d. Sop your engine

85. While on watch on the bridge and yur are in an EXTREMIS situation, what would yorrdo first?
c. Call the Captain c. Changecourseo s$d
D. Sour.Jthe generalalarm d. htt engineson full astern

86. A vesselusing a traffic separatiu scbemesball:

c. Anchor in the seParationz<xrc
D. Crossa traffic lane if dliged o
c. Avoid ancboringrrcar the terminatio of Oe scbeme
d. lJtllzze the separationzone for navigation through the scheme

87. Traffrc separationschemeis describedas:

a. Lane designedfor ortgoing vessel c. I-ane assigoedto incoming vessel
D. Keeping your proper lare as designated d. I.ane usedby powerdriven vessel

8E. Which statementis csrect corcerning 2 vesselsin a crossingsiuntim?

a. Only the stnndon vesselcan give the dangersignd
b. The vesselthat faih to understandtbe intentio or rtion of the other must give the dangersignal
c. Only the give way vesselcan give tbe dangersignal
d. Both vesselsmust give tbe danSersignal

89. Which factor must you consider in setting a safespeed?

a. Stateof win( sea,current, visitflig, traffic densityand navigational hazards
b. Maintaining your reporad ETA
c. Speedmaintained by ressel of pur class
d. Whether your vesselis passengeror cargo

90. Theterrr " INEXTREMIS"means:

a. An actof God
b. An inevitableaccident
(:. Action is required by the privileged vessel
d. Time for the privileged vesselto sormddangersignal

9 1. A safespeedis defmedas that speedwbere:

a. Yon can stop witbin your rangeof visiblity
D. You can take proper and effective rctim to avoid collisim
c. You move slower Oan the surroundingvessels
d. No wake comesfrom your vessel

92. Which condition is the definition of restrictedvisibility? :

a. Fog & mist c. Falling srmworrain
b. Heavysandstorm d. Any condition tbat limi6 visibility

l5E Collision Regulations

 of 300 yards.Youshould:
93. you are proceedingat half speedand approachinga fog bank with a visibility
a. Maintain half sPeed
b. Set a speedbasedupon the prevailing condition
c. Stopyour engine then proceedwith caution
rr. Incieaseyour speed& get through the fog bank as quickly as possible

94. Which vesselis restricted in her ability to maneuver?

a. Fishing vessel c. Vesselnot under cortmand
D. Vesselengagedin dtedging d. VesselconstrainedbYher draft

95. A vesselproceedingalong the courseof a narrow channel shall keep:

a. As clme o the starboardlimit of the channel
D. As closeto the middle as is safe
c. To the left
d. To the right
lights?
96. At night, which of tbe vesselsat anchu is not requiredto display anchor
a. A vesseldredging c' Pilot rpssel on duty
D. A vesselrestrided to maneuver d. Fowerdriven vessel

97. If there is any dcub,tthat tbe risk of ollision exists, such risk:
a. Doesnot exist c' Dcs exist
b. Shall be deemedto exist d' May exist
two short blasts. It
gt. while navigating in restricted visitility, 1ou bear one prolongedblast followed by
qrld be all of the following except:
a. Avesseltishing c. A vesseltowing astern
D. A vesseltowed d. A vesselout of command

gg. yqr vessel is fishing at anchor on the high seas,Which of the following day signals should she
display if she has gear extending outover 500 feet horizonhlly frromthe vessel?
a. I tlact ball in the forepart c. A basketwhere best seen
D. A black double frustrun of a cone d. A black conepoint upwards

proceedingunder sail and power on

100. which of the following day signalsshould be canied by a vessel
tbe high seas?
c. One black ball fcward c. A basketwherebest seen
D. A cme point dos'nwards d. None of these

light. which of the following is

101. yor seea vesseldisplaying a red light over a white light and a flare up
ir?
a. A vesselengaged in fishingat anchor' c. A vesselnot under command.
D. A vessel
power-driven deadin thewater. d. A naval vesselengagedin laurrchingaircrafr

102. Which of the following day signals indicates a vesselfishing?

a. A ball abovesquareflag c. A black ball wherebest seen
D. A basketwhere best seen d' A dorble frustum of a cone
light?
103. A vessel@ing pushedaheadis requiredto carry which of the following
a. sideligDts and stern light c. sidelights and a small white light at eachend
D. Sidelights only d. A small white light at eachend

Collision Regulations 159

104. By observingher colord sidelight, the headingof the vesselmay be determinedwithin:
a. 10 points of the compass c. 4 points of the compass
D. 6 points of the compass d. t points of the compass

105. A vesselunder sail, displaying a black conical shape,point down, is regardedas:

a. Power{riven c. Fishing
D. Sailing d. Not under command

106. At seayou sight a vesselwith a blac* ball at the foretruck and another such shapeat the yard. This
wonld indicate:
a. A vesseltrawling asking you to keepclear.
D. A vesselsweepiugfor mines.
e Bothaandb
d. Neitheranor b

107. The length of tow is measuredftom:

a. Bow of the towing vesselto the bow of the last vesselof the tosr.
D. Bw of the towing vesselto the stem of the last vesselof the tow.
c. Stem of the towing vesselto the stern of the last vesselof the tow.
d. Stern of the towing vesselto the borv of the first vesselof the ton.

108. A vesselengagedin replenishmenton the high seasshall display which of the following day signals?
a. A black ball over black diamond over black ball
b. Ttvoblackballs in avertical line
c. Two red balls in a vertical line
d. Three red balls in a vertical line

109. The dayna* for fishing in international watersis:

a. A basketor a double cone c. A black ball
D. Acone d. Noneof theabove

110. A vesselor seaplaneon the waEr is consideredto be underwaywhen:

c. Sheisatanchor. c. Sheisaground.
D. She is madefast to shore. d. Her anchor eases to hold.

111. A naval vesselengagedin maneuversis allowed to:

a. Showlights in addition to the normal navigation lights.
D. Extinguish navigationallights.
c. Either aor b
d. Neitheranor b

ll2. \\e Rule of Spe.cialCircumsances supplementsthe Rules of the Road with additionat precautions
not ordinarily required. Theseprecautionsmay allow or require:
a. Violrtion of a requirementof the other Rules.
b. Action beyondfull dedience to Se Rules.
c. Bothaandb
d. Neitber a nor b

160 Collision Regulntioru

 CHART PROJECTIONS
A U"p is a conventionalrep'resentation,usually
.Clon a plane surface,of all or part of the physical
featuresof the Earth's surfaceor any part of it.
A Chart is such a representationintended prima-
rily for navigation. A Nautical or Marine Clrut is
one intended primarily for marine navigation. It
generally showsdepth$of water (by soundingsand
sometimesby depthcurves),aidsto navigation,dan-
gers,and the outline of adjacentland and suchfea-
tures as are useful to the navigator.
MAP OR CHART PROJECTION
A Map Projeaion c Chart Projectionis a method
ofrepresenting all or part ofthe surfaceofa sphere
or spheroidupon a plane surface.The processis urc
of transferringpoints on the surfaceof the sphereor
spheroid onto a plane, or onto a developablesur-
facesuchas a cylinder or @ne.If points on the sur-
ftce of the sphereor spheroidare projectedftom a
single point (including infinity), the projection is
said to be perspectiveor geomctric.
Deslrable hopertlcs ofMap or Chart hoJectlons
1. True shapeof physical features.
2. Crllnea.angular relationship (coformal or
orthmorphic).
3. Equal area,of the representationofareas in
their orrect relative proportions.
4. Constant scale values for measuring dis-
tanoes.
5. Crreatcircles representedas saaight lines.
6. Rhumblinesrepresentedas straight lines.
MERCATOR MAP PROJECTION
It is a conformal cylindrical map projection in
which the surfrce ofa sphereor spheroid"such as
the earth, is conceivedas developedon a cylinder
tangent along the equator. Meridians appear as
€qually spacedrertical lines and parallels as hori-
Chartsand Publications
zontal lines drawn further apaft as the latitude in-
ctreases,such that the correct relationship between
latitude and longitude scalesat any point is main-
tained.
The expansionat any point is equalto the secant
of the latitude of that point, with a small correction
for the ellipticity of the earth. The Mercator is not a
perspectiveprojection. Since rhumblines appearas
straight lines and directions can be measureddi-
rectly, this projection is widely usedin navigation.
If the cylinder is tangent along a meridian, a
transt)erseMercMor nwp projection results; if the
cylinder is tangentalong an oblique greatcircle, an
oblique Mercator nup projection results.
Greatcircles, exceptmeridians and the equator,
appearas 'turved lines oncave to the equator".
Since degreesd longitude appear everywhere
at the samelength in the Mercator projection, the
length of the meridiansis increasedo provide equal
expansionin all directions.
Merldlonal Parb. Thelength of thearc .f anerid-
ian betweenthe equator and a given parallel on a
Mercatorchart expressedin units of I minute of lon-
gitude at the equator.
RECTANGULAR PR,OJECTION
A cylindrical projection similar to the Mercator
but with uniform spacingof the parallels. It is con-
venientfu graphically depicting information where
distortion is not important.
The principal navigational useof this prqiection
is for the star chart of the Air Almanac, whereposi-
tions of stars are ploued by a rccta4gular coordi-
natesrepresentingdeclination (ordinate) and side-
real hour angle (abscissa).Since the meridians are
parallel, the parallelsof lati$de (including the equa-
tor and thepoles)aredl representedby line of equal
161
length. . The Gnomonic map projection is used princi-
pally for charts for great-circlesailing. This Fojec-
SIMPI.E CONIC PROJECTION
tion is neither conformal nor equal area.Distortion
A onic prc{ection in which the surfrce of a is so great that the shapes,as well as distances
and
sphereor spheroid, such as the earth, is onceived areas,are very poorly represented,exceptnear the
asdevelopedon a tangeN conc, which is then spread point of tangency.
out to form a plane.
The height of the cone increasesas the latitude STEREOG RAPIilC MAP PROJECTION
of the tangentparallel decreases.At the equator,the A perspective,onformal, azimuthal map pro-
height reachesinfinity and the conebecomesa cyl- jection on which points on the surfaceof a sphercor
inder. At the pole, its height is zero and it becomes spheroid, such as the earth, are conceivedas pro-
a plane. jected by radial lines from any point on the surface
o a plane tangent to the antipode of the point of
LAMBERT CONI,ORMAL MAP PROJBCIION prqiection.
A conformal map projection of the conic type, Circles project ascircles exceptfor great circles
on which all geographicmeridians are represented through the point of tangency,which great circles
by straight lines which meet in a common point project as straight lines. The principal navigation
outside the limits of the map, and the geographic use of the projection is for charts of t.bepolar re-
parallels are representedby a seriesof arcs of cir- gions.
cles having this conmon point for a center.
OR,TIIOGRAPIIIC MAP PROJECTION
Meridiansandparallelsintersectat right angles,
and angleson the earth are correctly representedon A perspectiveazimuthal projection on which the
the projection. This projection may have one stand- projecting lines, emanatingfrom a point at infinity,
ard parallel along which the scale is held exact; or are perpendicularto a 0angentplane.
theremaybe two suchstandardparallels,bothmain- This projection is used chiefly in navigational
taining exact scale.At any point on the map, the astronomy for interconverting coordinates of the
scale is the same in every direction. The scale celestialequatorand horizon systems.
changesalong the meridiansand is constantalong
eachparallel. Where there are two standardparal- AZIMUTHAL EQUII'ISTANT CIIART
lels, the scalebetweenthoseparallels is too small; PROJECTION
beyondthem, too large. An azimuthal map projection on
wbich straight lines radiatingfrom the center
POLYCONIC MAP PROJECTION or pole ofprojection representgreat circles in their
A conic map projection in which the surfaceof true azimuths from that center, and lengths along
a sphereor spheroid,suchas the earth, is conceived thoselines are of exact scale.
as developedon a series of tangent cones,which
This projection is neither conformal nor equal
are then spreadout to fonn a plane. A separatecone
area. If a geographicpole is the pole of projection,
is usedfor eachsnall zone.
meridiansappearasradial lines and parallelsof lati-
This projectionis widely usedfor mapsbut sel- tude as equally spced concentric circles.
dom usedfor charts, exoeptfm "suryey purposes".
It is not oonformal. DEF'INITION OF TERMS:
C-onformal.tlaving correct angukr representation.
GNOMONIC MAP PROJECTION
Gradcule. The network of lines representingparal-
A perspectiveazimuthalmap projectionin which
points on tbe surfaceofa sphereor spheroid"such lels andneridians on a map, chart or ploning sheet.
as the earth, are conceivedas projectedby radials Grld. A seriesof lines, usually straight and paral-
from the center to a tangent plane. Great circles lel, superimposed on a chart or plotting sheetto serve
project as straight lines. as directional referencefo'r navigation or two sets

162 Chartsand Publicatiaw

 which may be infinitY.
of mutually perpendicularlines dividing a map or
chart into squaresor rectanglesto permit location Transverse orthormrphic projection. A special
of any point by a systemof rectangularcoordinates' caseof Mercatorprujectionin which the cylinder is
a meridian'
PerspectlveproJectlcr. The representation of a fig- tangentalong
A parallelalong which thereis
ure on a surface,either plane or curved, by means Standard parallel.
of projectinglines emanatingfrom a single point' no distortion.

NAUTICAL CHART
Nautical Chart is a (rnventional graphic rep- 1:150,000.
resentation, on a plane surface, ofnavigable llarbor charts. Chartsintendedfor navigationand
portion of the surfaceof the earth. It showsthe depth anchoragein harborsand small waterways'Scaleis
bf waterbynumeroussoundingsanddepthcontours' largerthan 1:50,000.
the shorelineof adjacentland, topographicfeatures
thatmayserveaslandmarks,aidso navigation'dan- SPECIAL CHARTS
gers, and other information of interest[o naviga- Pilot chart. The chart presentsin graphicfolm, av-
tors. eragesobtainedfrom datagatheredover many years
in meteorologyand oeanography to aid the navi-
It is designedas a worksheeton which courses
gatorin selectingthequickestandsafestroutes'Used
maybe plotte( and positionsascertained'It assists
in conjunction with regular navigational charts and
thcnavigator in avoidingdangersand arriving safely
other aidsto navigation.
at his d&ignation. The nautical chart is one of the
mostessentialandreliableaidsavailablelo thenavi- Bathymetric chart A topographicchart of thebed
gator, of a body of water, or part of it. Generally,
Nearlyall nauticalchartsusedfor ordinary pur- bathymetricchartsshowdepthsby contour lines and
gradienttints.
posesof navigationareconstructedonlhe Mercator
projection. Tidal current charts. Charts on which tidal cur-
rent data are depictedgraphically.
CIIART CLASSIFICATION BY SCALE
Satling charts. The smallestscalecharts usedfor Synoptic chart. In meteorology,any chart or map
planning,fixing positionat sea,and for plotting the on *ni"n data and analysis are presentedthat de-
beadreckoningwhile proceedingon a long voyage' scribe the stat€of the atmosphereover a large area
The shorelineand topographyare generalizedand at a given moment of time. Commonly refened to
only offshoresoundings,the principal navigational astheWeathcr MaP.
lights, outer buoys, and landmarks visible at con-
chart on a specific scale
siderabledistanceare shown. Scaleis smaller than Plottlng chart. An outline
1:600.000. andprojection,usuallyshowinga graticuleandcom-
p^r tot" designedto be usedancillary to standald
Generalcharts. Chartsintendedfor coastwisenavi- nauticalchart.
gation outsideoutlying reefs and shoals' Scaleis
ftom 1:150,000to 1:600,000. Posltlon plotttng sheet. A blank chart, usually on
the Mercator projection, showingonly the graticule
Coastcharts. Chartsintendedfu inshorecoastwise
and compassrose' The meridians are usually
navigationwherethe coursemay lie insideoutlying
unlabeledbythe publisherso that they can be ap-
reefJand shoals, for entering or leaving bays and
propriately labeled when the chart is used in any
harborsof considerablewidth' and for navigating
large inland warcrways.Scaleis from 1:50'000to longitude.

Chartsand Publications 163

 NAUTICAL PUBLICATIONS
\loffce to Marlners. A weekly publication giv-
I \ ing infomrationon changesin aids to naviga-
tion (lights, buoys,daymark, ranges),dangersto
navigation (rocks, shoals,reefs, wrecks), selected
itemsfrom the Local Notice to Mariners,important
newsoundings,changesin channels,radionavtgation
infonnation, new and revisedcharts and publica-
tions,specialwarningsand notices.
Light Llst. A publicationgiving detailedinforma-
tion regardinglightednavigationalaidsandfog sig-
nals.The nameand location of the lighted aids,their
characteristics,heights,range,structuredescription
and otherpertinentremarksare given.
Salling Directions. A descriptivebook for the tse
of mariners, containing detailed information of
coastal waters, harbor facilities, etc. of an area.
Sometimescalled Pilot.
U.S. Coast Pllot. One of a seriesof nine Sailing
Directions publishedby the National OceanSurvey,
that oover a wide variety of infonnation important
to navigatorsof U.S. coastaland intercoastalwa-
ters, and the watersof the Greatlakes. Most of this
infonnation cannot be shopn graphically on the
standardnautical chartsand is not readily available
elseryhere.
World Port Index (Pnb. 150). A publication of
DefenseMapping Agency listing the location, char-
rcteristics, lnown facilities and available services
of a greatmany ports, shipping facilities and oil ter-
minals throughoutthe world.
r& Chartsand Publications
Nautical Almanac. A periodical publication of as-
tronomicaldatausefulto anddesignedprimarily for
marinenavigation.
fide tables. Tableswhich give the predictedtimes
and heighs of high and low water for everyday in
the yearfor a numberof referencestations,and tidal
differencesand ratios by which additional predic-
tions can be obtainedfm subordinatestations.From
thesevaluesit is possibleto interpolateby a simple
procedurethe height of tide at any hour of the day.
Radio NavigatlonAlds (hrb. 117A and 1178). A
publication which ontains data on radio aids to
navigation servicesprovided to mariners. The data
provides the necessaryirformation for the mariner
to useradio beaconsfor radio direction finding.
Sight Reductlon Tables for Marlne Navlgation
(Pnb. No. 229), A publication in six volumes,each
which includes npo 8 degreezonesof latitude. For
entering argumentsof integral degreesof latitude,
declinationandlocal hour angle,altitudesand their
differencesare tabulated to the nearest tenth of a
minute, azimuth anglesto the neafesttenth of a de-
gree.
Slght ReductlonTables for Alr Navlgatlon @ub.
No. 249). A publication in three volumes,with vol-
ume I containing tabulatedaltitudes and azimuths
of selectedstars and volumes 2 and 3 co:rtaining
tabulatedaltitudes and azimuth anglesof any body
wi0in the limits of the entering arguments.
 GHARTS AND PUBLIGATIONS
youwill
1. If you would want to know facilities of a certain port you wish to avail, the bestpublication
refer to is:
a. Notice o Mariners c. World Fort tndex
D. Sailing Directions d' Coast Pilot

2. Polyconic projection is basedon:

a. seriesof ones tangent at selectedparallel
D. conetangentat oneparallel
'planetnngentat one
c. Point
d. cylindertangentat onePoint

3. which of the ff. publications would you refer to obtain navigational information wben entering a
foreign port?
a. Sailing Directions c. Notice to Mariners
D. World Port Index d. Coast Pilot

4. In H.O. charts,soundingsmay be shownin which of the following measurements?

a. feet b. fathoms c. meters d' uty of theabove

5. Which of the ff. infomration would not be found on a Pilot chart?

cwrent
a . w i n d c o n d i t i o n D . t i d a l i n f o r m a t i o n c . s t e a m e r s r o u E d. ocean
light lists'
6. Which of the ff. is the official publication for the correction of charts, sailing directions,
etc.:
a. Coast Pilot c. List of Lights
b. Notice o Mariners d. List of Radio Signals

7. Notice to Mariners is issuedfor correcting:

a. Charts and references c. World port index
b. Sailing directions d. Radionavigationalaids

8. On a nercator chart" how would a greatcircle line appear?

a. concavetoward the equator c. straightline
D. convextoward the equator d. loxodromic

barometricpressure,
g. Chartswhich grve in the graphic forrr inforuration on averagewinds, currents,
high powered vesselsare
presenceof ice and derelicts and the recommendedroutes for low and
called:
a. Plotting charts b. Sailingchars c. Mercator charts d. Pilot chafis

10. The cbart symbol for CLAY bottom is:

a. C{ b. cA c. CL d.c

1 1 . Distanceis measuredon a mercatorchart using:

a. latitude scaleu tbe middle of the scale
D. longitude scaleat the middle of the scale
c. linear scalenear the title block
d. ny of the above

Charts and Publications 165

12. Which statementis true regarding mercator projection?
a. Degreesoflongitude decreases in length as latitudeincreases.
D. I*ngth of meridians is incressedto provide for equal expansionin all directions.
c. Lengtb of meridian expressin minutesof latitude is equal to the number of meridional parts.

13. The chart projeclion most suitabrefor plotting a greatcircle for polar navigation is the:
a. glelit circle projeaion c. plane projection
D. mercator projection d. gnomonic projection
14. What charts are likely to show all aids to navigation?
a. harbu charts c. small scalecharts
b. large scalecharts d. pilot charts
15. Mercator chart is a:
4. rectangular projection c. cylindrical projection
D. simple onic projection d. polyconic projection
16. When the deviation of the compasshasbeentaken by computedazimuttr, thc deviation is enteredin
Oe:
a. oompassrecord book c. compassdeviation card
D. bridgeblackboard

17. On the chart, outer compassrosesare marked in degreeswhich represents:

a. magnetic direction c. rue direction
D. deviationandvariation d. compassreading

18. The chart symbolSD means:

a. shallowdepth D. soundingdepth c. seadangerous d. soundingdoubtful
19. The chart symbol indicating that the borom is CORAL is:
a.A. ,.CO c. CR d.C

20. The letters PD alongsidean obstructionindicatedon the chart mean:

a. positive deviation c. positively dangerons
D. powerful disturbance d. position doubtful

21. Mo$t charts usedfor navigation are:

c. mercator charts D. polar charts c. great circle charts d. bathlmetric charts
22. A mercatorchart is desirablefor use in marine navigation because:
a. meridians are shownclearty c. lines shown are in straigbt lines
,. latitudes are lessindicated d. none of the above
23. Coursesand bearingsindicatedin the chartsare:
c. apparentbaring D. magneticazimuth c. alwaystrue d. ompass direction

24. Vertical lines equally spacedon a mercatorchart indicate:

a. Inran-C line b. Isogonic line c. longitude d. Latitude

25. What do the ff. abbreviationsnamely M-S-CLOZ indicated on the chart refer to:
a. natural featuresin coastline c. opography
D. seabed d. man madestructures

t6 Charts and Publications

26. What chart coversa large area?
a. harbcchart b. coast chart c. sailingchart d. generalchart

27. In a mercatorchart, which part is the scaleaccurate?

a. higherlatitrde b. meanlatitude c. middle latitude d. lower latitude

28. The daytime characteristicof a lighthousecan be det€rminedby referring to:

a. aidso navigation c. world port index
D. oast pilot d. light list

29. A gnomonic projection is basedon:

c. seriesof conestangent to seleted parallels
D. plane tangentat onePoint
c. soagtqng€ntatOneparallel
d. cylinder tangentat the equator

30. In the Pilot chart, what doesthe number in the wind roseindicate?
a. averagewind speedin knots
b. averagewatertemperatufeduring thenonth
c. peroentageof calm
d. averagewind speedby Beaufort scde

31. In wbat publication will you find infonrution aboutcustorls, culrents,aids to navigation andpilotage?
4. oast pilot c. current table
D. sailing directions d. pilotchart

32. Which publication would you consult to seeif there is a pilot for the port of Osaka?
a. notice to marinef,s c. world pilots
D. oast pilot d. sailing directions

33. The length of any part of an extendedmeridian of a mercatorchart when expressedin unis that arethe
length of a minute of a longitude is called:
a. meridional parts D. latitude c. gnomonic d. departure

34. The changein longitude along a celestial line of position per I min. changein lati$de is:
a. deparnre b. intercept c. longitude factor d. latiftde factor

35. The changein latitude for a I min. changein longitude is called:

4. longiftde factor D. latitude factor c. intercept d. deparnre

36. Ibw is distancemeasuredin a polyconic chart?

a. by straigbt line D. by rhumblines c' by great circle d. byparallellines

37. Whenthecoune is tbroughvariouslatitudes,the conversionmay be eitherby midlat sailing or mercator

sailing in which the principle is involved in the constructionof what chart?
.l. mercator chart c. polyconic chart
D. gnomonic chart d. gre* circle chart

38. A projection wherein the eye is assumedto be situatsd at an infinite distance above the celestial
sphereso that all linqs projectedfrom the eye ino the spherewill be parallel is called:
a. equidistant projection c. orthographic projection
D. mercator projection d. conical prct'ction

Charts and Publications l6il

39. Which is the most importaht publication for correcting charts and thus keeping tbem up to date?
a. lightlist c. bothaandb
b. notice to mariners d. neither a nor b
40. Which of the ff charts is intendedfor ooastwisenavigation outsideof outlying reefs and shoals?
a. generalchart D. sailingchart c. pilotchart d. harbqchart
41. Which of the ff. charts is intendedfu inshore ooastwisenavigation where the ooursemay lie inside
otrtlymg reefs and shoals?
a. generalchart D. sailingchart c. coastchart d. harborchart
42. The smallestscalechart usedfor plianning,fixing position at se4 and plstting the DR while proceed-
ing on a long voy4geis the:
a. generalchart D. sailingchart c. coastchart d. pilotchart
43. Which chait projection would be most suitable for marine surveying?
a. gnomonic c. mercator
b. kmb€rt conformal .d. polyconic
4. What publication contains desaiptions of coast line, buoy4gesystem,weather conditions, port fa-
cilities, and navigation instructions for the United Statesand its possessions?
d. oast pilot b. port index c. light list d. sailing directions
45. A deailed descriptionof repair hcilitie.s availablein Cadiz, Spain would be availablein the:
a. sailing directions D. world port in&x c. pilot chart d. oast pilot

46. The location of the North and SouthPolesare establishedby the rotation of the earth on its axis. With
the poles as starting points, a systemof line can be called parallels and meridians locate the place on
the earth's surface.This completenetwork is called:
a. Earthgrid c. Circleof illumination
D. Parallelism of axis d. Plane of the orbit
47. The simplestmethodamongall projectionsis known as the:
a. Equidistant projection c. Stereographicprojection
D. hrallel projection d. Orthographic projection

48. A line or seriesof lines on a chart suMivided and labeledwith the disance representedon the chart is
called:
a. Bar scale ,. Crid c. Coordinates d. Iatiurde scale
49. The art and scienceof making charts or mapsis called:
a. Cbartography D. Cartography c. Orthography d. Cieography
50. Wbat is a periodical publication of astronomicaldata designedprimarily fu marine navigatim?
a. H.O.229 c. lfxuticaletmanac
b. H.O.2l4 d. Astrononical almanac
51. Achart on which all tidal currentsdataare graphically&picted.
a. Currentchart c. Tidalchart
D. Pilot chart d. Tidal atlas

52. A chart showing the disribution of weatherconditions over a region or given areaat a certain time.
a. Spoptic chart ' c. hognostic chart
D. Barometric chart d. Meteorological chart

16E Charts and Publications

 with the principle in any projection'
53. The netrrort of latintde and longitude lines laid out in accordance
b. Graticule c' Grid d' Coordinates
a. Neatline

54. On anautical chart' I nautical mile isequal to:

a. 1 min. of longitude c. 1 min. of latittde
b. I deg.of longitude d. I deg.of latitude

yor will not en@untericebergswould be to:

5 5 . The most relirableway to chec* your @urseO seethat
a- Refer to the montl's Pilot chart c. Refer to yotlr navigational chart
D. Refer to the Coast Pilot

56. On an isomagneticchart' the line of zero variation is the:

a. Agonic line c' Variation line
D. Isogonic line d' Tsovariation line

5 7 . Whichofthefollowingisusedintheprojectionofgnomonicchart?
b. FtatPlane c' Cllinder d' Cube
c. Cone
widely usedfor navigation as namedby its inventor GerhardKremer'
5 8 . The mly cylindrical projection
"Ut
Equidistant
Ortnographic c' Mercator d'
a. Polyconi "
the perpendicularto the plTe of the
59. The earth,s axis has a fixed inclination of 23" 77'of arc from North star' This is called:
qbit. This position is onstant with North Polealwayspointing towardsthe
a. Plane of the orbit c' Parallelisn of the axis
b. Earthgrid d' Tropicof Capricorn

60. On a mercator chart, great circle lines appearto be:

a. Concavetowardsthe equator c. Straightline
b. Convextowards the equator d. Loxodromic

there is no magnetic dip is the:

61. The line connecting the points of the earth's surfacewhere
b-. Isopor c' Isodynamic d' Agonic
a. Magnetic.qu"t-

62. What agencypublishesthe Light List?

a. U.S.CoastGuard c. National OceanSenrice
b. OceanograPhicOffioe d. CorpsofEngineer

should tbey be retained befue

6S.Whe.nNoticetoMarinersarereceivedonboardavessel,howlong
being discarded?
b. Three Pars c. Four lears d. Five Pars
a. Tho years
chart projectim?
&. Wbat regions of the earth may not be shown by the ordinary d' Temperatelati$des
a. Doldrums b. Trqics c' Polar regions

true?
65. lvhich of the ff. statement/sregarding scaleof the charts is/are
a. Sailingchartslessthan 1:600,000
b. Generalchartsfrom 1:150,000 o 1:600,000
c. Coastchars ftom l:50,000o 1:150,000
d. All of these

Charts and Publicuions t69

 A SIMPLE CONIC IVIAP -\rie
,3-

POLAR STEREOGRAPHIC PROJECTION

t70
 MAGNETISM
with In 1984,the north magneticpole was locatedat
ll rfagneffsm is a phenomenaassaiated
IYlmagnetic fields and their effects upon mag- Irtitude 78.9"N, LongitudeI 03.8"17,approximately
netic materials,notably iron and steel.The magnet- in the vicinity of the Parry Islands. The southmag-
ism of the'horth-seeling end" of a fteely suspended netic pole was at Latitude 65.4"5, Iangitude
magnet is called red nagnztism; the magnetismof 139.5"E,approximatelyofr the coastof the nortb-
thel'south-seekingend" is called blue magnetism" east€rnpart of Wilkes I-and.
The magnetic poles are not stationary.The en-
Induced mgncdsIn Magnetismacquiredby a piece
tire magneticfield of the earth, the magneticpoles'
of magneticmaterial while it is in a magneticfield'
undergoesa small dally or diurnal clnnge, and z
Permancnt mgneffsrn This is re0ainedfor long very slow, progressivesecularclwnge'
perids without appreciable reduction, unless the Natural magnetic irregularities occuring over
magnetis srbjected to a demagnetizingforce' relatively small areasare called rutgnetic ananur'
Sub-pcrmanentmagnetlsm.Themagnetismin the ties!..ythe ntagncticiiutsbut thenavigatorgenerally
int€mediafe iron of the ship whiCh tcndsto change refers to thcsr:lihenomenaas local disturbance.
as the result of vibration, aging cr ';ruising in the Noteswanrittg of r;'ir-ltdisturbancesare shown on
samedirection for a long perioclbuf r-lrlcsnot alter charts.
immediately. ELEMIIN'IS {;l itr0 EARIH'S FIALD
Resldual mgnetbm Magnetismwlticb remains Total intensity {$t)rs thestrengthof the field at any
after removal ef the magnetizing forcc. point, measurecl in a directionparallelto the field.
Terrcstrlal magncdsn (or geomagnetism)'The llorizontal intensity (H) is the horizontalcompo-
magnetismof the earth. nent of thc t0tal intcnsity.At the magneticequator'
the field is parallet to the surfaceof the earth, and
MAGNETIC POLES the horizontal intensity is the sameas the total in-
The region in which the lines of force enter the tensity. At the magnetic poles, the field is vertical
iron is called thesouthpolc, and the region in which and thereis no horizontal component.The direction
they leaveis called the north pole. The lines of force of the horizontal componentat any place defines
are directedfrom southto north within the magnet" the magnetic meridian at any place. This compo-
and from north to south in the external field. "directive force" of a mag-
nent providesthe desired
netic compass.
If nvo magnetsare brought close together' un-
like poles attract eachother and like poles repel' North conrponent (X) is the horizontal intensity's
componentalonga geographic(true) meridian.
The Earth's magneticpolein the NorthernHemi-
"southmagnetism"'It is calledthenrrth East component (Y) is the horizontal intensity's
spherehas
rwgnctic fwldbecauseof its geographicallocation' componentperpendicularto the north component.
has "north
The pole in tbe Southern ttremisphere
Vertlcal lntcnsity (Z) is the v€rticd componentof
magnetism".It is called thesouthrutgneticpole' the total intensity. It is zero at the magnetic equa-
asthe total
The north magneticpole of the earthis bluepole tor. At the magneticpoles it is the same
and the southmagnetic pole is red pole. intensity.

Compassand Magnetistn t7r

Varladon (V, Var.) or Docllnatlon (D) is the angle
betweenthe geographicand magneticmeridians at
anyplace.This elementis measuredin angularunits
and namedeastor west to indicate the side of true
north on which the (magnetic)northerly part of the
magnetic meridian lies. Grdd Variation (GV)) or
grivuion is the angle betweenthe grid and mag-
netic meridiansat any place.
Magnedc dlp (I) or Incllnadon is the vertical an-
gle, expressedin angular units, betweenthe hori-
zontal at anypoint and a line offorce throughthat
point. The magnetic latitude of a place is the angle
having x tanSentequal to half that of the magnetic
dip of the place.
DEF'INTTION OF TBRMS:
Agonlc llne. A line connectingpoints of zerovaria-
tion.
Isocllnlcal lines. Lines connectingpoints of equal
magnetic dip.
Isodynamlc llnes. Lines connecringpoints of equal
intensity on any of isomagneticcharts.
Isogonlc llres. Lines connecting points of equal
magnetic variation.
Isomagnedccharts. Charts sbowinglines of equal-
ity of smre magnetic elements.
Isopors. Lines in a distinctira oolor, oonnecting
points of equal annual changeof the elementat the
epochofthe chart.
Magnedc equator. The line connocting points of
zero dip. Also called Aclinic Line.
Magnetlc dlurnal verlatlm. Oscillations of the
Ealth's magneticfield which have a periodicity of
abouta day and which dependson a cloaeapproxi-
mation only on local time and geographiclatitude.
Magnedc secular change.The gradualvariation in
the value of a magneticelementwhich oocursover
a poiod of years.

COMPASSERROR
f-lirections relative to the northerly direction DEVTATTON (D OR DEV.)
lJalsag a geographicmeridian are true.In this It is the angular differencebetweenmagnetic
case,true north is the referencedirection. north and compassnorth. It is expressed in angular
units and named east or west to indicate the sideof
CompassEnor is the angular difference between
(the magnetic north on which the compass north lies.
truenorth and ompass north direction north as
indicatedby a magnetic compass).It is namedeast Deviation is causedby disturbing magnetic in-
orwestto indicatethe sideof the true north on which fluencesin the inmediate vicinity of the conpass
oompassnorth lies. such as from induced magnetism in metal decks,
bulkheads,masts,stacks,boat davits etc..
If a magneticoompassis influencedby no other
magneticfield than thatof the earth, and thereis no Semi-clrcular devlatlon. Changessign @ or W)
instrumentalerror, its magnetsare aligned with the approximatelyeach 180" changeof heading.
magneticmeridian at the compass,and 000" of the
cmpass card coincideswith nagnetic north. All di- Quadrantal deviatlon. Changessign approximately
rectionsindicated by Oe card are magnetic. each 90" changeof heading. Causedby indued
magnetisn in horizontal soft iron.
VARTATTON (V OR VATJ
Constant devlrtlon. Deviation is the sane in any
It is the angle benveengeographic(true) and heading.
magnetic meridians. If a compassis aligned with
the magneticmeridian, compasserror and variation Rcsldual devlrdon Deviation of a magnetic com-
are the same. passafter adjustmentor compensation.

172 Compassand Magnetism

COUT'ICIENTS ing. It is maximum on intercardinalheadinlsand
zero on cardinal headings. It is causedby induce
Coefficlcnt A is constrnt on all headings.
magnetismin the horizontal soft iron which is slm-
Coefficlmt B is a semi-circular deviation which is metrical with respectto the compass.
proportional to the sine of the compassheading. It It is the mean deviation on intercardinal head-
is maximum on courpassheadingseastor west, and ings,with signsatheadings135"and 315oreversed.
zefo on oompassheadingsnorth or south.It is caused
quadrantal deviation which is
by permanentmagnetismand by induced magnet- Coeffrclent E is a
ism in asynmefical vertical soft iron' proportionalto the cosineoftwice the compasshead-
ing. tt is maximum on cardinal compassheadings
It is the mean deviation on headings090o and and zero on intercardinal compassheadings' It is
270",with sign at 270" revened. causedby inducedmagnetismin horizontal soft iron
Coefficient C is a semi-circular deviation which is which is asymmerical with respectto the compass'
proportional to the osine of the compass heading' It the is mean deviation on cardinal headings'
It is maximum on compassheadings north or south, with signs at headings090" and 270" reversed.
and zero on compassheadings east or west. It is Coefrlclent J is the changeof deviation for a heel
causedby perrranentmagnetismor by inducedmag- of 1" while the vesselis on compassheading000"
netismin asymmetricalvertical soft iron athwarship It is onsidered positive if the north end of the com-
of the comPass. passcard is drawn toward the low side, and nega-
It is the mean &viation on headings 000" and tive if towardthe high side.
180",with the sign at 180" revened. For the purposeof analysis,eastedydeviationis
Coefficient D is a quadrantal deviation which is consideredpositive(+), andwesterlydeviationnega-
proportional 0othe sine of twlce the compasshead- tive (-).

Brample:
compass
A magnetic oompasswhich has not been adjustedhas deviation on cardinal and intercardinal
headingsas follows:
Compas Deviation Compass Deviation
heading heading
000" 1.5"W 180" 8.0"E
045" 34.0"E 225" 1.5'W
090" 31.0"8 n0" 29.0"W
135" 13.5"8 315" 36.0"W
On headingcompassnorth the deviationis 13.5"Wwhen the vesselheels10" o starboard.
Find the approximatevalue of eachooefficient.
Solutlqr:
= +2'3"
A = -1.5"+34.0"+31.0"+13.5"+8.0"-1.5"-29.0"-36.0o
8
= -1.5"-31.0"+8.0"+
29.0" = +1.1"
B=31.0"+29.0"=+30.0" E
2 4
= -13.5"
+1.5" = -1.2"
C=-1.5"-8.0"= -4.8"
2 10
= +13.8"
D = 34.00-13.50-1.5"+36.00
4

Compassand Magnetism t73

 MAGNETIC COMPA SS CORRECI'ORS steadiness
Fllnders bar. A bar of soft unmagnetizediron placed COMPASS COMPENSATION
vertically near a magnetic compassto counteract Compasscompensationis the processof neutral-
deviationcausedby magneticinductionin vertical izing the effectsof degaussingcurents on a marine
soft iron. magnetic compass.
Quadrantal correctors. Massesof soft iron placed
near a magnetic compassto correct for quadrantal BINNACLE
deviation.Sphericalquadrantcorrectorsare called Binnacleis the stand in which a compas is
quadrantal splrcres. mounted.Fcr a magneticrnmpassit is usuallypro-
vided with meansof nounting various coreciors
Heeling magnet A permanentmagneiplacedver- for adjus0nentand ompensation of the compass.
tically in a ttrbe under the center of a marine mag-
netic ompass, to correct for heeling error. COMPASSADJUSTMENT PROCEDURE
Fore-and-aft bar magnets.For correctingCoeffi- Adjustmentsshouldbe carriedout in the correct
cient B, or that componentof deviation causedby order as follows:
permanentmagnetismin the vesseland which at- l. Steadyon magneticheading090" (or 270")
tainsa maximumvalueon eastor westby compass. and adjustthe fore-and-aftpermanentmagnetsun-
Thwartshlp bar magnets. For correcting Coeffi- til the compassheadingcoincideswith themagnetic
cient C, or that componentof total deviation caused heading, thus removing all coefficient B on this
by vessel'spermanentmagnetismwhich hasmaxi- heading.Usemagnetsin pairs from the botom up,
mum valueon north or southby compass. with the trays at the lowestpoint of travel. when
overcorrertionoocurs,removethe nvo highestmag-
MT'ECT OF LATITUDE nets and raise the Bays until all deviation has been
The directiveforceof a magneticcompass, pro- removed.If two magnetsorrercorrecl use a single
vided by the horizontal omponent of the Earth's magnet. It is not necessaryto determinein advance
magneticfield, is maximum on or near the mag- which direction the red ends shouldoccupy,for a
neticequatorand graduallydecreases to zeroat the mistake will be immediately apparent by an increase
magneticpoles. in the deviation.
2. Steadyon magneticheading180" (or 000")
NAPMR DIAGRAM
andadjusttheathwartshippermanentmagnetsuntil
A diagramon which compassdeviationis plot-
the compassheadingcoincideswith the magnetic
ted for variousheadings,and the points connected
heading, ttrus removing all ooefficient C on this
by a smoothcurve, permitting deviationproblems heading.Usethe sametechniqueas in step 1.
to be solvedquickly without interpolation.
3. Steadyon magnetic heading 270" (090" if
It consistsof a verticalline, usuallyin two parts,
270" wasusedin step1) and removehalf the devia-
eachpart beinggraduatedfor 180"of heading,and
tion with the fore-and-aftmagnets.
two additional setsof lines at an angle of 60' to
eachother and to the vertical lines. 4. Steadyon magnetic heading 000" (180" if
000" wasusedin step2) and removehalf the devia-
COMPASS ADJUSTMENT
tion with the athwartshipmagnets.
CompassadjusEnentis the processof neutraliz-
ing the magneticeffect a craft exertson a magnetic 5. Steadyon any intercardinalmagnetichead-
compass. Permanent magnets and soft iron correc- ing and adjustthe position of the quadrantalcorrec-
tors are arranged about the binnacle so that their tors until the compassheading coincides with the
effectsareabout equal and opposite to the magnetic magnetic heading, thus removing all coefficient D
material in the craft, thus reducing the deviations on this heading.Leavethe quadrantalcorrectorsat
and eliminatingthe seclors of sluggishness and un- equaldistancefrom the compass.

174 Compassand Magnetism

 6. Steadyon eitherintercardinalmagnetichead-
ing 090" from that usedin step5 and removehalf
the deviation by adjusting the positions of the
quadrantalcorectors, leaving themat equaldistance
from the compass.
7. Secureall correctorsin their final positions
and recordtheir number,size' positionsand orien-
tation, as appropriate, on the bottom of the devia-
tion tableform.
8. Swingthe ship for residualdeviation.That is'
determinethe remainingdeviationon a numberof
headingsat approximatelyequalintervals.Every15"
is preferable,but if themaximumdeviationis small,
every45o(cardinalandintercardinalheadings)may
suffice.
9. If the vesselhasdegaussing,energizethe de-
gaussingcoils and repeatthe swing'
10. Make a deviation table for each condition
(degaussing off andon), giving valuesfor headings
at 15" intervalsif the maximum deviationis large
(morethan 2"), or at 45" intervalsif the maximum
deviationis small.Recordvaluesto the nearesthalf
degree.
If preferred,the adjustmentmay be startedon a
north or southheading,thusrevening stepsI and 2
and also 3 and 4.

BINNACLE
COMPENSATING

COMPASS
\'-
NEEDLE

OUADRANTAL
E
CORRECTORS <;

UJ
(soFTlRoN)
VERTICALMAGNET
IE
IIJ F
UJ
F O FORHEELINGERROR 2
-tn
b
oj-
d -
og MAGNETS
ATHWARTSHIP
=(,
;< MAGNETS
FORE-AND.AFT
l=

Compassand Magnetism t7s

 GOIIPASS AND MAGNETISM
1. Compassneedlederives its directive force from:
a. Metal usedin building the ship c. Geographic location
b. Earth'smagneticfield d. Magneticmeridian

2. The Flinder's bar on a magneticcompasscorrectsfor:

a. Semi-circulardeviation c. Constantdeviation
b. tleeling error d. Quadrantaldeviation
3. Deviation is cagsedby:
a. Placingwhiskeybottlesnext to ship's magneticcompass
D. Combination of variation and compasserror
c. Friction betweenwater and hull
d. I.cr,alattractionandyour vessel'sown magneticfield
4. Variation is causedby:
4. Earth's rotation c. Magnetismwithin the vessel
b. Landmasses d. Magnetismfrom earth'smagneticfield
5. The angulardifferencebetweenthe true north and magneticnorth from the ship'spositionis:
a. Variation b. Natural error c. Compasserror d. Deviation
6. You can determinethe variation by:
c. Making an observationtable of your vessel
b. Finding the meanof your deviationtable
c. Computing the differencebetweenreadings on the inner and outer compassroses
d. Finding the leastcommbndenominator
7. In adjustinga magneticcompass,which of the following asmuch as possiblewould you eliminate?
a. Variation c. Earth's magnetic force
D. Deviation d. Compasserror
8. In order to correct the magnetic compassfor inclination from the vertical you would adjust the:
a. tleeling magnet c. Permanentmagnets
D. Quadrantalsphere d. Flinder'sbar
9. The term "secularchange"refersto:
c. Yearlychangeofvariation
D. Semi-diumalchangeof magneticintensity
c. Intensityof earth'smagneticfield
d. Dip of the compassneedle

f0" The magnetic compasswill have the greatestdirective force at the:

c. Magnetic Pole c. Magnetic equalor
D. Geographical Pole d. High magneticlatitude

11. The Gyrocompass is reliableup to:

a. All latitudes b. Latitude 60" N c. Near the equator d. Iatitude 75"N or S
12. Gyro has the least directional power at:
d. Iatitude4s'N D. The poles c. Magneticequator d. T\eequator

t76 Compass and Magnetism

1 3 . Magneticvariationchangeswith achangein:
a. Season D. Vessel'sheading c. Vessel'sposition
pos-
14. During the ship's consfruction,sheacquireda certain permanentmagnetism,when the bow will
sesred polarity and stern with blue polarity, the ship is built:
a. Ileading North b. HeadingSouth c. HeadingEast d. Heading West

1 5 . port quarter will possesred polarity and starboardbow will possesblue polarity, the ship is built:
a. HeadingSouth c' HeadingSouth& North
b. ItreadingEast d. HeadingSoutheast

t6. Coefficient of quadrantal deviation is/are:

a. Coefficient D & E b' Coefficient A c. Coefficientc&D d. CoefficientB&C

t 7 . Coefficient of constant deviation is/are:

a. Coefficient A c. CoefficientD&E
b. Coeftrcientc&D d. CoefficientB&C

18. The differencebetweenthe magneticmeridian and compassmeridian is:

a. Variation b. Gausingerror c. Deviation d. Compasserror

lg. What is the purposeof quadrantalsphere?

a. Corrects horizontal soft iron c' Correctspermanentmagnetism
b. Corrects vertical soft iron
the deviationdue to
Z0;. As you approaclithe magneticequator,which of the following is true concerning
the pennanentmagnetism of the ship?
a. Increases c. Doesnot change
D. Decreases d. Unimportant to be ignored

21. which of the following would be usedto correctdeviation on inter-cardinal headings?

a. Fore and aft magnets c. QuadrantalsPheres
D. AthwartshiPmagnets d. Heelingmagnets

22. ln a magneticcompulss,what is the purposeof the quadrantalspheres?

a. Corrict heeling of the vessel c. Correct pelmanentmagnetism
D. Correct vertical soft iron d. Correct horizontal soft iron

23. The vertical magnetunderneathtie compassin the binnaclecorrects:

a. Inclination from the vertical c. Inducedmagnetismin horizontal soft iron
b. Inducedmagnetismin vertical soft iron d. Permanentmagnetism

24. which of the following compensatesa magnetic compassfor heeling error?

a. Single ve,tticalmagnetbeneaththe compass c' Flinder's bar
b. Magnetsinside the binnacle d' Soft iron spheres
so easily'this
25. When magne6 inducedinto soft iron as soft iron can be magnetizedand demagnetized
property is called:
a. RetentivitY b. Natural magnets c. Permeability d. Artificial magnets
property is called:
26. PermanentmagneB can retain its magnetismfor a long period of time' This
a. Retentivity D. Tenacity c' Polarity d' Permeability

27. Coefficient of semi-circular deviation iVare:

a. Coefficient A c. CoefficientB&C
b. CoefficientC&D d. Coefficient B

Compass and Magnetism 177

28. The compassroseon a chart will generallyindicatethe:
a. Deviation D. Variation c. Compasserror d. Dntt of current
29. Which of the following are the only magneticcompasscorrectorsthat correctfor bothpermanentand
inducedeffectsof magnetism?
a. Quadrantalspheres c. Athwartshipmagnets
D. Heelingmagnets d. Foreand aft magnets
30. Quadrantalerror in a gyro compasshasits greatesteffect in:
a. High latitudes c. North or Southheadings
b. T\eequator d. Intercardinalheadings
-11. Compassheadingin a liquid compassis indicatedby:
a. Cafi D. Needle c. Lubber'sline d. Flinder'sbar

32. The instrumentusedby navigatorsto determinetheir directionat seais tle:

a. Pelorus c. Azimuth circle
b. Compass d. None of these

33. The aligning forceson a magneticcompasswill beconsiderably:

a. Increasedat the N magneticpole c. Diminishedat highermagneticlatitude
D. Increasedat S magneticpole d. Diminishedat lower magneticlatitude
34. The compassheadingof a vesseldiffers from the rue headingdue to:
a. Compasserror b. Deviation c. Variation d. Magnetic dip
35. The angulardeflectionof the compassneedleas affectedby the earth'spolarity is:
a. Gyroscopic inertia c. Parallax
D. Deviation d. Variation

36. The mostaccuratedeviationdiagramusedon boardis:

a. Reciprocalmethod c. Agonic
D. Isogonic d. Napier'sdiagram
37. If you add algebraicallythe deviationfor headingN, S, E and W and divide it by four, pu obtain
correction known as:
a. Coefficient B b. Coefficient C c. Coefficient A d. Coefficient E

38. If youaddalgebraicallythe deviationfor hcrii:rr.rE :ind W. with signof W reversed,and divide it by 2

thenyou obtain:
a. Coefficient A b. Coefficient ts (. Coefficient C d. Coefficient D
39. The meandeviationon heading000" and l8(l with sign at 180" reversedis called:
a. Coefficient A c. Coefficient C
b. Coefficient B d. Coefticient D
40. Themeandeviationat intercardinalheadings,with signsat headings135" and 315"reversedis called:
a. Coefficient C b. Coefficient D c. Coefficient E d. Coefficient J
41. The meandeviationon cardinalheadings,with signsat 090o and270" reversedis called:
a. Ccfficient C b. Coefficient D c. Coefficient E d. Coefficient J
42. What is the purposeof the liquid in the magneticcompass?
a. Dampensoscillation on the compasscard. c. both a and b
b. Reducesfriction on the pivot. d. neithera nor b

17E Compass and Magnetism

43. Oneof the most illusive factorsin the practiceof navigationis known as:
a. Deviation of the comPass c. Variation
b. Loxodromic curve d. Clinometer

M. Srernwiil possesred polarity and bluepolarity at thebow.Ship is built:

a. Headingsouthdirection c. Heading eastdirection
b. Headingnorth direction d. Headingwestdirection

45. The combinedeffectsof horizontal plane sub-permanent magnetismof a ship and the magnetism
inducedby vertical soft iron and componentof the eafih's force is called:
a. Semi-circular deviation c. Magnetic field
b. Coefficient of Magnetism d. Magnetic polarity

46. What is the basicprinciple of the magneticcompass?

a. Magneticmeridiansconnectpointsof equalmagneticvariation.
b. T\e earth's magnetic lines of force are parallel to the surfaceof the earth.
c. Magnetic materials of the samepolarity repel each other and thoseof oppositepolarity attract.
d. T\e compassneedlewhen properly compensatedwill lie parallel to the isogonic lines of the
earth.
47. Permanentmagnetismis found in:
a. Soft iron b. llard iron c. Vertical iron d. Horizontal iron

48. Inducedmagnetismis foundin:

a. Soft iron b. Hard iron c. Vertical iron d. Horizontal iron

49. Permanentmagnetismis causedbY:

a. The vertical componentof the earth'smagneticfield acting on the vertical soft iron.
b. Operationof electricalequipmentand generatorson board.
c. The horizontal componentof the earth's magneticfield acting on the horizontal soft iron'
d. T\e earth'smagneticfield affectingthe ship'shard iron during construction'
50. The tendencyof the spinningwheelto maintainthe directionof its planeof rotationin space.
a. Deviation c. Precision
D. Rigidity d. Variation

51. What is the purposeof havinga liquid containedin a magneticcompass?

a. It has a steadyeffect on the card. c. Both a and b.
b. It causesgreater attractive forces. d. Neither a nor b.

52. By convention,the south-seekingendsof a compassmagnetare colored:

a. Blue b. Red c. Black d' White

5 3 . The semi-greatcircle on the earth, the plane at which the magneticneedlewill lie when freely sus-
pendedat any place causedby the attraction of the earth's magneticfield is called:
a. Magnetic circles c. Magneticmeridians
D. Magnetic poles d. Magneticfield

The
54. you have completedthe magnetic compassadjustmentson magnetic eastand magnetic south.
vesselis now steadyon magneticwestbut the compassreads266". You shouldnow adjustthe com-
passuntil it reads:
a. 270" c, 274"
b. 268" d. Do not adjustthe compass,just recordthe error.

Compassand Magnetism 179

 THE BARTH'S MAGNETIC FIELD

ATHWARTSHIPSMAGNETS @RRECT 'C'

,FLINDER'S
BAR'
CORRECTS IND. 'B'
'B'
F. & A. MAGNETS CORRECT

PERMANENT MAGNETS
CAUSE DISTURBING
'B' & "c'
F|ELD COEFS.

VERT. SOFT IRON CAUSES

CIEFF. '8" AND H.E.

ATHWARTSHIPSSOFT IBON
CAUSE COEFF, 'D' & H.E.

SPHERES COFIRECTCOEFF. 'D'

MODEL DEVIASCOPE

180
 THE EARTH
fhe ennm is approximately an oblate sphcroid Longitude. The arc of a parallel or the angle at the
I (a sphereflattenedat the poles).However,for pole betweenthe prime meridian and the meridian
manynavigationalpurposes,the earthis assumedto of a point on the earth,measuredeastwardor west-
be a sphere,without intolerableerror. ward from the prime meridian through 180". It is
designatedeast(E) or wesr(W) to indicatethe di-
The axis of rotation or polar axisof the earthis
rection of measurement.
the line connectingthe North Poleand SouthPole.
DISTAI{CEON TIIEEARTH
CIRCLES OF THEEARTH
Distanceis thespatialseparationof two points,and
Meridian. A greatcircle throughthe geographical
is expressed asthe lengthof a line joining them.On
polesof the earth.All meridiansmeet at the poles,
the surfaceof the earthit is usuallystatedin miles.
and their planesintersectin a line, thepolar axis.
The Nautical mile or seamile is usedprimarily
hime Merldian. The meridian usedas the origin in navigation.
It is equivalentto 6076.11feet ap-
for measurement of longitude.The Prime Meridian proximately.
usedalmostuniversallyis that throughtheoriginal
positionof the British RoyalObservatoryatGreen- The geographicmile is the length of 1 minute
wich. of arc of tlre equator,consideredto be 6087.08fe et.
Equator. The terrestrialgreatcircle whoseplaneis The statuemile or land mile (5280 feet in the
perpendicular to thepolar axis.It is midwaybetween United States)is commonlyusedfor navigationon
the poles. rivers and lakes,notablythe GreatLakesof North
America.
Parallel of Latitude. A circle on the surfaceof the
earth,parallel to the planeof the equator.It connecLs Distance,as customarilyusedby the navigator,
all points of equallatitude.The equator,a greatcir- refers to the length of the rhumb line connecttng
cle, is a limiting citseconnectingpoints of 0" lati- two places. Rhumblines (exceptmeridiansandpar-
tude.The poles,singlepointsat latitude90", arethe allels) spiral towardsthe poles.
otherlimiting case.AII otherparallelsaresmallcir-
cles.
SPEED
POSMON ON THEEARTH Speedis the rate of motion, or distanceper unit of
A positionon the surfaceof the earth (exceptat ei- time.
therof thepoles)may be definedby nvo magnitudes
A knot is the unit of speedcommonlyusedin navi-
callel coordinates. gation.It is a rateof 1 nauticalmile per hour.
Latltude. The angular distancefrom the equator,
Speedof advanceis used0oindicatethe speedin-
measurednorthwardor southwardalonga meridian
tendedto be madealongthe track.
from 0" at the equatorto 90" at the poles.It is des-
ignatednorth (N) or sourh(S) to indicaterhedkec- Speedover ground is the speedalong the path ac-
tion of measurement. tually followed.

Piloting and Sailings 181

Speedmade good is the speedalong the course C.ourseover grourd is the direction of the path
madegood. actuallyfollowed, usuallya somewhatirregular line.

DIRECTTONONTIIF'EARTH GBODESY
In navigation, direction is customarilyexpressed Geodcsyis the scienceconcernedwith the exact
as the angular difference in degreesfrom a refer- positioning of points on the surfaceof the earth,and
encedirection,usuallynorth or the ship'shead. the detenninationof the exact size and shapeof the
earth.
Course is the horizontal direction in which a vessel
is steeredor intended to be steere( expressedas Geold is the surfaceto which the @eanswould con-
angular distance from north, usually from 0000at fonn over the entire earth if free to adjust to the
north, clockwisetlrough 3600'Thecourseis often combinedeffect of the Earth's massattraction and
designatedas true, magnetic,compassor grid as the the centrifugalforceof the Earth's rotation.
referencedirection is true,magnetic,compassor
grid north, respectively. Astronomiclatltude. Theangle.benveen theplumb-
line at a stationand the planeof the celestialequa-
Courseline is a line, asdrawn on a chart, extending
tor. It is the latitudewhich resultsdirectlyfrom ob-
in the directionofa course. sewationsof celestialbodies,uncorrectedfor de-
flection of the vertical.
Tback is the intended or desired horizontal direc-
tion of favel with respectto the earth and also the Astrononrlc longitude. The anglebetweentheplane
path of intendedtravel. The track consistsof one or
of the celestialmeridian at a station and the planeof
seriesof oourselines ftom the point of departureto thecelestialmeridianGreenwich.Itis the longitude
the destination,along whiChit is intendedtle vessel which results directly from observationsof celes-
will proceed. tial bodies,uncorrectedfor deflection of the verti-
Heading is the direction in which a vesselis cal.
pointe4 expressedas angular distancefron north,
Geodeticlatltude. The anglewhich the normal to
usuallyfrom 000" at north, clockwisethrough360".
the ellipsoid at a stationrukes with the plane of the
Headingis a constantlychangingvalueasvesselos-
geodetic equator.
cillates or yawsback and forth acrossthe coursedue
to the effectsof sea,wind and steeringerror. Geodetlclongitude. The anglebetweenthe plane
Bearlng is the direction of one terrestrial point of the geodeticmeridian at a station and the plane
from another,expressedas angular distancefrom a of the geodeticmeridian at Greenwich.
referencedirection, usually from 000" at the refer- The geodeticcoordinatesare the ones usedfor
encedirection,clockwisethrough 360".Whenmeas- mapping.
uredthrough90" or 180"from eithernorth or south, Geocentrlcladtude. The angleat the cen@rof the
it is called bearing angle. ellipsoid (used to representthe earth) betweenthe
A relaive bearing is one relative to the head- planeofits equatoranda straightline (or radiusvec-
ing, or to the vesselitself. It is usually measured tor) to a point on the surfaceof the ellipsoid. This
from 000" at the heading,clockwisethrough360'. differs from geodeticlatitude becausethe earth is a
However,it is sometimesconvenientlymeasured spheroidrather thur a sphere,and themeridiansare
right or left from 0" at the ship'sheadthrough180". ellipses.The differencebetween geocentricandgeo-
deticlatitudeshasa maximumof about11.6'at lati-
Tback made good is the single resultant direction
tude45".
from the point of deparnre to point of arrival at any
giventine. Becauseof the oblateshapeof the ellipsoid,the
length of a degreeof geodeticlatitude is not every-
Course of advance is usedto indicate the direction where the same,increasingfrom about 59.7n.m. at
intendedto be madegoodover the ground. the equatorto about60.3 n. n at thepoles.

182 Pilnting and Sailings

 PILOTING
DILOTING (or pilotage) is navigation involving
-Ffrequeot or continuousdeterminationof pmi-
tion or line of position relative to geographicpoints'
and usually requiring needof close auention to the
vessel'sdraft with respectto the depth of wal€r. It is
practicedin the vicinity of land, dangers,etc., and
requiresgmd judgementand almostonstant atten-
tion and alertnesson the part of the navigator.
LII\ES OF POSITION
A bearing line extendtngin the direction of an
observedbearing of a charted object is one of the
most widely usedlines of position.
The line definedby the rangeis calledarange
in line or leadingline.Rmge daybeacons and other
chartedobjectsfomring a nrngeare often alled lead'
lights are often called leading
ing marks. Range
lights.
DISTANCE
If a vesselis known to be at a certain distance
from an identified point on the chart, it must be
somewhereon a circle with tbat point as the center
and the distanceas the radius. A single distanoe
(range)arc is labeledwith the time abovethe line.
Distancesare obtained by radar' range finder,
stadimeter,vertical angles,etc'.
THEFX
A fix is the commonintenection of two or more
lines of position obtainedfrom simultaneousobser-
vationsnot dependentupon any fonner'
In normal practicea fix is the most probablepo-
sition derived from two or more intersecting lines
of position obtainedfrom observationmadeat nearly
the sane time and advancedor retired to a common
time.
VISUAL AIDS TO NAVIGATION
and reli-
ll flajor ltght. A light of high intensity
IV rability exhibited from a fixed structure or on
a marine site (except range lights). It includes pri-
mary seacoilstlights and secondary lights' Primary
seacoastlights are thosemajor lights established
for the purposeof making landfall and coastwise
pinsagesfrom headland to headland.Secondary
Piloting and Sailings
Examplesof typas of fixes are:
l' A fix by two ormore bearing lines
2. Aftx by nro or more distances
3. A fix by a rangeanddistance
4. A fix by distanceand bearing of single object
TIIE RUNNING IID(
Runningfix k a position detennined by cross-
ing lines of position obtainedat different times and
advancedor retired to a common time
DEAD RECKONING POSITION
Dead reckoningis the processof determining
the position of a vesselat any instant by applying to
the last well-determined position (point of depar-
ture or subsequent fix) the run that has sincebeen
made.The position soobtainedis calleda deadreck-
oning position.
ESTIMATEDPOSMON
Estimatedposition is the most probableposi-
tion of a craft detenninedfrom incompletedata or
data of questionableaccuracy.Suchposition might
be determinedby applying a correction to the dead
reckoningposition,asfor estimatedcurrent; by plot-
ting a line of sounding;or by ploning lines of posi-
tion of questionableirccuracy.If no better informa-
tion is available,a deadreckoningpositionis an es-
timatedposition.
SETAI\DDRIFT
The direction of the line ftom the DR position to
the fix is the sel of the cunent, and the length of
this line divided by the numberof hours sincethe
last fix is tJ'edrifi.
lights arethosemajorlights,otherthanprimarysea-
coastlights, establishedat harborentrancesandother
locationswherehigh intensityandreliability arere'
quired.
Minor light. An automaticunmanned(unwarched)
light on a fixed structure showing usually low to
moderateintensity.
1E3
 Lighthouses.All of which exhibit major lights, are Compoeitegoup occultlng. A light similar to a
placedwhere they will be of most use:on promi- groupoccultinglight exceptthat successive
groups
nentheadlands,at entrances, on isolateddangers,or in periodhavedifferentnumberof eclipses.
at other points where it is necessarythat mariners
be warnedor guided. Isophase.A light in which alt the durationof light
and darknessareclearlyequal.
Range lights. Pairs of lights so locatedas to fornr
Flashlng.A light in which thetoraldurationof light
a range in line with the centerof channelsor en-
tranceto a harbor. in a period is shorterthan the total duration ofdark-
nessand the appearances of light (flashes)are usu-
Dlrectional ltght. A single light which projectsa ally of equalduration (at a rateof lessthan 50 flashes
beam of high intensity, separatecolor or special per minute).
characteristicsin a given direction.
Long flashing. A singleflashinglight in which an
Large navlgational buoy. A large buoy designed appearance oflight ofnot lessthan2 secondsdura_
to take the placeof a lightship whereconstruction tion (long flash) is regularlyrepeated.
of an offshorelight station is not feasible.These
4O-footdiameterbuoysmay show secondarylights Group flashing. A flashing light in which a group
from heights of about 36 feet abovethe water. In of flashes,specifiedinnumber,is reguladyrepeated.
addition to the light, thesebuoysmay mount a Composite grorp flashing. A tight similar to a
radiobeacon andprovidesoundsignals. group flashing light exceptthat successive groups
Buoys.Usedto delineatechannels,indicateshoals, in a periodhavedifferentnumberof flashes.
mark obotructions, and warn themarinerof dangers Quick. A light in whicha flashis regularlyrepeated.
wherethe useof fixed aidsfor suchpurposeswould Flashesare repeatedat a rate of not less than 50
be uneconomicalor impracticable.By their color, flashesper minute but less than 80 flashesper
shape,number and light or soundcharacteristics, minute.
buoysprovide indicationsto the mariner as to how
Group quick. A light in which a specifiedgroupof
hemayavoid navigationalhazards.
flashesis regularly repeated.Flashesare repeated
Beacons.Fixed aids to navigationplacedon shore at a ruteof not lessthan 50 flashesper minute but
or on marine sites.If unlighted, the beaconis re- lessthan 80 flashesper minute.
ferred to as a daybeacon.
Interrupted quick. A quick light in which the se-
Daymarks.Serveto makeaidsto navigationreadily quenceof flashesis intemrptedby regularrepeated
visibleandeasilyidentifiableagainstdaylightview- eclipsesof constantand long duration.
ing backgrounds.
Very quick. A light in which flashesarerepqrtedat
LIGIITCIIARACTERS a rateof not lessthan 80 flashesper minutebut less
than 160flashesper minute.
Fked. A light showingcontinuouslyand sreadily.
Group very quick. A very quick light in which a
Rhythmtc. A light showing intermittenrlywith a
specifiedgroup of flashesis regularly repeated.
regularperiodicity.Therhythmiccharacterof a light
is theregularperiodicrhythmpresented by thelight. Interrupted very quick. A veryquick light in which
tle sequenceof flashesis intemrpted by regularly
Occulting. A light in which the total duration of
repeatedeclipsesof constantand long duration.
light in a period is longer than the total durationof
darlnessandthe intervalsofdarknessareusuallvof Ultra qulck. A light in which flashesare repeated
equalduration. at a raleof not lessthan 160flashesper minute.
Group occulting. An occulting light in which a Interrupted ultra qulck. An ultra quick light in
groupof eclipses,specifiedin number,is regulady which the sequenceof flashes is interrupted by
repsrted. eclipsesof long duration.

184 Piloting and Sailings

 LIGHT CHARACTERS

trw
FD(u) INTERRT]PTEDQTIICK

ocw m
IKAdI ULTRA QUICK
OCCTJLIING

oe?)wm tu&w
| fti.A I W
GROT]POCCULTING INTERRI.]PTED ULTRA QTIICK

oc(7+4)w

COMPOSITE GROUP OCCULTING MORSE CODE

ISOPHASE FD(EDANDFLASHING

FFt(2)w m
I Pena{ I

FLASHING FIXED AND GROI]P FLASHING

LONGFLASHING ALTERNATING

Ftcv)w AttrtwK

GROI.]PFLASHING ALTERNATING

Ft(,+z)wW A rF rRw
W
COMPOSITEGROUPFLASHING ALTERNATING GROUP FLASHING

aw w AIOCWR W
I Poria
QT.JICK ALTERNATING OCCTITJTING

aO)w tr r vf r r r rt-Jf vvvt I tv lrl AVa\N€R

I Perial I

GROI.]PQIIICK
ALTERNATING GROUP OCCULTING

Piloting and Sailings 18s

Morse Code.A light in which appearances of light
oftwo clearlydifferentdurationaregrouped!o rep-
resenta characteror charactersin the MorseCode.
Fhed and flashing. A fixed light varied,at regular
intervals,by a groupof two or moreflashesof higher
l,rminousintensity.
Alternating. A light shovringdifferent colors al-
ternately.
DEF'INITION OFTERMS:
Diaphone.Usescompressed air andgenerallyemits
a powerful, lorv pitched sound, which often con-
cludes with a brief sound of suddenlylowered
pitched.
Directlon light. A light showingover a very nar-
row sectorforrring a singleleadinglight.
Eclipse. An interval of darknessbetweenappear-
ancesofa navigationlight.
Elevation. The vertical distancebetweenthe focal
planeof the light and the level of MeanHigh Water
Springsor MeanHigher High Water.
1E6 Piloting and Sailings
Horn. Usescompressed air or electricityto vibrate
a diaphragmand existsin a varietyof typeswhich
differ greatlyin their soundandpower.
Leading lights. Two or more lights associatedso
as to form a leadingline to be followed.
Loom. The diffused glow observedfrom a light be-
low the horizonor hiddenby an obstacle,dueto at-
mosphericscattering.
Period. The interval of time between the com-
mencementof two identical successivecvcles of
the characteristicof the light.
Phase.Each elementof the sequence(e.g. a flash,
an eclipse).
Sector light. A light presentingdifferent appear-
anceseitberofcolor or character,overvariousparts
of the horizonof interestto maritime navigation.
Subsidiary (auxiliary) light. A light placedon or
nearthe supportof a main light andhavinga special
usein navigation.
Vertical lights. Two or more lights disposedverti-
cally (or horizontally,or in geometricshape)to give
a di-fferent characteror appearance.
 INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF
LTGHTHOUSEAUTHORITm,S(IALA)
MARITIME BUOYAGB SYSTEM
is ex-
fhe IALA Maritime BuoyageSystem being
I tendedto countriesthroughoutthe world on a
regionalbasis.The systerirusesboth lateralmarks,
wherebythe port and starboardsidesofa channelor
routeareindicated,andcardinalmarks,wherebyone
or more buoysare laid out in the quadrantof the
compass!o indicate wherethe dangerlies in rela-
tion to the mark.
The world is consideredto be divided into two
regionsusingdifferentversionsof the buoyagesys-
tem for lateralbuoys,theseare known as RegionA
andRegionB. In RegionA, the color red is usedto
marktheporthandof achannel.This regionincludes
Europe,Africa" Australia, New Zealandand some
Asian ccruntries.In RegionB, the 'alor red is used
btomark the starboardside of a channel.RegionB
includesNorth, Centraland SoutltAmerica,Japan'
Koreaandthe Philippines.Only lateralmarksdiffer
betweenthe two regiotts, the other tbur types of
marksareusedin botlt.
SCOPE
The IALA Maritime BuoyageSystemappliesto
all fixed andfloating marks(othertlan ligltthouses,
sectorlights,leadinglights,lightslfpsandlargenavi-
gationbuoys)servingto ittdicate:
1. The laterallimits of navigablechanncls
2. Naturaldangersand otherobstructions
suchas wrecks
3. Other areasor featuresof importanceto the
mariner
4. New dangers
TYPESOFMARKS
The sptem of buoyageprovides tive types of
markswhich may be usedin any combination:
1. Lateral Marks
Lateral mnrks are generally used tbr well-de- waterrharks.Whenlighteil,safewatermarksexhibit
fined channels:they indicate the port and starboard a white tight, ccculting or isophase,or showinga
handsidesof the route to be tbllowed. attd are used singlelong flash.or the Morse
Piloting and Suiling
in conjunctionwitl a conventionaldirection of
buoyage.
This directionis definedin oneof two ways:
a Local direction of buoyage-the direction
taken by the mariner when approachinga
harbor,river estuary,or other waterwayfrom
seaward;
b. Generaldirectionofbuoyage-in otherareas,
a direction determinedby the buoyageau-
thorities, following a clockwisedirection
aroundcontinentallandmasses, givenin sail-
ing directions,and,ifnecessary,indicatedon
chartsby a symbol.
2. Cardinal Marks
A Cardinalmnrk is usedin conjunctionwith tbe
compassto indicatewherethemarinermay frtndthe
bestnavigablewater.
Black and yellow horizontalbands are usedto
color a cardinalmark.
3. Isolated Danger Marks
An isolateddanger mark is erectedon, or
mooredon or above,an isolateddangerof limited
extentwhichhasnavigablewaterall aroundit. On a
chart, the position of a dangeris the centerof the
symbolor soundingindicatingit.
Black with one or more red horizontal bands
arethecolorsusedfor isolateddangermarks.When
lighted,a whiteflashinglight showinga groupof two
tlashesis usedto denotean isolateddangermark'
4. SafeWater Marks
A safewatermnrk is usedto indicatethat there
is navigablewaterall aroundthemark. Suchamark
may be usedas a centerline, mid-channelor land-
fall buoy.
Red ar,4 while vertical stripesare usedfor safe
"A".
187
 LAIERAL MARKS
StarboardHand.

il--Afl "4.
^4.
It_L
v v
w ..4.. ^4.
n n
Ail ,/v Y
v v
II
l l t]
- t
o \ - s

o
I
JD Isolated
Danger
5. SpectalMarks
' 6. Rocreationzone marks.
A Special mark may be used to indicate to the
marinera specialareaor feature,the natureof which
is apparentfrom referenceto a chart, saililig direc-
tions, or notices to marinen. Usesinclude:
l. OceanDataAcquisitionSystem(ODAS),i.e.
buop carrying @eanographicor meteoro-
logical sensors;
2. Tratrtc separationurarks;
3. Spoilgroundmarks;
4. Military exercisezone marks;
5. Cable or pipeline marks, including outfall
THE SAILINGS
The SAILINGS are various methodsof solving
thevariousproblemsinvolving.course,distance,dif-
ferenceof latitude, differenceof longifirde and'de-
parture.
VARIOUS KINDS OF SAILINGS
I . Plane Satltrry is a methodof solving the vari-
ousproblemsinvolvinga singlecourseanddistance,
differenbeof latitude, and departure,in which the
earth,that part tiaversed,is regardedas a planesur-
face.This methodshouldnot be usedft'rrdistances
of more than a few hundredmiles.
2. ThaverseSailing combinesthe plane sail-
ing solutionswhen there are two or more courses.
This sailing is a methodof determiningthe equiva-
lent courseand distance made good by a vessel
st€amingalong a seriesof rhumblines.
3. Parallel Sailing is the interconversionof
departureand differenceoflongitude whena vessel
is proceedingdue eastor due west.
4. Mid-latitqde Sailtng involves the use of
mid or meanlatitude for convertingdepartureto dif-
ferenceof longitudewhentbe courseis not dueeast
or due westandit is assumedsuchcourseis steered
at themid latitude.
5. Mercator Sailing provides a mathematical
solution of the plot as made on the Merca0orchart.
It is similar to planesailing,but usesmeridionaldif-
ferenceand differenceof longitude in place of dif-
ferenceof latitude and departurerespectively.
Piloting and Sailing
pipes;and
Another function of a specialmark is to define a
channel within a channel. Yellowis the color used
for specialmarks.When a light is exhibitedit is yel-
low.
Method of Characterizlng Marks
The significanceof the mark dependsupon one or
more of the following features:
1. By nigbt- color and rhythm of light
2. By day- color, shape,topnark
6. Great Clrcle Salllng involves the solution
of courses,distances,and points along a gfeat cir-
cle betweentwo points, the earth being regardedas
a sphere.
7. CompoetteSaillng is a modification of great
circle sailing to limit the maximum latitude.
RHUMBLII{US
Theprincipaladvantageof a rhumbline is that it
maintainsconstanttnre direction.A ship following
the rhuinii lirir: i*:t.'vi:*r;lrvu placesdoesnot change
truecourse.A rhumhlinc makesthesarneangle with
all meridiansit crosses andappearsasa straightline
on a Mercatorchart.lt is adequateformostpurposes
of navigation,bearinglines (exceptlong ones,as
thoseobtainedby radio) and courselines both being
plotted on a Mercator chart as rhumb lines, except
in high latitudes.Theequatorandmeridiansaregreat
circles, but may be consideredspecial casesof the
rhumblines.
GRBATCIRCLES
A great circle is the intersectionof the surface
of a sphereand a plane through the center of the
sphere.It is the largestcircle that can.bedrawnon
the surfaceof the sphere, and is the shortestdis-
bnce, alo-ngthe surface,betweenany two points on
the sphere.
On a Mercator chart a great circle appearsas a
sine curveexter^.lingequaldistancesat eachsideof
the equator.
1E9
GREATCIRCLE SAILING BY CHART
Problemsof great circle sailing, like those of
rhumb line sailing, are most easilysohed by plot-
ting directlyon a chart.Chartson tle gr,.rmonicpto-
jection are to b€ used. A number of i\ese charts
coverthe principal navigablewatersof the world.
On this projection,anystraightline is a greatcir-
cle, but sincethe chart is not conformal,directions
and distancescannot be measureddirectly, as on a
Mercator chart.
The usualmethodof using a gnomonicchart is
o plot the greatcircle and, ifit providesa satisfac-
tory track, to determinea numberof points along
the track, using the latitudeand longitudescalesin
the immediatevicinity of eachpoint. Thesepoints
are then transfened to a Mercator chart or a plot-
ting sheetand usedas a succession of destinations
to be reachedby rhumb lines. The courseand dis-
tance for each leg is determined by measurement
on the Mercator chart or plotting sheet.
GREAT CIRCLE SAILING BY TABLE
Any methodof solving the astronomicaltriangle
ofcelestialnavigationcan be usedfor solvinggreat
circleproblems,When suchadaptationis made,the
point of departurerepliacesassumedposition of the
observer,the destination replacesthe geographical
position of the body, difference of longitude rc-
placesmeridian angle or local hour angle, initial
courseanglereplacesazimuthangle,and greatcir-
190 Piloting and Sailing
cle distancereplaceszenith distance.
Any able of azimuth (if the entering valuesare
meridianangle,declination,andlatitude)canbeused
for determining initial great circle course.Pubhca-
tion Numbers214, 229,2/19,260 and 261 are ex-
amplesof tablesthat can be useJfor this purpose.
Tableswhich providesolutionsfor altitude,such
as PublicationNunbers 214,229 and'49 can be
usedfor detemfning great circle distance.The re-
quired discanceis 90"-altitude.
DEFINITION OFTERMS:
Departure. The distancemadegooddueeastor west
whensailingon any course.
Differenceof Latltude. The shorterarc of anyme-
ridian betweentheparallelsof two places,expressed
in angularmeasure.
Difference of Longihrde. Angle at the pole, or in-
terceptedarc of Equatorbetweentwo meridians.
Great Clrcle Track. Arc of great circle, on sur-
faceof Earth, betweentwo given positions.The line
of shortestdistancebetweentwo positions.
Merldlonal Dlfrerence. The differencebetweenthe
Meridional parts of any two given parallels.
Small Clrcle. A circle of a spherewhoseplanedoes
not p:rssthrough the centerof the sphere.
Vertex. The point at which a great circle track
reachesits highestlatitude.
 PILOTING AND SAILINGS
1. The actuallength of a geographicmile ts:
a. 6,08.1,| fffJt b. 6,080.0feet c. 6,076.1feet d. 5'280.0 feet

2. The exactlengthof the nauticalmile is:

b. 6,080.0feet 'c. 6,076.| fef.t d. 5'280.0 feet
a. 6,087.| fwt

3. The statuteor land mile is equalto:

a. 6,087.1 fegt b. 6,080.0feet c. 6,076'l fwt d' 5'280'0 twt

4. The maximumdistanceat which a light canbe seenunderatmosphericconditionof 10mile visibility

is called:
a. rrominalrange b. luminousrange c. geographicalrange

5. What is the light characteristicfor a buoymarkinga sharpturn in a channel?

o. groupflashing b. quickflashing c. fixed d' long flashing

6. The methodof solving certainnavigationalproblemson assumptionthat Earth'ssurfacein the area

concernedis a Plane:
a. mercrtor sailing b. planesailing c. greatcircle sailing d. traversesailing

j. The methodof interconvertingdepartureand dlo whenthe ship sailsdue E or W and alwaysremains

on the sameParallelis:
a. parallelsailing b. planesailing c' traversesailing d' mercatorsailing

g. Atable designedfor the rapid solutionof planesailingproblemsandcoversdistancesup !o 600 miles

is:
a. H.O. ?A9 b. Norrie's table c. travene table d. logarithmictable

9. The diameterof the earth ahut which it rotatesis the:

a. Earth'saxis b. latitude c. polesof the Earth d. meridians

10. It is a route betweentwo pliacesalong the circumferenceof a great circle which passesthrough both
placesis:
a. path D. course c. rhumbtrack d. greatcircle track

11. A great circle on the surfaceof the earth midway betweenthe two poles is called:
a. elevatedpole b. hour circle c. longitude circle d' equator

12. The semi-greatbircle on the surfaceof the earth extending from pole to pole is:
a. meridian c. latitude
D. circumpolarlines d. ecliPtic

13. The length of the arc of a meridian betweenthe equatorand a given parallel on a Mercator chart'
expressedin units of 1 minute of longitude at the equatoris cirlled:
a. meridional parts D. latitude factor longitude factor d. intercept

14. The horizontal direction in which a vesselis steeredor intendedto be steeredis the:
c. course D. track c. Pdh d' heading

Piloting and Sailings 191

 15, The inten&d or desiredhorizmtat direction of Eavel with reepea to &e earth.and also the path
of
intendedtravel is the:
4. COUTSe b. Eack c. bearing d. beading
16. The direction in which a vesselispointed is known as:
,l. C'OUrSe b. uack c. bearing d. heading
17. The direction of one terresrial point from another is the:
dt. course D. track c. bearing d. hading
lE. The differencebetweenthe propeller speedand the vessel'sactual speedis called:
a. slip D. efficiency c. R.P.M. d. pitch
19. A methodof determining the equivalentcourse& distancemadegoodby a vesselfollowing
a track
consistingof a seriesof rhumblinesis tenned:
a. Traversesailing b. Parallel sailing c. plane sailing d. Mercator sailing
20. Buoysmarkingdredgingarepainted:
a. Red ,. Black c. Yellow d. Gren
21. An area wheredredgedmat€rialsare tlrown or depositedby a &edger is called:
a. Spoilground c. Ilazardouswasrc
D. Environmentalimpact area d. Dumpingground
22. When you set a courseto round a dangerousshoal, you should set to clear a distanceof:
a. 5 miles c. 1,000prds
D. Ample safety clearance d. 3 mile.s
23. Ane minuteof latinrdewouldbe equal0o:
a. 60 miles b. lmile c. 5,280 ft d. 2,000 yards
U. Achannelhasbee4dredged0o39.5ft. At what draft in metersyou cancteir tne channel?
a. 2L87 meters b. 13.17 merers c. 12.19meters d. 5.58 meters
25' When DLo is considered,resort must be one of the severalmethodswhich by reasonof their taking
into accountthe sphericalfigure of the earthis called:
a. Ctreatcircle sailing c. Compositesailing
D. Spherical sailing d. Mercatorsailing
26. The maximumdistanceat which a light canbe seenunderatmosphericconditionof the existingvis-
ibility is: ;
a. Luurinousrange c. Meteorologicalrange
D. Geographicrange d. Nominalrange
Nominalrange
27. The maximum distanceat which the curvatureof the earth and terrestrial refraction perrrit a light to
be seenfrom a particularheight of eyewithout regardto luminousintensityof light is the:
a. Luminousrange c. Geographicrange
b. Nominal range d. Meteorological range
28. Measurementalong the equatorfrom the prime meridian 0oeither E or W to the meridian of the place
with the extrememffNurementfrom 0" to 180" is:
a. azimuth angle c. longitude
b. declination d. Iocal hour angle

r92 Pilnting and Sailings

29. T\e anglecontainedbenveenthe direction of the ship's headand the true meridian is the:
c. course D. departure c. sailing d. rhumbline

30. A vesselfrom west longitude going td eastlongitude and crossesthe lnternational dateline,&e vessel
is said to be:
a. crossingrressel D. westbormd c. eastllormd d. all of these

31. A mid-channelbuoy paintedto indicatethat you canpiNSthis buoycloseto eitherside:

a. green c. yellow
b. red d. red and white vertical stripes

32. Whenwill you rely on the positionof a floating aid to navigation?

a. during daylight c. when inside rle harbor
b. during calm weathet d. whenno fixed aid is available

33. Upon making an approachto a harbor,you sight a yellow buoy.This would indicatewhich of the
folluving?
4. turn to starboard c. streedmust be reduced
b. military exercisezone

34. The purposeof inboardscr@non a sidelightis 0o:

a. protectthe light from wind and seadamage c. increa,ethe rangeof visibility
b. preventthe light tobe seenacrossthe bow

35. If all theselandmarksare charted,which is lessreliab,le?

a. mountainpeak b. lighthouse c. lruoy d. island

36. A singleLOP combinedto a DR positionrvill resuli to:

a. assumedposition c. runnirtqfix
b. estimated position d. frx

37. A red solid buoymay showwhich coloredlight?

a. green b. yellow r. red d. white or red

38. The bestdjects to usefor bearingsto obtaina tix aic.

a. stationary6jecs on shue c. cbiirtt:.dtrxed cbjectson shore
in
b. vessel the area d. charted nuoy

39. Relativebearingsare given:

a. ftom the beam c. from deadaheadcltrckwiseto 360 deg.
b. from the compas
"N' 5 printed
40. A chart showingfathom soundingshowsa red and white vertically strippedbuoy with
next to it. The buoy is:
a. special'purposebuoy c. amid-channelbuoy
D. anunbuoy d- anunbuoymarkingtherightsideofthechannel

41. Fornavigationalpurposes,eachgreatcircleon the earthhasalength of:

a. 3.600miles b. 21,600miles c. 5,400 miles d. 12,500miles

Pil.otingand Sailings 193

42. Unlessotherwiseindicated,alternatinglight shownon the chartare white and:
a. red D. yellow c. green d. blue

43. What color of light prctectsnight vision?

a. yellow b'. rcd c. blue d. green

44. Which methodof determininga vessel'spositionis mostreliable?

a. radarbearingof 2 land features c. numberof depthfinders
b. radarrange&bearingof 2buoys d. rudarrangeof2landfeatures

45. A rhumblinewouldbe:
a. impossibleon eafih's surface c. straightline on eartl's surface
b. a great circle course d. a spiral curve to the pole on the earth's surface

46. What doesthe word KNOT mean?

a. I degof latitude scale c. one nauticirl mile per hour
b. one mile per hour

47. In finding the exactpositionof submerged

obstructionand rocks in a harbor,what is the traditional
method?
a. handleadsoundingD. scubadiving c. wiredrag d. echosounder
48. While navigatingin the vicinity of ice field you could recommendto the masterthat the vessel:
a. skirt an icebergor field to windward c. enterpack ice at full speed
b. skirt an icebergor field to leeward d. enterpack ice from windward

49. Enteringa harborfrom sea,buoyson your port sideare:

a. lettered b. evennumbered c. only painted d. dd numbered
50. A chart indicatesthat the depthof a certainpositionis 36 rneters.What will be the depthin fathoms?
a. 9.84 b. 19.68 c. 118.08 d. 1E.00
51. A positionthat is obtainedby only applyingyour courseand speedto a known positionis the:
a. DR position b. fix c. runninghx d. noneof theabove
52. A position that is obtainedby using two or more LOPs from known fixed objectsat aboutthe same
time is the:
a. DR position c. fix
b. estimatedposition d. runningfix

53. Which of the follov,'ingdescribesan accuratepositionthat is not basedon any prior position?
a. DR position c. fix
b. estimatedposition d. runningfix

54. A line of position fonnedby 2 chartedobjecfswhen in line is called:

c. relativebearing c. track line
b. rangeline d. estimatedposition line
55. If you indicatea positionthat includesthe effectsof wind and current"which of the following is the
correct term?
a. DR position c. leewayposition
b. estimated position d. set position

194 Piloting and Sailings

56. The differencebetweena DR positionand a fix both of which are on the sarnetime is:
a. estimatedposition b. drift c. set d. leway

57. Which of the following bestdescribesa rhumbline?

a. shortestdistancebetweentwo points on earth
b. plot as straightline
c. cuts the meridian at the sameangle
d. courseangle constantlychanges

58. A DR point of referenceshouldand most advisableto startfrom:

a. any position c. an a.ssumed position
D. a known position d. none of the above

59. A line of positionmay be:

a. line connecting two charted objects c. position of your vessel
D, line of possibleposition of the vessel d. not usedin running fix

60. When the total durationof light in a periodis longerthanthe total durationof darkness,the light is:
a. occulting b. flashing c. isophase d. fixed

61. When the totd durationof light in a periodis shorterthan the total durationof darkness,the light is:
a. occulting b. flashing c. isophase d. fixed

62. Whenall the durationof light anddarknessareclearlyequal,the light is saidto be:

a. occulting D. flashing c. isophase d. fixed

63. Youdecideto run a specialcasesuchthat the distancerun betweenbearings,whenmultipled by I .0

equalsthe predicteddistanceoff whenat the 2ndbearing.All of the following combinationsof bear-
ing canbe usedexcept:
a. 22.5 deg-45deg b. 26.5 deg45 deg c. 30 deg-60deg d. 45 deg-90deg

64. You decideto run a specialcasesuchthat the distancerun betweenbearingsis equalto 1/2 the dis-
tanceoff whenabeam.What specialcasewould you use?
a. 22.5degand45.0deg c. 45.0degand90.0deg
b. 30.0degand 60.0deg d. 63.5,de9 and90.0deg

65. Lights which appearontinuous andsteadyto an observer:

a. Flashinglight D. Fixedlight c. Isophase d. Occulting

66. Lights in which the flashesarerepeatedat regularinterval:

a. Ftashinglight b. Fixed c. Isophase d. Occulting

being repeatedidenti-
67. The sequenceof intervalsof light and darknessin which the whole sequence
cally at regularinterval:
a. Fixedlight D. Characteristic c. Rhythmiclight d. Perjod

68. The time takenby theRhythmic light to exhibit onecompletesequenoe:

a. Phase c. Rhythm
D. Period d. Noneoftheabove

Pilnting and Sailings 19s

69. The vertical distancebetweenthe focal plane of light and the level of Mean High WaterSpring or
MeanHigher High Wateris the:
a. Range D. Loom c. Phase d' Elevation

70. The maximurndistanceat which a,light canbe seen at a giventime asdeterminedby the intensityof
the light and the meteorologicalvi.ibility prevailingat tlat time is tle:
a. Range D. l,oom c. Phase d. Elevation

7 1. The dispersedglow obaervedfrom a light belowthe horizon or hiddenby an obstacledue to atmos-

pheric scattering:
a. Range D. Loom c' Phase d. Elevation

12. Alightpresentingdifferentappearances, likingofcolororcharacter,ovcrvariouspartsofthehorizon

of interestto maritime navigation:
a. sector light D. Lighs in line c. Leadinglights d. Direction light

so as [o form a leadingline to be lbllowe4

73. Two or more lights associated
a. Leadinglights D. Direction lights c' Lights in linr:

74. A light which enablesits appropriatebearingto obtain without the useof compass:
a. Bearinglight c. Leadinglight
b. Direction light d. Sectorlight

75. The durationof alterationof light and darknessof a quick flashinglight:

c. 1 sec. b. 3 secs. c. 2 secs. d. 5 secs'

76. Lightin which the rapid alterationsarerepeatedwithoutinterruption:

a. Quick flashing D. Isophase c. Flashing d. Groupflashing

77. ln a rhythmic light, the durationof darknessin eachperiodis called:

a. Period D. Eclipse c. Flash d' Rhythm

78. In a rhythmic light, the durationof light in eachperiodis called:

a. Flash b. Period c' Eclipse d' Rhythm

79. What systemdo the IALA MaritirneBuoyageSystemuses?

a ' A & B b . B & D c . A & c d . N o n e o f t h e a b o v e
"A" "B" appliesto all fixed andfloatingmarksexcept:
80. Systems and
a. laterzlmarks b. Cardinalmarks c. Light vessels d. Safewatermarks

"8" except:
81. The following countriesbelongto region
a. Australia D. Panama c. Venezuela d. United States

g2. Marks usein well definedchannelswhich indicatetheport and starboardhandsidesof tle routeto be
followed:
a. Lateralmarks b. Specialmarks c. Cardinalmarks d. Isolateddangermarks

g3. Usedin conjunctionwith the compassto indicatewheretle marinermay find best[avigable water:
a. Lateralmark b. Specialmark c. Cardinalmark d. Isolateddangermark

196 Piloting and Sailings

g4. Usedto indicateto the mariner an areaor featureswhich apparett{ lrt;in rclcrcnceto a chart sucha.s
spoil grounds,recreationzones,etc.:
a. Safewatermarks b. Specialmarks c. Cardinalmarks rl lsolateddangermarks

85. The lateralmarksport and starboardarecolored:

a. Redandgreen c. Blackattdycllorvir,'rtzontal
b. Yellow d' Redandwhitevcxlicltl

86. Usedto indicatethat thereis a navigablewaterall aroundthe mark:

a. Safewatermarks c. Cardinalmarks
b . s p e c i a l m a r k s d ' I s o l a t e d d a t t l t e r t n : r : k s

87. Thecolorof a cardinalmark is:

a. Redand green c. Black andyellorvhorizt'rntalband
b. Yellow d. Redand wlriteverticalstripes
"A" except:
88. The following countriesbclongto region
a. SouthKorea D. Iingland c' Ausralia d' Germany

89. System'8" of buoyagcis suitablefor usein:

a. Europe b. New zealand c. Africa d. Philippines

90. Fog signalthat uscscompressedair and generallyemits a powerfullow pitch sound:

a. Diaphone D. Siren c' Horn d' Whistle

91. The desiredanglc tbrmedby the keel of the vesselin referenceto the meridian is:
a . C o u r s e b . M u m b l i n e c . V a r i a t i o n d . H e a d i n g
keel with the
92. Thedirectionin which theship'sheadpointsat anyparticulartime andis theangleof the
meridian:
a,Headingb.Greatcircletrackc.Rhumblined.Course

93. The lengthof the line drawnbetweenanytwo placesis:

o. Distance b. Latitude c. Departure d. Meridian

94. The greatcircle sailingmaybesolvedby tableis:

a. igeton 2tI b. H.O. 214 c. Dreisonstock208 d. All of these

95. Any problemin greatcircle sailing canbe solvedby:

a. Azimuth tables c' Computationusingcosine& haversine
b. Chartsmethod d. Nl of these

with three backed

96. A beaconusedin offshorehydrographicand surveyingwork generallymoored
grapnelsis called:
a. noatlng beacon b. Radiobeacon c' Racon d' Specialbeacon

is called:
97. A bell usedas fog signalsat certainland station,lighthouseandby light vessel
a. Fog bell b. Fog horn c' Fog siren d' Fog whistle

Piloting and Sailings t97

9g. A building or someconspicuous point of thecoast,a pier or jetty,an islandor rock, from which a light
is exhibitedat night asan aid to navigationis called:
a. Lightbuoy D. Lighthouse c. Lightvessel d. Lightfloat

color varia-
99. A fixed light variedat regularintervalsby oneor moreflashesof greaterbrilliance with
don in eitherthe fixed light or flash;s is known as:
a. Alternating & frxed flashing light c. Fixedlight
b. Alternating light d. Flashing light

a buoy which is black

100. By night, which of the following light phase characteristic would be shown by
and white and verticallY striPed?
D. Qk. Ft. c. Fl r/. L. Fl
a. Mo. A
rlf a circlc.
101. It is an angle subtendedby an arc of a circle equal in length to the radius
b. Radian c. Parsec d. Parallax
a. Lunation

102.Half of thearithmeticalsumof thelatitudeoftwoplacesontlesamesidcoftheequator.

a. Meanlat b. Dlat c. Departure ri. Dlong

103. On an earth's great circle, one minute of arc is equal to:

a. One mile c. One mile only on equator
b. Two miles d' One mile only on meridian

radial line on the PPI' indicating

104. A radar beacon which continuously transmit a signal appearing as a
the direction of the beacon from the ship. It does not provide range to the beacon'
a . R a c o n b . B u o y c . R a m a r k r / . L i g h t h o u s e
places'
1 0 5 .I t is tle smaller arc of the equator interceptcd between the meridians of two
a . Dlong c. Dlat
b. Departure d. Parallels of latitude

106. An alternatinglight:
a. Showsa light with varyinglengthsof the lightedperiod'
b. Is usedas a replacementfor anotherlight'
c. Marks an alternatelesser-usedchannel'
d. Showsa light that changescolor.

107. Yellowlight is shownbY:

a. VerticallY-stripedbuoy c. SpecialpurPosebuoY
b. Conical buoY buoy
4f. l{s1i2s1fally-banded

two placeswhich are not on

l0g. A methodof determiningthe rhumblinecoursesand distancesbetween
*re same parallel of latitude.
D. Plane sailing c. Composite sailing d. Parallel sailing
a. Traverse sailing
pole to pole is called:
109. The semi-greatcircle on the surfaceof the earthextendingfrom
c' Meridian d' Ecliptic
a. Celestiallatitude b. Circumpolarline
at:
I10. The valueof 60 n.m. per degreeof geodeticlatitudeis most corect
a.Theequator.b.Attlrcpolesc.Latitude45"d.Al|latitudes

19E Piloting and Sailings

 THE CELESTIAL SPHERE

fhe Cclestial Sphere is an imaginary sphereof of the local meridian,through 180".

I infinite radiuswith the earthat its center.
IIORIZON SYSTEIVIOF COORDINATAS
ELEMENTS OF TIIE CELESTIAL SPHERE
hme Verdcal. The vertical circle through the E
Celestialpoles.The extensionof the earth'spoles. and W points of the horizon and perpendicularto
Celestlal equator or Equinoctlal. Formed by the principal vertical circle.
prqiecting the plane of the earttr's equator to the Altthde is an angular distanceabovethe horizon
celestialsphere. and is measuredalong a vertical circle, from 0" at
Celestial merldlans. These are semi-greatcircles the horizon through 90" at the zenith.
which terrrinat€ at the celestialpoles,cutting the Zenlth Dlstance is an angular distance from the
equinoctial in a right angle in the manner of zenith, or an arc of a vertical circle betweenthe zp-
terrestrial meridians. They are sometimesreferred nith and a point in the celestialsphere.
ta asHour circles.
Admuth is an arc of the horizon measuredfrom
Zenlth. The point on the celestial sphere North clockwise through 360"
vertically overheadof an observer.
Azlmuth angle is an arc of the horizon measured
Nadir. The point on the celestial spherevertically either clockwiseor counterclockwise through 180"
belowthe obsener.or 180" from the zenith. starting at the North point of the horizon in North
Latitudeandthe Southpointof thehorizonin South
CELESTIAL EQUATOR SYSTEM OF l,atitude.
COORDINATES Amplltude is theangulardistanceof a celestialbody
Declination is the angular distanceN or S of the North or South of the Prime Vertical circle.
CelestialEquator and is measuredalong the hour
circle from 0" at the CelestialEquatorthrough90" APPARENTMOTION
at the CelestialPoles. Rotaffonof the earth. The apparentmotiondue
to rotation of the earth causescelestial bodies to
Polar distance is an angular distancefrom a appearandrise somewherealong the easternhalf of
celestial pole, or the arc of an hour circle between thehorizon,climb o maximumaltitudeastheycross
the celestialpole and a point in the celestialsphere. the meridian,and set alongthe westernhorizon,at
Local hour angle is the arc of the celestialequator about$e samepoint.relativeto due west as tle
betweenthe upper branch of the local meridian and rising point was to due east.The apparentmotion
the hour circle through a point on the celestial alongthe daily path,or diurnal circle,of thebodyis
sphere,measuredwestwardfrom the local celestial approximatelyparallel to the plane of the equator.
meridian,through360". Rlght sphere. The celestialsphereas seenby
Greenwichhour angleis the angulardistancewest an observerat the equator.Bodiesappearto rise and
of ttreGreenwichmeridian. set vertibally. Every celestial body is above ttre
horizonapproximatelyhalf the time.
Meridian angleis the angulardistanceeastor west

Nautical Astronomy r99

 /Er.ESnAL PLE
qeEE\lwtcl-{ cE(Esf IAL
?A(ALIEV F
FfiWStt-qv w MgFlotArJ
awAtYes caEsTtAL
cFL$luvw('
MEr4crrAtt

@UIIJdCTAL

eo-tgrtc
(/twAwrJT p+tH
aF a)e su$)

THE CELESTIALSPHERE

/Fsm,€i<s :ElJlrl-l
YEEEE6yzIlaL
ASJE

CEIESTIAL
,lOPtJlJ

IN THE ALTMIMUTH SYSTEM

THE CO-ORDINATES

200 Nautical AstronomY

 Parallel sphere. Celestial sphereas seenby an
observerat one of the poles.Bodieshaving constant
declinationneither rise nor set,but circle the sky at
the samealtitude, making one completetrip around
the horizon each day.At the North Pole the motion
is clockwise, and at the South Pole it is
counterclockwise.
Oblique sphere. The celestial sphereas it
appearsto an oherver betweenthe equatorand the
polg wherecelestialbodiesappearto rise obliquely
to the horizon.
in its orbit aboutthe sun.In oneyearthe sunwould
appearto make one completetrip around the earth,
from westto east.
Common year. A duration of 365 days.
Leap year. Any yeardivisible by four, a duration
of 366 days.
Thoplcalyear. The lengthof the yearwith respect
to the vernal equinox which is about 365 days, 5
hours, 48 minutes, 46 seconds.Also called
Astronomical,Equinoctial, Natural or Solar year.

. Tlvilight- The period of incomplete darkness Sldereal year. Thelength of the par with respect
following sunsetandprecedingsunrise.Threekinds to the starswhich is about 365 days, 6 hours, 9
of twilight are defined, dependingupon the darker minutes, 10 seconds.
limit:
Anomalistic yean The period from perihelion
At Darker Limit
Twilight Lighter Darker to perihelionwhich is about365 days,6 hours, 13
Limit Limit
4o5O' -60 Horizon clear and
minutes,53seconds.
Civil
bright stars visible
Nautical -0050' -l2o Haizon notVsible Apparent modon due to movement of other
-18o Rrll Night
Astrommical 4050' celestial bodies. The moon would make one
Revolufion of the earth. The motion of the earth revolution about the earth each siderealmonth,

$vmtr*l
$dencz
r ()(Juna)

1r'/;N

MOTIONOFTHESUNIN THEECLIPTIC
APPARENT

Nautical Astronomy 201

rising in the westandseaingin theeast.Tbe inferior on or aboutMarch 21. The Northern lbmisphere
planets would appeat to move eastward and is having spring and the Southernllemisphere
westwardrelative to the sun.Superiorplanets$ould autumn.Both hemispheres receiveequalamountof
appear to make one revolution around the earth, sunshineanddaysandnightsareof thesamelength
from west to e:$t eachsiderealperiod. overtheentireworld. Also calledFirst Pointof Aries.
Tboplc of Cancer. The northern parallel of
TIIE ECLIPTIC
declination,approximately23" 27 from thecelestial
equator,reachedby the sunat its maximumnortherly
The ecllptlc is the path of the sun appearsto
declination,or the correspondingparallel on the
takeamongthe starsdue to the annual revolution of
eafth.
the earth in its olbit. [t is considereda Sreatcircle
of the celestial sphere,inclined at an angle ofabout Thoplc of Caprlcorn. The southernparallel of
23" 27' to the celestial equator,but undergoing a declination, approximately 23"27' from the celes-
continuousslight change.This angle is called tial equator,reachedby the sunat its mil(imum south-
obliquity of tlrc ecliptic. This inclination is due o edy declination,or the correspondingparallel on the
the fact that the axis of rotation of the earth is not earth.
perpendicularto its orbit. It is this inclination which
causesthe sun to appear to move north and south Arctlc clrcle. The parallel of latitude at about
during the year, giving the earth its seasoru,and 6" 33' N, marking the southernlimit of the north
changinglengthsof periodsof daylight. FigidTnne. This latitudeis the complementof the
sun's greatestnortherly declinationand marks the
Summer solstlce. The point on the ecliptic approximatesouthernlimit at which the sunbecomes
occupied by the sun at maximum nortberly circumpolar.Also called North Polar Circle.
declination, about June 21. The Northern
Hemisphereis having its summerwith long, warm Antarctic clrcle. Theparallel of latitudeat about
daysand short nights; the SouthernHemisphereis 6" 33' S, marking the northernlimit of the south
havingivinterwith shortdaysandlong, coldnights. Frigid Zone.This latitude is the complementof
The north polar regions are having continuous the sun's greatestsoutherlydeclination,andmarks
sunlightandthe southpolarregion is in continuous the approximatenorthern limit at which tle sun
darkness.Also called Fint Point of Cancer. becomescircumpolar. Also called South Polar
Circle.
Autumnal equinox. The pointof the intersection
of the ecliptic and the celestialequatoroocupiedby Frlgtd zone.Either of the two zonesbetweenthe
the sun as it changes from north to south polar circlesand the poles.
declination, on or about September23. The sun Tbrrld zone.That paft of the earth betweenthe
shinesequallyon both hemispheres, and daysand Tropic of Cancerand the Tropic of Capricorn. Also
nights are of the sarne length over the entire world. called the Tropics.
Also called First Point of Libra.
Ttmperate zone.Eitherof the two zonesbetween
Winter solstice. The point on tbe ecliptic the ftigid and torrid mnes.
occupied by the sun at maximum southerly
declination,about December22. The Northern Precesslon of the equlnoxes. The conical
Hemispherehaving its winter, and the Southern
motion of the @rth's axis about the vertical to the
Hemispherehaving its summer.Also called First plane
of the ecliptic, causedby the attractive force
Pointof Capricorn.
of the sun,moon,and otherplanetson the equatorial
Vernal equinox.The pointof intersectionof the protubnmce of the earth. The effect of the sun and
ecliptic and the celestial equator,oocupiedby the moon, called lunisolar precession,is to producea
sun as it changesfrom south to north declination, westwardmotion6 theequinoxesalong theecliptic.

?.02 Nautical Astronomy

SPECIAL RELATIONSHIP
l. When the body is on the PnPsline , meridian
angle is East or West.
2. When the bodyis on the hime Vertical, azinuth
is Eastor West.
3. When the body is onthe horizon,it is rising or
setting,dtitude = 0"
4. When the body is on the celestial meridian, it
reachesits maximum altitude, azimuth is N or
s.
5. When the body is on the lower branch of
celestial meridian, it reachesits maximum
negativealtitude,azimuthis N or S.
6. When Declination and Latitude are of same
namq morethanhalf of theparallelof declination
is abovethe horizon, body is abovethe horizon
morethanhalf thetime,crossing90o hourcircle
abovethe horizon. Body rises and sets on the
sane sideof the PV as the elevatedpole.
7. WhenDeclinationandLatitudeareof samename
and Dec. is lessthan Lat', the body crossesthe
PV abovethe horizon.
areof samename
8. WhenDeclinationandLatitude
and numerically equal,the body is on the Zenith
at uppertransit.
9. When the Declinarion and Latitude are of sane
nameand Dec.is greaterthanLat" body crosses
at the upperbrancl of the celestial meridian be-
nveen Zenith and elevated pole; body does not
crossthe PV.
10.WhenDeclinationandLatitudeareof samename
andDec.+ Lat. = 90" , thebodyis on thehorizon 2. Crescent.The moon'selongation
at lower transit and doesnot set.
11. WhenDeclinationandLatitudeareof sane narne
andDec.is greaterthan Colat',thebodyis above
the horizon during its entire daily cycle and has 3. Flrst quarten Themoonreaches
maximumaltitude.
12.when Dec. of the body = 0" at any Latitude' the
bodyis abovethe horizonhalf the time, following 4. Gtbbous.Morethanhalf of the
the Celestial Equator' Body risesand setsat the
PV. Daytime is equal to night time.
13.WhenDeclinationand I'atitude are of contrary
nalne, the body is above the horizon less than
Nautical AstronomY
half the tiine and it crooses90" hour circle below
the horizon. Body rises and setsat the opposite
sideof PV from the elevued Pole.
14.WhenDeclinationand Latitudeare of contrary
nameand Dec. is tessthan Lat., the bodycrosses
the PV below the horizon.
l5.When Declinationand latitude are of contrary
nameand Dec.= Lat., the body is on the Nadir
at lower transit.
16.WhenDeclinationand Iatitude are of contrary
nameandDec. + Lat. = 90" , thebody is on the
horizonat uppertransit.
17.WhenDeclinationand latitude are of contrary'
nameand Dec. is greaterthan Colat.,the body
doesnot rise.
PHASESOF TIIEMOON
Relativeto the sun, the moon makescomplete
trip aroundthecelestialsphereeachsynodicalmonth
(about2gtlrdays).As it doesso, it goesthrougha
cycleof aspectsor phasesto an obsenver on theearth,
bex;ause the moon shines chiefly by reflected light
from the sun. The orbit of the moon is inclined about
5" to the ecliptic, and undergoesa precessional
motion caTledregressionof the nodes.
1. New mdxr. This is the positionof the moon's
conjunctionwhenthemoonhasthesamecelestirLl
longitude as the sun. None of the moon's
illuminatedhalf is visible from the eartb.This
can only occurif the earth,moonand the sunal!
lie in the planeof theecliptic. Age of moonis 0
day.
hitsitir-'rease'tl
and parts of themoon's illuminatccl tJis';iri visiblt'
from ihe earth.It appearsi$ I crcscotriwith the
cuspsor hornsturnedawayfront lht' stttt.
quatiratrre. The
half of the moon toward the sun is illuminated'
Ageof the moon is TtlodaYs.
illuminatedmoon
is visible from the earth.
5. tr'uttnmn Themoonis in opposition.Thewhole
of the illuminatedhalf of the moonis facing the
earth and the moon appearsas full. Age of the
?.03
 moon is 14 1/2 days. and thus the conditionsd eclipsec.annotoccur.The
6. Glbbous. After frrll moon, the dsible moon only time that the moon is in or nearthe planeof the
decreasesin size, the moon alain becomes echptic is when it is passingone d the nodesof its
gibbous. odit. If the sun also bappensto be at one of these
nodesin its journey"aroundthe ecliptic then an
7. Last quarten Themoon is againat quadrature.
eclipsewill occur.
The half of the moon toward the sun is
If the sunis at the oppocitonode,then an eclipse
illuminated. Age of Oe moon is about21 314
of themmn willoocurnhenthemmnpassesthrough
days.
the earth's shadow.
. If the sun is at the samenode as the moon, then
8. Cresccnl The sunlit areasappearon the eastern
sideofthe moon. an eclipceof the sunwill occurufrenthemoonpasses
betweenthe sun and earth and cuts offi the light of
Mmn wadng. The time wben the size of the .the sunftom the observer.
visiblemoon is increasing.
Hence,at an eclipseof the moon,the moonmust
Moon wanlng. The time whenthe sizeof visible be full. At an eclipseof the sun, the moon must be
moon is decreasing(after full moon). new
Ifarvest nxln. The full moonoccurring nearest Tbtal ccllpse.Occurswhen the sunis completely.
the autumnalequinox. hidden from view.
Hrurter's mxrn. The full moon next following Pardal ecllpse. Occrrs when for a considerable
the harvestmoon. distancearound the shadow,part of.the surface
d sun is obscured.
9"
At new moon, the moon has Oe samecelestial
longitudeas the sun. Ths new moon rises,transits fumular ecllpce. Moon's occultationof the sun
the celestialmeridian, and setsat ryproximately the when outside edge of sun's disc is unocculted
sametime as the sun. although oentersof both bodiesare in line. Due to
When the moon reachesquadrature (first moon's diameterbeing lessthan the diarneterof sun,
quarter),it is about90" or six hoursbehindthe sun.It througb moon being in or near apogee.
risesaboutnoon, is on the celestialmeridian about6 Solar ecllpse.During this eclipse,nopart of the
P.M.,and setsaboutmidnight. sun is visible becausea body (the moon) intervenes
When the moon is at opposition (full moon), it in the line of sight.
risesabout the time of srmset, reachesthe celestial
meridian aboutmidnight, and setsaboutthe time of Lunar eclipse.During this eclipse,somelight
sunrise. doesreach the moon becatrseof diffraction by the
When the moon is again at quadrature(last atmosphereof tbe earth, and hencethe eclipsedfull
quarter), it rises at about midnight, crossesthe moonis visibleasa faint reddishdisc.A lunareclipce
celestialmeridian at about6 A.M., and setsat about is visibleorrertheentirehemispherefacing themmn.
rx)on.
Cenhal ecllpse.Eclipsein which enters of two
ECI,IPSES heavenlybodiesare exactly in line to an observerat
a specifiedplace. r
When the sun, moon and earth lie in a straight
line or very nearly so, then either the moon will crt Nodes. The two points of intersection of the
off Oe light from the sun if it is at conjrmction,or it moon'sorbit and the ecliptic.
will lie in the sbadow of the earth, if it is at
opposition.If the moon'sorbit happenedo be in the The celestiallatinrde of the moon is critical for
sameplane as tbe ecliptic tbis wonld occur at each the occurrenceof an eclipse.In the caseofthe solar
full mon and each new moon. Howewr as the eclipsa if the elestial latitude is zero (the noon is
mooD'sorbit is inclined to the ecliptic at about5 t/.0 exaclly at the @liptic), then an eclipse will occur
tbe mmn is usualty out of the plane of the ecliptic centrally on the eartb in tbe equatorial regions. If

?M. Nautical Astrowimy

rhe moon is slightly out of the ecliptic an eclipce shadonr.If slightly out of the ecliptic then it may
will occurin higher tatitudes.In the caseof thelu- passtbroughtheshadowbutnotcenEally.Itmaystill
nar clipse, if tbe noon is exactly in the ecliptic cmrpletely enter the shadowbowever'
tben it will pass througb the center of the earth's

SI,MI\{ARY OF COORDINAIES SYSIEMS

CELESTIAL EQUATOR HORIZON ECI,TPIIC

EARIfl

celestial equator horizon ecliptic

equator
poles celestial poles zenitb"nadir ecliptb poles

meridians hour circlqs, vertical cireles circles of latitude

celestial neridians

primemeridian hour circle of Aries, principal vertical circle of latitude

Greenwich celestial circlg prime through Aries

meridian,local rartical circle

celestial meridian
parallels parallels of declination parallels of altitude parallels of latitude

latitude declination altitude elestial latitude

colatitude polar distance zenith distance celestial colatitude

longitude SHA, RA, GHA, LHA azimuth,azimuth elestial longitude

meridian angle (t) angle,amplitude

Nutical AsttotntttY m5
 I{AUTIGAL ASTROilOIIY
1. The motionof the earthaboutirs axis causingthe celestialbodiesto appearto rise and setis called:
4. rotation c. spacemotion
b. revolution d. retrogrademotion

2. The motion of the earthin its orbit that causesdifferentcelestialbodiesto be visible during different
montts is called:
a. revolution b. rotation c. spacemotion d. dire*t motion

3. The siderealday is 3M 565 shortortnan a sotarOaybecauseol

a. spacemotion c. irregularities in the rotation of the sun
D. different referenoepoints d. praper motion of the solar system

4. The declinationof the sunchangesduring the yeardueto:

a. precessionof the equinoxes
b. the revolution of the eartharound the sun
c. the daily rotation of the earth on its axis
d. the inclinationof the earth'saxis on the planeof revolution

5. The averagelengthofa lunar dayis:

a. 23h 56m b. 24h 40m c. 24h 50m d. Z5h 4Om

6. Thedeclinationand SIIA ofthe starschangesveryslightlyduringtheyear.This slowchangeis dueto:

a. precessionof the equinoxes
b. daily rotationof the earthon its axis
c. revolutionof the earthaboutthe sun
d. the inclinationof the earth'saxis to the planeof revolution

7. What causesthe moon to rise and set latereachday?

a. the revolutionof the moonaroundthe earth
b. the changein declinationof the moon
c. both a and b
d. neitheranorb

8. Yourlatitudeandthe sun'sdeclinationhavethe sarnename:

a. the sun will rise earlieras your latitudeincreases
b. the sun will set earliegas ),ourlatitudedecreases
c. bothaandb
d. neitheranorb '

9. Yourlatitudeand tlie sun'sdeclinationhavecontrarynames:

a. the sun will rise earlier as y)ur latitudedecreases
b. the sun will set later as vour latitudedecreases
c. bothaand b
d. neithera nor b

206 Nautical Astronomy

10. At solarecliPse,the moonis:
d. atnew moon
D. differentin GHA from that of the sunby 90 deg.
c. bothaandb
d. neitheranorb

I l. At lunar ecliPse,the moonis:

,t. at new moon
b. differentin GHA from that of the sunby 180deg'
c. bothaandb
d. neithera nor b

12. Thefirst point of Aries is the positionoccupiedby the sun on t}le celestialsphereon or about:
a. June2l D. September21 c December21 d. March 2l

13. What is the zenithdistanceof the sunat nauticaltwilight?

a. 6 deg.to 12 deg. c. 12 deg'to 18 deg'
b. 102deg. to 108deg. d. 96deg' to 102deg'

14. The direction and distanceof the geographicposition of a celestialbody from your position is deter-
minedby:
a. azimuthandzenithdistance c' declinationand co-altitude
b. meridianangleanddeclination d. azimuthandintercept
positionof
15. The directionof a line drewnfrom the observer'sassumepositiontowardsthe geographic
a celestialbody,whenplotting an LOP is called:
a. zenithdistance c. intercept
D. azimuth d. meridianangle

16. The polar distanceof a bodyequals90 deg.when:

a. the latitudeofthe observeris 0 deg. c. the altitudeofthebody is 90 deg'
is
D. the declinationof the body 0 deg. d. the latitudeof the observeris 90 deg.

17. Whenthe sun is at aphelion,which of the following is correctregardingthe sun'sdeclination?

a. thesun is near maximum declinationnorth
b. thesunis nearmaximumdeclinationsouth
c. tbe sun'sdeclinationis 0 deg.goingfrom N to S
d. the sun'sdeclinationis 0 deg.goingfrom S to N

18. The radiusof a Circle of equd altitudeof a star is equalto:

a. zenilhdistance b. plar distance c. geographicposition d' declination
hour circle
19. The angular distrnce of a celestialbodyN or S of the celestialequatormeasuredalong the
of the body is known as:
a. declination b. polar distance c. altitude d- zenithdistance

20. Which of the following siatementsis correct?

a. A body observedat lower transit alwaysbearstowardsthe elevatedpole.
b. A body having a zenith distanceof more than 90 deg.is below the horizon.
c. bothaandb
d. neithera nor b

Nautical AstronomY 207

21. For a body o be circumpolar,wtich of the following is correct?
a. The lati[de and declinationmust havethe samename.
D. The latiude plus the declinationequals90 deg.or more.
c. bothaandb
d. neither a nor b

22. T\e &clination of a bodyand pur latitude have tbe sane nameand are numerically equal.Which d
the followbg is oorrect?
a. At uppertransit, the body is in your zenith.
D. For a value of 60 deg. N, the body is circumpolar.
c. bothaand b
d. neitberanorb

23. When sotving fa Letiusing tbe uppertransit formula 'ou subtnrctHo from 90 deg.What doestle 90
deg. represent?
c. Distancefrom the horizon to the pole. c. Distancefr,omtle equatorto the zenith.
D. Disance ftom tle oquatoro the pole. d. Disunce ftom the horizon to the zenith.

24. T}re equationof time, as usedfor solving for the zone tine of meridian transit of the sun, is to be
addedor subtractedfrom:
a. LltT. D. L.M.T. c. G.M.T. d. ZT.

25. The daily Eathof a oelestialbody that is parallel to the oelestialequatoris the:
a. altitude circle D. vertical circle c. diurnal circle d. hour circle

26. T}le great circle that is alwaysneededto fonn the astnonomicaltriangle is:
a. Celestial equator D. longitude c. Celestialmeridian d. Prime vertical

27. The brightest fixed star in heavencan be found in the onstcllation of:
c. Ursa major D. Canis major c. Argus

28. The differencebetweenlocal apparenttime and local meantime is the:

a. Equation of time c. Iongindc in time
b. DW betweenlocal and central meridian d. 7are description

29. The earthmovesfaser in spaoeduring the month of:

a. January D. April c. October d. July

30. Tbe interval betrveensumsive transits of the moonover anygiven meridia'r ie called:
a. Monlight b. Lunarday c, Solarday d. None of these

31. Tbe earth'srevolutim arounAOe sunir:

a. 365.12days c. 366.50dsys
t. 365.25 dq/s d 365.50 days

32. TM interval betweenthe sun's upper limb being in horizon and iB center being 6 deg. below it is
called:
a. Civiltwilight t. Trilight e Nurticaltxfiliglt d. Su'Sazimutl

2rn Nattical Astvlrrr,rrry

 33. A great circle of celestial spherewhoseplane is at right angle to the dserver's meridian and which
passastbrough the zenith andnadir and tbrougbE and W points of the horizon is known asthe:
\ 6. Prime meridian D. hime vertical c. Celestial equator d. Celestialmeridian

34. Observationaln*rilight hasan anglebeamat the horizon ot

a. lzdeg. D. 18deg. c. 6deg. d. 10deg.

35. Whenthe angleof the earthbetweenplanetand sunis 90 deg.,the planetis saidto be in:
a. Quadrature b. Conjunction c. Opposition d' Elongation

36. Moon's occultation of the sunwhen outsideedgeof sun's disc is unoccultedalthoughcentersof both
bodiesare in line is called:
a. Annular eclipse D. Lunar eclipse c. Total eclipse d. Solar eclipse

3?. It is an eclipse in which centersof the n*'o heavenlybodiesare exactly in line to an observetat a
specifiedplace is called:
a. Solar eclipse b. Central eclipse c. Lunar eclipse d. Total eclipse

38. If the earth's axis were perpendicular0othe planeof its orbit, what would be the effectto the seasm?
c. Tbesdasonwillnotchange. c' bothaandb
b. There will be one season. d. neither a nor b

39. Greatcide of celestial spherein which earth revolvesaround the sun, becausethe moon must be in
it, or near it fur an eclipseto occur is called:
a. Equinox b. Ecliptic c. Equinoctial d' Solstice

40. Celestial sphereas it appearsto an observerat the eguatorwhere the celestialbodiesrise vertically
abovetbe horizon is known asthe:
a. Parallel sphere D. Oblique sphere c. Right sphere d. None of these

41. Celestial ipheni as it appearsto an obcerverat the pole where the bodiesappearto move parallel to
the horizon is known as:
a. Parallel sphere b. Right sphere c. Oblique sphere d. None of these

42. The hour angle of the vernal equinox expressedin time is the:
a. Siderealtime c. Local apparenttime
D. Greenwichmean time d. Equation of time

43. The pointof the Ecliptic that are 90 deg.distancefrom the Equinoxes:
a. Ecliptic D. Solstitial olurc c. Equinoxes d. solstices
u
4. Theangular distanceof a bodyof the Snlarsystemftom the sun,or the angleatthe earthberweenlines
to the sun and anotherbodyof the solar systemis called:
a. Quadranre D. Conjunction c. Opposition d. Elongation

45. The point of ecliptic at wbich the sun reachesits fartbestposition north of the celestial equatoris
called:
c. Vernatequinox c. Summer solstie
D. Auurnnalequinox d. lViner solstice

NauticalAstommy 2W
 46. Instancewhentrue sunis on the meridianat a placeis:
a.' Twilight b. Apparentsolartime c. High tide d. Nadir

47. When the sun is on either the autumnalor vernal equinox,the time of daysand nights is approxi-
mately:
a. Sameall over the wodd c. Daysare shorterthannights
b. Daysarelongerthannights d. None of these

43. In the N. hemisphere,June21 is consideredas the :

a. longestday D. longestnight c. shortestday d. noneofthese

49. The intervalbenveensun'scenterbeing12deg.belowthehorizonand 18deg.belowhorizonwhereby

vestigesof sunlight are refrrcteA or reflectedaboveit is called:
c. Astronomicd twilight c. Nauticalnvilight
b. Civil twilight d. Observational rwilighr

50. Greatcircle of elestial spherethat is 90 deg. ftom the celestialpolesis called:

a. Declination b. Celestialequator c. Prime vertical d. Equator

51. A crescentmoonwith the opensidetowardsthe westis:

c. llarvest moon D. Hunter'smoon c. Moonwaxing d. Moonwaning

52. Faintly luminousdisc seenin the sky oppositethe sun due to reflectionof sun by ice particlesin
aEnosphereis:
a. Tanth D. Anthelion c. Twilighr d. Aphelion

53. Planetswhoseorbits lie betweenthe earthand the sun is called:

a. Superiorplanets b. Inferior planets c. venusandsatun d. Major planets

54. The sun will rise at 0600Hand setat 1800Hwhen the observeris at:
a. LatlOdeg. c. L,at60deg.
b. I-at45deg. d. Lat0deg.orarrheequaror

55. The angleat the pole betweenthe meridianof Greenwichand the hour circle of thebody is calted:
a. GIIA b. IJJA c. SHA d L.ongitude

56. Periodfrom new moon to the next new moon is tenned:

a. Waning D. rffaxing c. Lunation d. Conjunction

57. A crescentmoon with the opensideto the eastis called:

a. Ilarvest moon b. Huntertsmoon c. Moonwaning d. Mmn waxing

of groupof stars,dusts,gases,erc.is called:

58. The assemblage
a. Andromeda b. Galaxy c. Constellation d. Milky way

59. The angular distancemeasuredeasterlyfrom the lint point of Aries to the body is called:
a. SHA b. LIIA c. RA d. cHA

60. Farthestpoint of the earth from t[e sun approximately91,000,000miles is calted:

a. Perigee D. Apogee c. Aphelion d. Periheleon

2r0 Nautical Astronorny

6 1 .wben 2 bodiesare on the samesideof the earth and are in line, it is called:
a. Conjunction D. Opposition c. Elongation d. Quadrature

to the
62. That part of the parallel of declinationwhich is apparentlydescribedbetweenthe time of setting
time rising of heavenly body is lnown as the:
a. Diurnal arc b. Nocturnal arc c. Altitude circle d. Polar distance

63. The arc drawn ftom geographicposition of the body equalto the radius of the circle of equal altitude
is:
a. Tnnithdistance D. Codeclination c. Altitude d. Declination
/
64. The @ily path of the star is along the:
a. Parallel of altitude c. Ilour circle
D. Ecliptic d. Parallel of declination

65. In the N. hemisphere,the starsthat makeup a navigationaltriangle are Deneb,Vegaand:

a. Aldebaran c. Altair
D. Alkaid d. Arcturus
"Equation of Time"?
66. lbtr, do yon define
a. DifferencebetweenGMT and LAT c. DifferencebetweenGMT and ZT
b. DifferencebetweenLMT and GMT d. DifferencebetweenLMT and LAT

67. To deterurineyour geographicalposition in relation O a elestial body B way of direction and dis-
tanceis by:
a. Declination and co-latitude c. Meridianangleanddeclination
D. Azimuth and zenithdistance d. Azimuth and intercePt

6t. The revolutiqr of the earth in its otbit causesthe apparent:

c. Easrwardmotion of the sun in the ecliptic
D. Wesnrardmotion of tbe sun in the ecliptic
c. Wesrwardmotion of the earth in the ecliptic
d. Eastward,motionof tbe earth in its axis

69.The equationof time is causedby all of the following except:

a. The eartb'saxis is inclined23 de9.27min.
D. The earthrevolvesaroundthe sunat meven speed.
c. The rotation of the earth on its axis is not constant'
d. \\e sunactually moving at unevens@ in its revolution aroundthe earth.

70. The angular distanceof a celestialbody N or S of Oe prime vertical circle; the arc of the horizon or
tbe angieat the zenith betweentbe prime vertical circle and a vertical circle throughthe elestial body
measuteON or S from tbe prime vertical to the vertical circle is called:
a. Amplitude b. Azimuth c' T,rlnrth d' Bearing

71. Wbat condition makesa celestial body circumpolar?

a. When it is 18 deg.below the horizon.
b. Whenit basa declinationof 23 &g.27 min. N or S
c. When it hasa zero declination.
d. When it remainsabwe the horimn for 24 hours.

Nautical Astronomy 2tl

72. TM, parallef of htitude rt &ut 66 &g.33 min. S and is detc,minedby tbe point wbrc the sun'sn(xxl
rays are tangentat the earth at tbe time of srrmmersolsticeis tbe:
a. Arctic circle c. Antarctic circle
D. Tropicof Capricorn d. Tropicof C-aner

73. Time basodupon the tnrc position of tbe sun as distinguishedfrm meantime, whicb is measuredby
a fictitiors eun moving at a unifqrn rate is called:
a. Tnnetire D. Civiltime c. Apparenttime d. Siderealtime

74. TMrc are forr navigatiornl planetscommonlyused.They are t[e:

a. Man, Venus,Pluto andSaturn c. Earth, lvlars,Pluto and Uranus
b. htth,Mars,VenusandJupiEr d. Mars,Venus,JupiterandSaturn

75. The angulardistane measuredurcsterlyfrom 6e observer'smeridian to thehour circle passingthrough

the body is:
a. GIIA b. LHA c. SUA d. RA

76. The angulardistancemeasurednresterlyfrom the fint point of Aries to the hour circle yassingthroughl
the body is:
a. GHA ,. LHA c. SHA d. RA

77. Periodwhen the earthis in line with the moon andthe sunandthe earthis in benveentbe moonand the
sun is:
a. Quadratrne D. Conjunction c. Opposition d. Elongation

7t. The time intervd betweentwo successivesimilar aspectsof a planet with tbe sun, as betweentwo
conjunction c opposition is called:
a. Synodic perid D. Spacemotion " c. Rotation d. Revolution

79. The sciencethat deals with size, constitution, motion and relative position of heavenlybodies is
called:
a. Navigation D. Stellarnavigation c. Nautical astnon(my d. Astrology

80. The point on the celestial spherewhicb is directly aboveOe Ss€trrrer'smeridian is:
a. 7*nith D. Nadir c. Celestial poles

81. The great circle of the elestial sphere*n"r" tfr" plane of the earth's equalor when extendedinter-
sectsthe sphereis called:
a. Ecliptic D. Equinoctial c. Celestial longitude d. Axis d heaven

82. The other namc of parallel of altitude which connectsall points in the sky of equalaltitudes is called:
a. Right ascension D. Alrrucantar c. Azimuth angle d. T*,iirb distance

83. The point cn the e,clipticoccupiedby the sun at maximum declination S is called:
a. Summer solsticc b. Vemalequinox c. Winter solstice d. Auhmrnalequinox

E4. The arc of the vertical circle containedbetweenthe body and the horizon is called:
a. Truedtitude c. Azimuth
D. Parallel of latitudc d. Anplitude

212 Nautical Astronomy

t5. Thcp| dbl 6&g.33 min. N endis &Ermired by tle pointwhereintheurn'smyEat€trng€ntto the
€.rth $rftE rr the time d wintcr sottti@b callod:
a. Arraic circb D. Trotrcof Cancr c. Antarcticcircle d. ThoplcofCapric.an

t6. Itom 6e rimeof full moo o thetiine of rew moon,thepation of tbc ilhminatedsurfre whic.his
visibb decrcrscs.This ba|f lunatioo is callod:
a. Moowani:ng b. Monwaxing c. lhrvest mom d. Hrmter'smom

87. The di*noe at whicb a strr nould have the parallax d me s€ond d arc whichis equalb
19.2
millio mihs is:
a. Parsec c. Goostric parallar
b. tHbenaic Porallar d. Ligbtyear

t8. The srn t€acbosTropic of Capriccn on or about:

a. Irre 2l D. Match 2l c. Deember 21 d. Scntenbcr 2l

t9. Itisagrcatcirclewhichplanepassestbroughthelineoonnectingthedserver'szenithwiththecenter
of the €rrth.
c. Equinoctial ,. Ratimsl horizon c. EcliPtic d. Verndequinox

m Sc oelestialspherewhichis inclinedo the

90. A greatcirclethat the sun'sapparentpathdescribes
oelestialoquelor23 &g.27 min. is callod:
a. r/erticalcirch D. Bcliptic c. Dectination circle d. Altiude circle

91. A body that is abovethe horizon for firll24 bours is callod:

a. First point of Aries c. Equinox body
D. Circumpolar d. F4ualaltiode

92. TE greatostangulrr distanceabovetbe horizm is:

a. Mrximrmaltiode c. Azimutb
,. Cebstitl pbere d. Amplitude

93. The z€NdOdisten@ofabody €quals90 deg.

a. T[c b9dy is 8t the cquator. c. The body is m the borizon.
D. Thc dserver is at tbe €quator. d. Tfue,obserrreris at the pole.
.
94. Tbe intervd betweeirtwo srrcsit'e transits of the first point of Aries atross the samemeridian is
called:
c. Lurday D. Solarday c. Siderealdal' d. Apparentday

95. Therc of hourcirclcbetweenthecelestialpole usuallytbeebvatedpoleanda pointon thecelestial

ptere measrned ftm theelestial polethrough180deg.is knownas:
i. zaitdisraffi D. Iongiode c. Polardisrance d. Alti$de

96. It is anoccultrtionof srmby rxxn or oessatimof ligbt dueo passinginto sbadowduringdartening

of moo's disc xAcn it pa$sesinto shadowcest by earth.
a. fuitigt D. Rainbow c. Equinox d. Ilclipse

97. T\D slu's that are obemredo tte sare hour circle, €aci d tbe starssill bave wbat in commm?
a. Dclinetbn D. Altitude c. Meridianangle d. Azinuhangh

Nutical Astrotnnry 2t3

 98. Your latitudeis 60 deg.North, the sun'sdeclinationis 3 deg.North.
a. Youwould seethebodyrisir.gin the NE'ly quadrant.
b. At uppertransit,thebodyrrill be at an altitudeof 57 deg.
c. bothaand b
d. neithera nor b
99. When the equinoctial and rational horizon coincide to eachother, what particular spheredoesthe
observerbelong to?
a. Parallel sphere D. Right sphere c. Oblique sphere d. Ionosphere
100. When measurement
is takenfrom the centerof the earth,it is called:
a. Geocentric D. Helitrcentric c. 7friac d. None of these
101. When measurementis takenfrom the centerof the sun, itis called:
a. Heliocentric b. Zrd;iac c. Geocentric d. Parsec
102. The angulardistancebetweenthe PrimeVerticalandtheactualsunduringsunriseand sunsetis called:
a. Amplitude b. Altitude c. Azimuthangle d. Rightascension

103. The angulardistancemeasuredalong the celestialequatorfrom the upperbranchof the observer's

meridianwestwardlo the hour circle passingthroughthe bodymeasuredfrom 0" to 360".5
a. Lrc,alhourangle c. Azimuthangle
D. Greenwich hour angle d. Siderealbour angle

104. The angulardistancemeasuredalongthe verticalcircle from the zenith to the body:

a. 7*nithdistance D. Amplitude c. Azimuth d. Declination

105. The angulardistancemeasuredverticallyabovethehorizon is called:

a. Altitude of celestialbody c. Horizon glass
D. Altitude circle ,'1jd. Indexglass
106. The arc of the celestialequatoror the angle of the celestialpole betweenthe upper branch of the
celestialmeridianof a placeand the hour circle of the bodymeasuredeithereastor westthrough180
deg.or 12 hours.
a. Meridianangle c. Siderealhour angle
b. Altitude d. Lealhour angle

107. The arc of hour circle betweena celestialpole, usuallythe elevatedpole and a point on the celestial
spheremeasuredfrom the celestialpole through 180 deg.
a. Polar distance b. Tnnith distance c. Altitude d. L,ongitude

108. The brightestamongall theplanetsis:

a. Venus D. Neptune c. Mercury d. Jupiter

109. The distancemeasuredon the bour circle from the elevatedpole to the body is called?
a. Polar distance b. Altitude c. Declination d. SHA

110. The earth'saxis hasa fixed inclinationof 23 &g.27 min. of arc from a line perpendicularto the plane
of theorbit. This positionis constantwith North pole alwayspointing towardthe North Star.This is
called:
a. Parallelismof the axis c. Planeof the orbit
D. Earth grid d. Tropic of Capricorn

2t4 Nautical Astronomy

 sun acrossthe same
111. The interrral that elapaesbetweentwo successivepassagesor tfansits d the
meridian is called:
a. Apparentsolarday c' Uppertransit
b. l:mertransit d' APParenttime

planets movesin an
ll2. The law discoveredby a German astrronomerthat states the earth like the other
elliptical orbit around the sun and that the sun is situatedat one of the trro foci of the ellipse, is the:
c. kepler's law of planetary motion c' Buys-Ballot law
D. NewSon'slaw on gravitation d' None of thesp

of rising and
113. The part of tbe parallel of @lination which is apparentlydescribedbetweenthe time
setting of the heavenlybdy.
a. Diurnal arc c. TWiligbt
D. Nocturnal arc d. Ctcle of doclination

in morning.
ll4. The periodbetrveensunsetand darknessin tbe eveningand darknessand sunrise the
a. Tkilighttime b. Zone time c. Localmeantime

They are designated

115. The point at which the earth'saxis when extendedintersectsthe celestialsphere.
N and S to agree with the corresponding poles of the earth'
c. Celestial poles D. South pole c. North pole d' Polesof tbe earth

equator.It
116. The point of the ecliptic at which oe sun reacies its farthestposition north of the celestial
Northern llemi-
uru"ily occursaboui June 2l earchpar and this is the beginning of summerin the
sphere.
a. Snmmer solstice b. Winter solstice c. Vemalequinox d. Aunrmndequinox

the celestial equator.

ll7. The point of the ecliptic at which the sun reachesits farthest position souo of
Hemisphere'
This occursaboutDecember2l and it marks the beginning of winter in the Northern
a. Winter solsticd b. Summer solstie c. Vernalequinox d. Aunrmnalequinox

118. The point where the ecliptic intersectstbe celestial equator.

a. Equinoxes D. Solstices c. Almucantar d. Equinoctial colure

to southon or about
I 1g. The point wherethe sunappearsto crossthe equinoctialwhenmoving from north
September2l eacbyear.tnis is the time when the length of the day and night are equal.
a. AuUrmnafequinoxb. Vernalequinox c. Summersolstie d. lilinter solstice

when moving from

120. The point wherethe sun in its apparentannual jotrrney cnossesthe equinoctial
, southto north.
a. Vernalequinox b. Auurmnalequinox c. Summer solstice d. Winter solstice

121. The lengthd the yearwi6 respectto the vernalequinoxis the:

a. Tropical par b. Sidaeal par c' Anomalistic year d. All of theabwe

122. T:heuroon is nearestto the earth at:

a. Perigee D. Apoge c. Vemalequinox d. New moon

NaurtcalAstronomY 2ls
123. Tbelunerdayis:
a. Longerthansoluday.
D. Shorterthan solar dgy.
c. Tbe sane length is the solar dry.
d. Longer than solar day during sumrhermonths.

124. Siderealtime is not uscd :

a. As 6e basisfc star charts.
D. To entera ctar finder.
c. In sight rcduction of plaret observation.
d. In sight reduction using H.O. 2f9.

125. The lunar day is also known as:

a. l,hdalday D. Tklalday c. Lrmitidatinterval d. Solarday

126. The mean sun us€dto measuretime mves:

a. Along u'e elestial equalor u 15" per day.
D. Along the elestial equaSorat 15" per hour.
c. Abng the eckptic at 15" per bour.
d. Along the ecliptic at 15" per day.

127. TF,nadir i$ the point on th celestial spherethaq is;

a. On the westernhorizon. c. 90" a*ey from thc z€Ndth.
b. Ovet tbe Greenwich. d. Directly belw the dserrrer.

l2t. Tbe parallelof latitude al23'n' S is the:

a. Tropic of Capricorn c. Araic circle
D. Trcpicof C;ancer d. Ecliptic

129. ln lory latitudes, the full moon will always rise at about:
a, Sunset c. Sunrise
b. 1200 LtrlT d. 2400 LMT

130. In low latitudes, the full no* *riU alwaysset at abut:

a. Suns€t ,. 1200 LMT c. Sunrise d. 2m Llvff

131. Tbe period of rotation of the mon on its axis is:

a. Z houn D. 19 yean c. 365 days d. 27.3 days

132. W rwolution d tbe mmn on its ubit is:

a. Z bours D. 19 years c. 365 days d. 27.? dtys
'
133. The new noon cannot be seenbcarse lhe mmn is:
c. Atqudruure c. Below the borizm
D. Bctweentbe earth and lhe sun d. In tbe oppositedireaion of.the sun

134. Tbe rate of increasein hour angle is tbe sbwest fu:

a. Thesun b. T moon c. l{ars d. Mercury

2t6 NaurtcalAstotnny
135. Diurnrl ab€rrationic due b:
a. Rcetioof theerth m beraxis.
D. Ahlschcizo.
c. Mcim of tbg carth in her o6it
d. Tbe body's ortitrl motim dudni tle time roqrdrcdfa its light to rpac,hthe earth.

136. The rctation of tbe eartb oo its ails causcstDc aDpat€nt:

a. Westvard mtim of the sun acrcs the sky.
D. Westwad motim of tbe earth acr6$ the sky.
c. Eastwardmotion of the srmacrosstle sly.
d. Eastwardnotkn of tbe earth rcrcs the sky.

137. Tbe *tstwald gyratio of tbe earth's axis is called:

a. Rwolution D. Rotatim c. Precession d. CrraviAtion

13t. The point where the mmn reachesits farthestdistanc frgn the eortb.
a. Pf'':igee D. Spacemotiqr c. ApoSe d. Axialrobtim

139. Tbe interval bet*een two successivetfansits d tbe first point d Aries rcrcs tbe samemeridian.
a. siderealday D. Solardry c. Lrmrday d. Tropicalday

140. The tour angle of tbo vemal equinox expressedin time is the:
a. Solar time D. Mean tire c. Appar€nttime d. Sid€rcal tire

l4l. Tbe cmail circle of the celestirl sph€reparallel O tbe oelestial oquattr and Aanscribedthe daily
motion of tbe body.
a. Vertical circle D. Altitrrde circb c. Diurnal circle d. Ibur circle

142. l^ tbe hqizon systemof @odinatqx wbat is tbe equivdent b polat distanceof tbe celestial-equatm
system?
a. Azimuh b. zililhdistanoe c. Altitude d. colatitude

143. A first nagui$de staris:

a. 5 times asbright as a secold magnitudestar.
D. 3 times asbright as a eecondmagnihde star.
c. 2.5 times as bright as a semd magni$d€ star.
d. 10 tines as brigbt as a seond magnitudestaf.

144. The precessionof the equinoxesmovesin a(n):

a. mnmny dirction c. Ecterly dirpction
D. Southerly direction d' Westerly directbn

145. The perid of tbe Earth's revolution ftromperihelion o peribelio.

a. Siderealpar c. Astronomical year
D. Solar year d. Anomalistic Year
rotation of
146. Tbe aDproximatepositim of the starsare basedon sider€altime, which is basedupon the
tbe earth relrrtive to:
c. Winter solstice D. Summer solstie c. Vernaloquinox d. AuUmndequimx

NauticalAstrotwnry 217
147. From the time of the new moon to the time of full moon, the moon completeshdf of the cycle of
phasesand the portion of illuminatedsurfacewhich is visible increasesin size.This is known as:
a. Hunter'smoon b. Moonwaning c. Harvestmoon d. Mmnwaxing

148. The anglemeasuredalong the celestialequa0orfrom the vernalequinoxeastwardto the hour circle
passingthroughthe bodyfrom 0" to 360".
a. Right Ascension c. l.ocal hour angle
D. Meridianangle d. Siderealhour angle

149. It is a small circle parallel to the sensiblehorizonand passesthroughthebody.

a. Parallel of latitude c. Arctic circle
D. Altitude circle d. Circle of illumination

150. It is the parallel23" 27' N and it is the farthestnorth reachedby the sun's rrerticalrays at time of
summersolsticewhich is aboutJune21.
a. Tropic of Cancer c. Arctic circle
b. Tropic of Capricorn d. Antarctic circle

151. The point wherea celestialbodycrossesthe ecliptic from southto north.

Ans.Ascendingnode or nonh bound node.

152. Augmentationof the moon'ssemi-diameteris the:

Anl Daily changein angular semi-diarneterof the moon increasinglrcr diameterwlwn it rises
in altitudc.

153. What conditionmakesa bodycircumpolar?

Ans. Tlu latitude is of samename with tlu declinuion of the body, and Dec. is greater tlnn Colat.

154. Degreeof brightnessinto which starsare gradedor classified.

Ans. Magnitude.

155. On the secondday of April 1994,the sunrosebearing084" T. Whereis the positionof the observer?
Ans. At thc equator.

156. The combinedeffectof gravitationdforceexertedby the suntendingto pull the equatorialbulgeinto ,

and out of the plane of the ecliptic is called:
Ans.Precessionof the Equinoxes.

157. The point wherea celestialbodycrossesfrom north to southin the ecliptic is called:
Ans. Descendingnode or south bound node.
l5E. Whenthe moon is going.fromnew to full throughthe first quarter,it is:
I. Waxing .
I Rising earlier eachday
Ans. I only.

159. At lastquarter,the GHA of themoonis about:

Ans: 90 aluad of tltc sun'sGHA.

160. While observingthe moon,it is notedthat the sunis westof themoonandthemoonis morethanhalf
full. The moonis at:
Ans: Gibbous- Waxing
2lE Nautical Astonomv
 THE MARINE SEXTANT
fhe rnarine sextant is a hand-heldinstrument tude.
I for measuringthe angle betweenthe lines of Vernier. Adjacentto the micrometerdrum and
sight to two pointsby bringing into coincidenceat fixed on the index arm which aids in readingfrac-
the eyeof the observerthe direct ray from onepoint' tionsof a minute.
anda double-reflected ray from the other,the meas-
uredanglebeingnvicetheanglebetweenthereflect- Index mlrror. A pieceof silveredplassmounted
ing surfaces. on the index arm, perpendicularto the planeof the
instrument,with thecenterof the reflectingsurface
Its principal use is to measurethe altitudesof directlyover tlte pivot of the index arm.
celestiatialbodiesabovethe visible seahorizon.
Sometimes it is turnedon its sideandusedfor meas- Shadeglasses.Of varyingdarkness, aremounted
uring the differencein bearingof two tenestial ob- on the frame of the infront
sextant of the indexmir-
jects. ror and horizon glass.They can be moved into the
line of sight at will, !o reducethe intensityof the
OPTICAL PRINCIPLFS light reachingthe eyeof the observer.
l.When a ray of light is reflectedfrom a plane Ilorizon glass.A pieceof optical glasssilvered
surface,the angle of reflectionis equal ID the an- on its half nearerthe frame. It is mountedon the
gle of incidence. frame,perpendicularto the planeof the sextant.
2.From optics, the anglebetweenthe first and Telescope.Screwsinto an adjustablecollar in
final directionsofa ray oflight that hasundergone line with the horizonglass,and shouldthenbe par-
doublereflection in the sameplaneis twice the an- allel to the planeof the instrument.
gle that the two reflectingsurfacesmakewith each
other. Handle. Made of wood or plastic. Sextantsare
designed to beheldin theright hand.
3. If the two mrrrors are parallel,the incidentray
from any observedbody must be parallel to the ob- SEXTANTADJUSTMENTS
server'sline of sight throughthe horizonglass;i.e. There are at leastsevensourcesof error in the
the dtitude of the bodYis zero. marinesexlant,threenon-adjustable by the naviga-
tor and four adjustable.
PARTSOF A IVTICROMETER DRT.]MSEXTANT
Index arm. A movable bar made of brass or NON.ADJUSTABLEERRORS
aluminum.It is pivoted aboutthe centerof curva- Prismatic error is presentif the two facesof
ture of the limb. the shadeglassesand mirror are not parallel.Error
Tangent screw. Mountedperpendiculadyon the due to lack of parallelismin the shadeglassesmay
end of the indu\ arm, whereit engagesthe teettrof be called shadeerror.
the limb. Graduation errors occur in the arc, microm-
Release.A spring-actuated clamp which keeps eter drum,and vernierof a sextantwhich is improp-
thetangentscrewengagedwith the teethof thelimb. erly cut or incorrectlycalibrated.
By applyingpressureon the legsofthe release,one Centering error resultsif the index arm is not
candisengage the tangentscrew. pivotedat the exactcenterof curvatureof thearc. It
Micrometer drum. Mountedon the end of the can be determinedby measuringknown angles,af-
tangentscrewwhich is grq$uatedin minutesof alti- ter tlte adjustableerrors have beenremoved.Usu-

Celestial Navigation 2t9

allv, it is preferableto make a singlecorrectionta- Refractlon. It is the changein directionof mo-
ble for all three elrors, called insffumcnt error. tion of a ray of radiant energyas it passesobliquely
from onemedium into another.A ray of light enter-
ADJUSTABLEERRORS ing a mediun of greaterdensitythanthat in whichit
Error of perpendicularity. The error in the has beentraveling is bent or refractedtowardsthe
readingof a marine sextant due to non-perpen- normal.
dicutarityof the index mirror to the frame' Refractionis greatestat low altitudesand is zero
Side error. The error in the readingof a marine whenthe ray of light entersthe atmosphere at right
sextantdue to non-perpendicularity of the horizon i.e.
anglesto tle earth'ssurface; whenthe altitudeis
glassto the frame. 90" .
Index error. It is dueprimarily to ^ackof paral- Parallax. It is the angleat thecenterof thebody,
lelism of the index mirror and the horizon glassat subtendedby line from the centerof the earthto the
zeroreading. observer'seye. The applicationof this correction
changesthe altitudeobservedat the observer'spo-
Error of colimation. It is dueto the line of sight
sitionon tle surfaceof the earth,to thealtitudeasit
through the telescopenot parallel to the plane of would be observedfrom tle centerof the earth.
the instrument.
Parallaxis maximum when the body is on the
TIIEHORIZONS horizonand zerowhenaltitudeis 90".
Ylsible or Apparent Horizon is the line where
Semi-diameter.In caseof thesunandthemoon,
earthand sky appearto meet.It is the circle which
it is easierand moreaccurateto take the altitudeof
boundsthe observer'sview of the eafil's surfacein
the upperor lower limb of the disc ratherthan esti-
a clear aElosphere.
mate tle position of the centerof the disc. A cor-
SensibteHorizon. A planewhichpasses through rection must in this casebe applied to obtain the
the observer'seyeand is at right anglesto the verti- altitude of the center of the body.
cal of the observer.
Semi-diametercorrectionis positiveto an ob6er-
Celestialor Rational Horizon. A plane which vationof thelowerlimb, andnegativeto an observa-
passes throughthecenterbf theearth,andis at right tion of the upperlimb.
anglesto the observer'sVertical.The rationalhori-
zon is parallelto the$msible horizon. Augmentadon.It is the apparentincreasein tle
semi-diameterof a celestialbody as its altitudein-
Geoidal Horizon. A plane which is tangentto creases.due to the reduced distance from the ob
theearth. server.The term is usedprincipally in referenceto the
moon.Angular semi-diameteris greatestwhen the
CORRECTION OF ALTITUDFS altitudeis 90" andleastwhenaltitudeis zero.
The altituderequiredfor navigationalcomputa-
tions is the true alti\ude. This is the angle at the Sun Star/Planct toon
centerof the earthbetweena line joining theearth's lndexEnor -ve On -v9 On -vo On
centerand the centerof the heavenlybody' and the +ve , Oll +ve Olf +ve Ofl
planeof the observer'srational horizon. Dip -ve ' -ve -ve
Relraction - v 9 ' *: -ve
The following correctionsmust be applied to the
Seni-Dianetel-ve U.L. +e or +vb"
observeddtitude to obtain the true altitude. +ve L.L. atleraugmentaiion
Dip. It is the angleat the observer'seyebetween Parallax +v0 ln Allilude+veob-
tainedby reducing
the planeof the sensiblehorizon and a line joining the equalorialpar-
the obsetver'seye and the visible horizon. Dip is allax& multiplying
alwaysnegative. by Cos.Allitude.

DIP = 0.98 .tr-3. in fe€t

220 Celestial Navigation

 z

o\(
,u
SENSIBLE
\ 3

GEOIDAL \. ( l{oRtzoN
L
"1" T\r?** ,..o*'-o*

v
CELESTIAL ,/.1
,/t'\
/ z \
/ \

B'
/ epouErncn I
B'
\,r'u,.,r* lntrtzoN,/^.
c'

Na

THE HORIZONSUSED IN NAVIGATION

Celestial Navigation 221

 CELESTIAL NAVIGATTON
1. Abodyobaervedhaving an azinruthof270 deg.Twould:
u. Be at your zenith c. Be on the horizon
b. Alwaysbe settirrg d. Give an LOP that deterrrines)our longitude

2. While steeringa courseof 247 deg.t, you wish to observethe sun for a latitudecheck.What would
the azimuthhaveto be:
a. 247 deg. b. 270 deg. r,. p 0eg. d. 067 deg.

3. In determiningan assumedlongitudewhich of the following statementsis/arecorrectwhen in east

longitude?
a. The DR longitudeis roundedoff in wholedegreesto determinethe assumedlorrgitude.
b. The no. of minutesand secondsof the assumedlongitudeplus the minutesand secondsof the
GHA of the bodymust equalto 60.0 minutes
c. bothaand b
d. neithera nor b

4. What is the nameof the sextantaltitudecorrectionthat compensates for the fact that the observeris
on the surfaceof the earthratherthan at the center?
a. Augmentation c. Dip
D. Parallax d. Deflectionof the vertical

5. The main body correctionfor the sun is a correctionfor:

a. Parallax D. Semi-diameter c. Both a andb d. Neithera nor b

6. Which of the following correctionscorrectsa sightedsextantangle (Hs) from the visible to the
sensiblehorizon?
a. Index "r:r b. Dip c. Refraction d. Main body correction
,
7. Which of the following correctionsis not appliedto a sight of a star?
a. Parallax b. Refraction c. Index error d. Dip

8. Which of the following correctionsis appliedto the sextantaltitudeof a star?

c. Semi-diameter b. Parallax c. Augmentation d. Refraction

9. A high altitudesight of a heavenlybodyis or canbe advanced

by:
a. Advancing the assumedposition the correctdistanceparallel to your cDurseand re-plot your
intercefl
b. Advancingthe geographicalpositionand re-drawingthe circle at the correctradius
c. Advancingthe line from whereit crossesyour coursethe correctdistance& re-drawa sraight
line
d. Nl of these

10. Parallaxis an errorcausedby:

a. Height ofeye abovesealevel
b. Being on the surfaceof the earth rather than at the centerof the eartl
c. Instjumenterror
d. Refrdttion

222 Celestial Navigation

11. The apparentincreasein thc semi-diafiIeterof a bodyas it risesis:
c. Semi-diameter D' Augmentation c. Refraction d. Irradiation

12. A bodyobservednearthe zenithwouldhave:

a. Minimum error dueto Parallax c. Both a and b
b. Minimum error due to refraction d. Neithera nor b

13. In latitude28 deg.S,the sun'sdeclinationis 0 deg,whatwill be the approximateazimuthon rising?

c. 090" D. 118" c. 062" d' 0'16"
observer's
L4 A method of latitude computation when a selectedcelestial body is near or close to the
meridianfonning meridianangleof limited arc not to exceed 15 deg. or one hour is called:
a. Meridional zenith discance c. Ex-meridianaltitude
b. M.N. method d. All of these
bending
15. When the light ray passesobliquelyfrom one mediuminto anotherof differentdensity,the
of light ray is called:
a. Parallax D. Height of eP c. Reftaction d.hP

perpendicularto thefrane
16. The error in a sextantwhich could be causedby the horizon glassnot being
of the instrument is called:
a. Enor of PerPendicularitY c. Side error
b. Sight error d. Index error

is called:
1 7 . Usually representedas the anglebetweenthe visible and the sensiblehorizon
a. parallax b. Dio c. Refraction d. Height of eye

ofthe earth
1 8 . The differencebetweenposition ofheavenly body when viewed from a point on surface
day is called:
and its position whenviiwed from the centerof the earthwhich variestlroughout the
a. Diurnalparallax b. Equator c' T.r:mth d' Horizontalparallax

t9. An instrument for teachingand learning relative positionsof heavenlybodiesis called:

a. Astroscope D. Sextant c. Rainbow d' Eclipse

20. Mountedat the endof the index arm whereit engagesthe teethof thc limb is called:
a. Thngentscrew b. Horizon glass c. Drum screw d' Indexarm

and its
21. The differencebetweenthe altitude of a celestialbody as measuredfron the earth's surface
altitude as measuredfrom a plane which passesthrough the earth's center:
a. Dip D. Refraction c. Height of ep d' Parallax

"ON TTIE ARC" hasa:

2.\. A sextantthat hasan
a. Semi-diametererror c. Negative error
b. Pmitive error d. Dip error

2 3 . When taking star sights,thosebodiesto the eastandwestwill:

a. Changealtitude rapidly c. Remainalmost fix
b. Changealtinrdeslowly d. Appearto moveon the planeof the horizon

24. An altitude of center of a heavenlybody wben measuredfrom sensiblehorizon is called:

a. Greenwicb b. Azimuth c. Apparentaltitude d. Twilight

Celestial Navigation 223

25. A position obtainedby observationof celestial bodiesis cdled:
a. DR position D. Assumedposition c, Obsen'edposition d. Estimated position

26. The meridian passageentry ftr the sun on 6e daily pageof the Nautical Almanac lists:
a. Only GMT of MP D. The LMT of MP c. Only the zone time of MP

27. Starsmove westwardaroundthe earth at:

a. 15 deg.2.5min. per second c. 15 deg.2.5 min. per hour
D. 15 deg.2.5 min. per day d. 15 deg.2.5min. per minute

28. In order to determinethe azimuth of the sun, the navigator shoulduse:

a. Thealmanac c. Specialazimuthtable
b. Table229 d. Vol. I of 2t1:9

29. A position usedto simplify the wo,rkof computing H.C. and azimuth within the radius of 4Omiles
from DR position:
a. Observedposition b. Assumedposition c. Fix position d. Estimatedposition

30. The differencebetweenthe directions of an object when it is viewed from two placesis:
a. Refraction b. Reflection c. Parallax d. Asteroids

31. Lights from a bodyreachingthe earthhasto passtlrough the earth'saunosphere,and in doing so,that
body appearsto be higher. This is due to:
a. Semi-diameter D. Parallax c. Truealtitude d. Refraction

32. The chrononet€ris gainingif the:

a. Error has gone from slow to more slow c. Error has gone from slow to less slow
D. Error has gone from fast to less fast d. Error has gone from fast to slow

33. Time basedupon the true position of the sunasdistinguishedfrom meantime which is measuredby a
fictitious sunmoving at a uniform rate is called:
a. Tnne time b. Civil time c. Siderealtime d. Apparenttime

34. The chronometeris losing il

a. The error has gone from slow to fast
D. The error has gone from fast to lessfast
c. The error has gone from fast to more fast
d. T\e error has gone from slow to less slow

35. Standardtime appliedat seaaccordingto the zonewhich is 15 deg.or onehour is:

a. Apparenttime D. Civil time c. Zone time d. Mean time

36. Time reckonedat eachparticular placesfrom an epochdeterminedby the local convenienceis called:
a. I.cr,alapparenttime c. I-rcal civil time
b. Tnne ume d. I,cr'almean time

37. The anount gainedor lost by chronometerin unit of time usuallyby secondsto minutes per day is:
a. Chronometer effor D. Daily rate c. l.apse rate d. Prismatic error

38. The differencebetweenthe time indicatedby the chronometerand the GMT is:
a. Chronometer error b. Standarderror c. Magnetic eror d. Compasserror

224 CelesrtalNavigation
39. A delicatetime pieceusedto indicatethe GMT is called: /
d. Stop watch b. Chronograph c. Chronometer d. Time signal

40. An instrument that recordstime with Astronomicalaccuracyis called:

a. Hygrometer D' Hydrometer c. Chronometet d' Clinometer
This inclina-
41. Theearth'saxishasa fxed inclinationfrom a line perpendicularto the planeof theorbit.
don is equalsto:
a. 23 dig.27 min' D' lradian c' 66'75 deg' d' 3j'4159

principles in the con-

42. Reflectedangle is equal to the angle of incidenceis one of the three optical
struction of a:
a. Sextant b. Pelorus c. Compass d. Cryrocompass

43. The bestheavenlybody o dserve for longitude is the:

a. Srm b. Moon c. Star d. Venus

M. The best time to observefor longitude is when the sun is on or near the:
a. Prime vertical D. Horizon c' Solstices d' Equinoxes

45. The constructionof sextantis basedon the following laws of reflection of light:
a. Reflectedangle is equalto the angleof incidence'
perpendicularto the plane
b. The incident ray and reflectedray both occuron the sameplanewhich is
of the reflecting mirrors.
the angleformed
c. when ray of lig-ht is reflectedtwice in the sameplaneby nro planemirrors, then
by the first ani seconddirection of the ray is nvice the angle betweenthe plane of the mirrors.
C. All of these

46. The circle boundingthe observer'sview at seais the;

a. Visible horizon b' Rational horizon c' Twiligbt d. None of these

small circle of the

47. The part of the celestial spherewhich is visible to an observerand boundedby
celestial spherewhich is plrpendicular to the direction of the observer'szenith is called:
a. Sensiblehorizon c. Altitude circle
b. Parallel of altitude d. None of these

known as:
48. The sextanterror which is causedby faulty marking of the limb on Vernier is
a. Graduationerror b. Prismatic error c. Eccentric error d. Index error

deg.to get your 2(

49. The methodin which you observethe true altitude of the sunand subtractfrom 90
is:
then applying your declination either plus or minus to get your observelatitude
c. Ex-meridian c' lnngitude factor
b. {eridional zenith distance d' None of these

and minus 12
50. The time measuredby hour angleof the meansun plus 12 hoursif lessthan 12 hours
hoursif more than 12 hours.
a. Apparenttime b. Siderealtime c. Meantime d. None of these

meridian westwardto
51. The time measuredon celestial equatorfrom Lower branch of the observer's
hour circle through the sun from 0H ta24H'
a. Lm,almean time b. Tnne ume c. Local apparenttime d' sidereal time

Celestial Navigation 225

52. The time reckonedalong the celestialequatorfrom the lower branchof Greenwichmeridian west-
ward to hour circle throughthemeansun.
a. Greenwichmeantime c. L,ocalapparenttime
b. Tnne ume d. L,x,al mean time

53. The time usedby i$tronomersand is determinedby the position of the frst point of Aries in the
celestialsphereis tie:
a. Siderealtime D. Greenwichtime c. L,ocaltime d. Apparenttime

54. Time reckonedby the motion of the meansun with respectto the specifiedgeographicallocationis
called:
a. Civil time b. Mean time c. Znne time d. Apparenttime

55. Underwhat conditionwill the sunrise bearingtrueeast?

a. Whentle observeris exactlyon theequatorand the sun'sdeclinationis 0 deg.
D. When the observeris exactlyon tle equatorand the sun'sdeclinationis 23 deg.27 min. N.
c. When the observeris exactlyon the equatorand the sun'sdeclinationis 23 deg.27min. S.
d. When the observeris in Lat. 23 deg.27 min. N andthe sun'sdeclinationis 23 deg.2'1min. N.

56. When the sunis at the vernalequinox,the velocifyabovethe earthis 900 milesper hour.Wbat would
be the velocitywhen it reachesthe summersolstice?
a. 825.66miles per hour c. 823.66miles per hour
b. 825.80miles per hour d. 852.00miles per hour
Solution:
RATE = 900 miles per hour x CosMax Dec.
= 900 milesper hour x Cos23" 27'
= 825.66miles per hour

57. The navigatorobservedthe planetVenusat 90" altitude,declinationis 22" 37.6'N and the GHA is
208" 14.3'.Computeits longitude.
a. I5l" 45.7'E b. l5l" 54.7'E c. 151"46.0'E d. Noneof these
Solution:
Theplanet is at the Zenith(AIt. 90") and at the sametime at UpperTransit.TheLHA of
the body at UpperTransitis 360" 00'.
LHA = 360"00.0'
GHA 208"14.3'(-)
Long - l5l" 45.7'E

58. The navigatorobservedthe planetVenusat 90" aldode, declinationis 22" 37.6' N and the GHA is
208" 14.3'.Computethe l.atitude of the observer.
a. 22" 37.6'N b. 22" 37.8'N c. 67"22.4'N d. 67"22.8'N
Solution:
SpecialRelatbnship: Thebodyis at thefunith at UpperTransitwhenl^atitudeandDec-
lination are of samznameand numcricallyequal.
Dec. is 22" 37.6'N
Lat. is 22" 37.6'N

59. Whenthe observeris at the equator,the sun'sdec.is 12" N. The approximatebearingof the sunwhen
rising is:
a. 078" b. 102" c. 012" d. 168"

226 Celestial Navigation

 Solution:
Tlw body risesand setsvertically to an obsemer (riglrt splwre).
90" t Dec. =' Azimuth.
90o - Dec. 12" = 7,n078"

60. An instrumenAl observationof the sun or other heavenlybodiesfm determining the position of the
vesselat sea"
a. Sight b' Sigbtrane c. Sightedge d' Sightenry

61. On a meridian transit, the differencebetweenyour curputed position to that of the observedposition
is called:
a. Ausmnalequinox c' IntercePt
b. Parallax d. Vemal equinox

62. A position usedto simplify the work of computing H.C. and azimuth within the radius of 40 miles
from dead reckoning Position.
a. Obcervedposition c. Estimatedposition
D. Assumed position d' Fix position

63. In what latitude could the midnight sunbe seenat the horizon when its declination is 22" N?
a. Lat. 78" N b. I'lrt.zz" N c' Lat. 58'N d. L^at.68" N
Solution:
WhznDec. and Lat. are of swtw name,and Dec. + lat. = 90", thc body is at tlu horizon
at lower transit.

il. Colored glassof different shadeswhich is usedseparatelyor in courbinationto prot€ct the eyefrom
intenselight of the sun.
a. Reflecting glass b. shadeglass c. Honizonglass d. Index glass

65. When the equationof time is takenfrom the Nautical Almanac for the usein celestialobservation,it
is usedto determine:
a. Lu,almean time D. Sunrise c. Tnne tine d. L&Ll apparentnoon

66. The error causedby refraction increasesas the:

a. Obsen'er'sILE. increases.
D. Horizontal parallax @creases.
., c. Hrmridity of the atmospheredecreases.
d. Altitude ofthe bodYdecreases.

67. The difference of Latitude (l) betweenthe GeographicalPosition (GP) and your position, at the time
of upper transit is rePresentedbY:
a. D. Colatitude c. Altitude d. codistance
.Tsfithdisance
68. In order to rcmove index error ftom the sextant,you should adjustthe:
a. Index mirror and horizon glassto makeit parallel when index arm is setto zero.
D. Horizon ghss to make it parallel to the sextantfrane.
c. Telescopeto make it parallel to the index arm'

69. While steeringa oourse150" T, you wish to obs€rvethe sun for speedcheck,what would the azimuth
to be?
a. 060oT ,. 090'T c. ?A" T d. 150"T

CelesrtalNavigation x27
70. You are steering 238" T. To check the courseof your vesselyou should observea celestial body on
whichbearing?
a. 1t0"T b. 238"T c. 138"T d. 328"7

71. The dateis the sameall overthe world at:

a. 1200 GMT c. 1200LMT ro an oherver in Long. 90"
,. finO GMT d. In no time

72. If the GMT is 1500,rhetime ar Long. 75oE is:

a. 1500
b. 1700 cMT 15 00
c.2000 D -5(rev)
d. 1000 IJvff 20 00

73. The centralmeridian fm the placewith zonedescriptionof -l is:

a. 7" 3O'E b. 7" 3O'W c. 15"00'E d. 15"00'W

74. The centralmeridian for the placewith zonedescriptionof +1 is:

a. 15" 00'W ,. 15"00'E c. 7" 30'E d. 7" 30'W

75. Find the geographiclongitudeof a bodyat meridiantransit whoseGHA is 215" l5'.

a. 35"15'E
b. 35" 15'W 360" 00'
c. 14/." 45'E GHA 215" 15'
d. 144" 45'W LOII 144"45'E

76. The DR Latitudeis 46" 11.3'N. Whenassuminga position,the latitudeto be selectedis:

a. 46" 11.3'N b. 6" 00.0' N c. 46" 30.0'N d. 47" 00.0'N

77. At the time of observation,the sunhada GHA of 95". Theobserver'slocal apparenttime was 1500H.
The GrIA of Aries was 190". Find the LHA of the sun.
a. 45" 00'
,. 50" 00' L.A.T 1500
c. 315"00' L.A.N. - t2 00
d. 360" 00' DIFF = 3Hx15"
= 45"

78. The zonetime in Long. 169" 25'W was llH 30M 27S.Find the local meanrime.
a. llH l2M27S
,. llH 00M 47S rcNETIME llH 3OM27S
c. llH 08M 27S TIMEDIFF. - 17M 4OS
d. nH rzM 47S L.M.T. llH tzM 475

228 Celestial Navigation

 MERCATOR CIIART CONSTRUCTION
l. yqr must cmtruct a Mercator Projcctionfa an areaboundedby Lat. 40pNto 47"N and L.ong.176"8
O 176-lV 6rl a paperwith a sizeof 30" x 3t". What will be the separationbetweenmeridians?Allow 1-
ircb margin ouaide the neatline.
30"-2'=?3"
38 -2" =36"
Sdution:
l'arL47" mp = 3185.7 I-ong. 176" 00' E
L*..4O" mo =?'60il.7 Lmc. 176" 00' W
DmP= 57t'0 Dlo = 8" 00'
x 60'
--8O-

DMP is longer than the DLO. We use28" for the DLO and 36" fr the DMP.
Disr betweenmeridians = 28 inches = 3.5 lnchcs
m"&-
To find disances betrveenlatiodes:
Multiplbr = 36 inches= 0.6228 inches
578
Latitude MeridionalPara
40" 2.6,07.7
41" 26t6.3
42" 2766.1
43" 2E47.2
u" 2929.6
45" 3013.5
46" 3098.8
47" 3185.7
Latiudes DMP Dist.Bet.Lat.
40" to 41" = 7t.6 x o.M22t" = 4.89"
41" to 42" = 79.8 x 0.06228 = 4.97'
42" to 43" = 81.1. x 0.M22E" = 5.05"
43" to Uo = t2.4 x 0.0622E" = 5.13"
Uo to 45" = t3.9 x o.0622t" = 5.22"
45" to 46" = E5.3 x 0.0622t" = 5.31"
46" to 47" = 86.9 x 0.0622E" = 5.41"

NavigationProblems xE)
 LUMINOUS NANGE IN SEA MIT"€SN PNEVAILINCVISIIIIITY
P U . 6 0 . 6 F ; l l g

z d
g5
z ( 4
P d
3
z D
F
nz
2 \ J
o l-t
m
Dr-
= Y
F >
tsO

":"t{l
 VISIBILITY OF LIGHTS
To computeyourGEOGRAPHICRANGE,useBowditchTable8 orby the formula:
DIST = l.l'Hfi where:
DIST = distancein miles
[ = height of eyeor
heightof light
RULE 1
When the visibility is l0 miles (clearweather)comparethe nominalrangewith thecomputedgeographic
range.Whichevervalueis lessis the distanceat which the light canbe seen.

RULE 2
Whenthe visibility is otherthanl0 miles,determinethe luminousrangeby usingtheLUMINOUSRANGE
DIAGRAM. Comparethe luminousrangewith the computedgeographicrange.Whichevervalueis lessis
the distanceat which the light can be seen.

Nominal Range-That maximumdistanceat which a light canbe seenunderatmosphericconditionsof 10

mile visibility.
conditionsof
Luminous Range-That maximum distanceat which a light can be seenunderaUnospheric
the existingvisibilitY.

GeographicRange- That maximum distanceat which a light canbe seendependentupon your height of
eyeand the elevationof the light. Beyondthis distancethe curvatureof the earthblocksthe line of sight.

EXERCISES:
l. What is the geographicvisibility of a light with a heightabovewaterof 70 feet,for an observerwith a
height of eye of 65 feet?
a- 16.8 miles c. 18.8miles
b. 22.4 miles d. 20.5 miles
Solution: From Table8 (Distanceof the Horizott)
Ht. of light 70 tl. = 9.6 miles
Obs.H.E. 65 ft. = + 9.2 miles

Z. BeckerPointlight is I l0 feethigh andhasa nominalrangeof 11miles.Yourheightof eyeis 35 feet.

What is themaximumdistanceat which the ligbt canbe seenin clearweather?
a- 11.0miles c. 18.8miles
b. 13.8miles d. 20.0 miles
Solution : Clear weather is l0 mile visibility.
From Table 8: Ht. of eye 35 feet = 6.8 miles
Ht. of Lt. 110feet = + 12.0 miles
Geog. range = 18.8 miles
Nominal range - I1"0 mile.s

Navigation Problems 231

 3. WashingtonPoint Lt. is 134 feethigh and hasa nominal rangeof 20 miles.Your height of eye is 49
feet.What is the maximumdistanceat which the light canbe seenin 5 mile visibility?
a- 10.0 miles c. 20.0 miles
b. 12.0 miles d 21.3 miles
Solution : From Thble 8
Ht of eye49 feet = 8.0 miles
Hr of Lt. 134 feet = +13.3 miles
Geog.range = 21.3 miles
Nominalrange = 20.0 miles
NewLuminousrange = 12.0 miles---(For 5 mile vis)

4. What is the maximum distancea light can beseenin 5 mile.svisibility if the nominal rangeof the light
is 24 miles?
a. 13.8 miles c. 15.0 miles
b. 14.5 miles d 14.3miles
Solution:
Noninal Rangeis 24 miles and the visibility is 5 miles.The intersectionin the LuminousRange
Diagramwill be 13.8miles.

5. Youpick up a light that hasa nominal rangeof 14 miles at a distanceof 9 miles. Your H.E. is 36 ft
What is the approximatemeteorologicalvisibility?
L 5 miles c. 20 miles
b. 10 miles d. 2 miles
Solution:
NominalRangeis 14 miles and the LuminousRangeis 9 miles.The intersectionin the Luminous
RangeDiagralnwill be 5 miles visibility.

6. You are approachingCapeBojeadorand the Captain tells you that the visibility is 20 mites. Nominal
rangeof the light is 27 miles and the heightof the light is 133feet.Your H.E. is 50 feer thv far can
)0u seethe light?
a 21.3 miles c. 20 miles
b. 27.0 miles d 50.0 miles

Solution:
Itreightof light 133 feet = 13.2miles
Itreightof elr 50 feet = + 8.1 miles
CieographicRange = 21.3 miles
NominalRange = 27.0 miles
LuminousRange = 46.0 miles

232 NavigationProblerus
 COMFASSDEVIATION
fuiy courseor bearing can be denotedusing any of thesethree directions of North.
Thue C-rrrrseor Beerlng. The angle at the observerbetweenthe direction of True North and the direc-
tion being measured,measuredclockwisefrom North.
Magnedc Corse or Bearlng. The angle at the obs€rverbetweenthe direction of the magneticmerid-
ian and the direction being measured,measuredclockwisefrom North'
CompessCourse or Bearlng. The angle at the observerbetweenthe direction of compassnorth and
the direction being measured,measuredclockwiseftom North.
The angle indicatedby the compassis the compassconrseor bearing and this must be colrectedto true
courseor bearing before use.
If the compasserror is west, the compasscourseor bearing will be greater than the '.nrc courseor
bearing andtf east, the compasscourseor bearingwill be lessthan the true courseor bearing.

D(AMPLE 1. Your vesselis steering197" PSC,variationfu the areais 7"8, and deviation is 4"W. The
wind is ftromwest,producinga2" leeway.What is the truecoursebeingmadegood?

SOLUTION: CORRECTING
= f
C
D
197"
-4"W
/t
M
V
= 193"
+7"E wlt{D
w
H
/ t
T = 2 0 { J "
LnN
CMG =
-2"
198"7
4
J.l"
3)(AMPLE 2. You desire to make good a true courseof 129". The variation is 7"E, deviation is 4"8, and
gyrocompasserror is 2"W. An easterlywind producesa 4" leeway.What is the courseto steerper standard
compassto make good the true course?
SOLUTION: T NCORRECTING
T = 129"
v -7"E WIND
= E
M 122" fi4'
D .4"E +-
tlc'
C = 118"
L/W 4"
cTs = 114" PSC

3;I1AMPLE3. Youare steering154" PGC.The wind is southwestcausing4" Ieeway.The gyro error is 3"8,
variation11"W and deviation7"8. What is the true coursemadegood?
Answer:CourseMade Gmd is 153"7

Navigation Problems 233

EXERCISES:
1 Tbe chartindicatesthat the truebearingof a rangeis 355".Whenyour vesselis lined up on the range
and steady,you noteyour compassheadingis 000". What is the compasserror?
a- 5"E c. 5"W
b. 10" w d. 10" E

2. Your true oourseis 232". The variation forthe locality is 4" E. What is the deviation of a compass
when the oompasscourseis 235" ?
a- 4"W c. 7"W
b. 17" E d 3"E

3. Enrouteftom Valparisoto Callao, the true courseis 005". Variation is 13"8, deviation is 4"W. A NW
wind produces5" leeway.Which of the ff. courseswould you steerPSCto makegood the true course?
a- 351" c. 009"
b. 001" d 019"

4. A range in line is observedbearing 178 PGC.The chartedbearingof the range is 175 True. What
coursewould you steerper gyro compassto headdirectly on the range?
L 172 c. 178"
b. L75" d 181"

5. True courseis 116".A SW wind causes2" lecway.Variationis 11"E. A portionof the deviationtable
readsas follows for magneticheadsbetweeneastand south.
Ship's HeadMagnetic Deviation
090' 2.0"8
105" 2.0"8
120" 3.0"8
I 35" 3.0"8
I 50" 3.0"8
165" 2.0"8
190" 1.0"8
Which of the ff. courseswould you steerPSC to make good the true course?
a- 101"PSC c. 105"PSC
b. 103"PSC d 107"PSC

6. Courseis 178"True,variation is 11"8, deviationis 2"W, the wind is WSW, leeway3". What PSC
coursewould you steerto make good the true course?
a" 169" PSC c. 191"PSC
b. 166'PSC d 172" PSC

7. A vesselis heading110" PSC.Variationfor the localeis 9"E, deviationis 5"W. A lighthouse@ars

225" PSC.The deviationon a headingof 225" is 2"W. Determinethe ompass error.
t 7"8 c. 3"W
b. 4"8 d 7"w

234 Navigation Problems

8. A vessel'scoumeis 169" PGC. Tbe variation fa the locallty is22" E. Tbe deviation is 4" Ul, gyrc
eror is 3" E. What is the true course?
a. 161"T c. 169"T
b. 166"7 d" L72"7

g. A vesselis heading 223" rcC The variation of the locality is 13" W. The deviatiotris 3" E, GE is 2"
E. Wind is NW, leewayis 2". What is the true coursemadegood?
L 223"7 c. 227"7
b. 225"7 d 237"7

10. The true coursebetweentwo points is 119". Your g5lrooompasshaqan error of 3" E and you should
nake an allowanceof 4o leewayfa a SSWwind. What gyro aoune shCItldbe steered30make Sood
the tnre oourse?
a 120" PGC c. 112" PGC
b. 126" PGC d 118" PGC

ll. Tomakegoodlrorrdesiredcourse youar€st€ering l42"PC'f,..A SWlywindiscausing3"leewayand

there is l" E gyro error. The rrariation is 8" W. What course$ould ),ou steerby sandard magnetic
cqnpass o make good the desired course?

Devlrdon lbblc
MagnericHeading Deviation

t20" 4" E
135" 2"8
150" 0"

a. 133" c. 148"
b. 146" d. 151"

lZ. The true oourseftom point A to point B is 317". A SSWwind causesa 4" leewry variation 6o W and
deviation is 1" E. What is the coune to steerto make gmd the rue course?
a. 326" PSC c. 313" PSC
b. 31t" PSC d. 308" PSC

13. While enrqrte from Sydneyto the PanamaCanal a vessel'strue courseis 071"' Variatim is 14" E.
DerriAion is 4" W. A north trff,rze causes2" leeway.What courseworld yur steer PSC in order to
mate gPodtbe tnte course?
& 059" PSC c. 079" PSC
b. (b3" PSC d 061" Psc

14. yo|t want to make gmd a true courseof 137". A NNE wind producesa 3" leeway.The variation is 11"
good the
W deviation is 5" E and G/E is 2" E. What coursemust you steerper g),rocompasstromake
tnre ourse?
& 132"FGC c. 136" PCIC
b. 134"FGC d. l3t" PGC

NavigationProblems 285
 COMPASSDEVIATION BY AZIMUTH
1. Avesselinposition45"22'Nant'125"10'Eobservedthesunbearing 229" PSC.Declinationis2"54'
S and LHA is 65" 27'. If nariatiqr of the locality is UtE wbat is the deviationof the sandard corr-
pa*s?
a 3"8 c. 5"8
b. 30w d 5"w
Sdutim: ByABC
A = TANL{T x C:OTHA AisnamdoppositetolatexceptwhenHout
= HN45"22'x CUT65"27' AngbisbetweengO"and270"
= 0.463S
B = TAN DEC x COSECIIA B is alwaysnanredthesanr asthe
= TAN 2"54' x COSEC65"27' Dctnatin
= 0.056S
C = A + B
= 0.4635+0.056S T ZSO"
= 0.519 S V 24"8(-)
COTZ{ = C x CpSL/y[ M 226"
= 0.519 x COS45"22' D 3"Vir(+)
= 0.364 C 22g.
A\f = S 70"W or 250PT

2. A vesselin pooition 37"36'N and 047"50"1Vobservedtbe ster Atpheratzbearing 2t9.5" PSC.Decli-

nation is 28"59.1'NandLHA is 41"10.4'.If the variationof the locality is 22.5"W, what is the devia-
tion of the sandard compass?
a- 2"W c. 2"8
b. 1"8 d l"w
Sdrnim: ByABC
A
: ffi,:Hi Hff,oo
B
: ffitt,,i 3ilft,'*
c i**
: il;::l
c'rz\:[***:3:'#"
268.2T
ffi
C 2E9.5"

86 Navigation Problems
 COMPASSDEVIATION BY AMPLITUDE
l. A vesselon DR position36"10Nand(D8"20'Wdem/ed thesun'sbearingon sunriseto be 112"
PSC.Declinationof thesunis 3o17.1'S andtherariatim of thelocalityis l8'tv.
Findtbedeviaionof tbestandardcompass.
a- l"W c. 5"W
b. 0" d, 3"w
Solution:
SINAMPL = SINDEC / COS Ll(t T 094"
= SIN 3"17.1'l COS36"10' V f8"fV (+)
= 0.070E M ll2"
e E4"S or094"T D 0 "
c ll2"

2. A vesselo DR position30o45'Sand 166"15'Wobcervedthe stm'sbearingon $mlet to be 230" PSC.

Declinatim of the sun is22"12.7'S and the variation of the locdity is 16" E. Find tbe deviuion of the
standardompass.
a 3"W c. 3"E
b. 2 "w d. 2"8
Solution:
SINAI{PL = SINDEC / COSI.Ar T U3.9"
= SIN22" 12.7'l COS30"45' V 16.0"8(-)
= 0.43997 M 227.9"
= !V 26.1"S or D 2.1'lV(+)
u3.9" T c 230.0"

NavigationProblems 237
 SOLUTION OF TRIANGLES
CASE L When one angle of tbe triang : ib a right angle and the nro other factsare given. me being a side.
Sin A = OPP
HYP
Cos A ADJ
HYP
Thn A OPP
ADJ ANGLESA+ B+C = ltOp

RECIPROCAIJ COMPLEMFNTS
SINE & COSECANT SINE & COSINE
COSINE& SECANT SECA}IT&COSECANT
TANGENT &COTANGENT TANGENT&CI}TAI{CENT

CASE 2.When threesidesare given.

CosA= V+C-a2
,b"

CASE 3. Whennro sidesandan

inchded angle are A
given.
c2= a2 + b2 -2abCosC
After the 3rd side is found we can use tbe SINE RULE:
a = [ = c
SinA SinB SinC

CASE 4. When one side and two anglesare given.

A I . I G [ , E A + B + C 180"
AI{GLE C = 1t0'- (A + B)
To find one side, for exampleside b:
[ = aSinB
Sin A

CASE 5. When nuo sidesand the oppositeone of thesesidesare given.

SinA= aSinB

2S Navigation Problems
 RIGHT PLAI{E TNNNGLE
l. When the sun hasa oertainaltihrde, it is noticed that a tower castsa shadow100 feet long at the sarne
time as a pole 5 feet high castsa shadow6 ft. 3 incheslong. Find the height of the tower.
a 80.40 Fet
,tr1f
b. 80.(X Fet
c. 79.81 Fet
d. t1.79 ftet
Solution: 100' 6'V'
TAI.I0=OPP/ADJ ADJ =OPP/TANe
-- 6.25'15' = 100'/TAN 51.34"
= 51.34" = 80.0feet.

2. A vesselis steamingtrue nortb at 12 kts. TWobeaconsA and B were in rangebearing true east.One
bour larcr, bemn A bore 160'T and beaconB bore 140'T. Find the distancebetweenthe 2 beacons.
a. 5.702miles
b. 10.070miles
c. 5.902miles
d. 4.36Emiles
Solution:
OPP= ADJx TAN 0
Y = l2)x TAN 40"
Y = 10.07'
-y = l.tC_ W = 12'x TAN20"
[ = 5.71' W = 4.36'

3. From the top of a cliff 200 ft. high, the angleof depressionof ship A is 30", and that of ship B is 45'
Find the distancebetweentle ships, if they are on the samebearing.
a W.4 ft.
b. 2m.0ft.
c. 146..4tt.
d. 17t.6 ft.
Solution:
W = ?,N ft. x Tan 60"
= 346.4 ft ,U

X = ?.0Oft. x Thn 45"

= 200.0 ft"
-fl
Y =W-X
= 346.4ft. - 200.0ft.
= l$.4 ft.

Navigation Problems ?39

 DISTANCEBY VERTICAL ANGLE
EXAMPLE l. You wish to round a lighthouseno lessthan 1.8miles. The heightof the lighthouseis 312
feet.Requiredthe angleto placein the sextant.

SOLUTION:
Hr of Light = ?12 fL or 0.0513miles
TAll AIVGLE = Hr of Lt. /Dist.
= 0.0513/ 1.8
= 0.0285
= l"?7.9' l.cn
EXAMPLE 2.TM vertical anglebenveenthe baseand the summit of a lighthousesitnated200 ft. abovesea
level was0"57. Requiredthe dislancefrom the base.

SOLUTION:
DISTANCE = Ht. of Light / Tan angle
= 200 ft. / Thn 0"57'
= 12,061.16
ft. / 60t0 ft. per n.m.
= 1.9n.m.

E)(AMPLE 3. What will be the vertical angleon your sextrnt for a lighthouse208 ft. higb io pass5 miles
clear of a rock 6 cablesfrom the baseofthe lightbouse?

SOLUTION:
Distance = 5.6n.m.x 60t0ft pern.m.
= 34,048ft.
,ac7f.
TANANGLE = Hr of Light / Disance
= 208 ft. / 34,048 ft
= 0"21'
,.ot o.an
EXAMPI-E 4. Ibw far off is your ship if the vertical angle frromtbe baseof a mountain is 2"15.4' ? Your
sextant'sI.E. is 9.1 on the arc. The heightof the mountainis 265 ft

SOLUTION:
Hs = 2"15'4'
I.E -9.1'on thearc
Corr. = 206.3'
Hr of theMountain = 265ft. /60t0 ft. pern.m.
= 0.0435t5miles
DISTANcE / rim2"M.3'
= lfi,j'liJles
24{l Navigation Probletns
 OBLIQUE PLANE TRIANGLE
1. A vesselin position 422O'N,28"20W stoersa oourseof 118" T at a steadyspeed.After a certain
tine, sbe alten her courseto 062"T and larcr fornd that she arrives in position 42o2O'N,26"12W.
Caloilate tle otal distancerun.
a. 255.13miles
b. 196.37 miles A c
c. 1t5.00 miles
d. 107.16miles
SOLT.TTION:
DEP = DLO x Cos lat
=128xCrs42"20'
= 94.62 miles

For oblique triangle :

a = bx Sin A/SinB c - bx SinC/SinB
= 94.62xSin28"/SinlZ' . 94.62x Sin 28'lSin lZ"
= 53.5t miles . 53.5t milcs
Tkxaldist.=a+c
= 53.58+ 53.58
= 107.16miles

2. Tho vesselsareon the sanemeridian.VcscclB is 10milcoN of A. VcsselB steans148oTat 15krs.

whilevesselA steams018"Tat thesanerpeed.Whatwlll botbclr dlsancewhenonevesselcrosses
thebon,of the otber?
a. 3.9 miles
b. 2.1 miles O
c. 2.9 miles
d" 3.6 miles
SOLUTION:
a = c Sin A/Sin C
= 10 x Sin 18"/Sin130" C
= 4.0 miles lO'

b = c Sin B/Sin C
= l0 x Sin 32"/Sin130"
= 6.9 miles

Dist =b-a
= 6.9 - 4.0
= 2.9 miles

Navigation Problems 24r

 COURSETO STEERTO INTERCEPTA VESSEL
Assrme that a trget vesselis to be iDterceptedand that tbe vesselis on a fixed and known courseand
speed.Also, tbe bearingand disone or rangeof the targetvesselftom your vesselis known.
Determine the coune to steerat your desiredspeedin order to intercept the vesselin rhe sborEst time.
Determine the time it will take to intcrcept.

E (AMPLE : You are enrouteto assistvesselA. Ve.sselA is underwayat 6loots on course 133"T and
bears042T, 105 miles from lour position. Find the cDurseto steer and the time to intqoept if yor are
making 10lnots.

.-y
"9
Q",
ffi.tor'tg
.4d:I.9,?

SOLUTION:
Angle "A" is deftned as Oe angular difference betweel the target vessel'stue coursc and the trtc
bcaring of yur vrssel from the target vessel.
Tre Intcrccpt Angle (Angle C) must be applied 30tbe targetbearing(+/-) in order to determinethe tnu
coursc to steer to interoepion.
ANGLEA = Bearingof Ovn ShipfiomTarget- ThgetOourse
222"r - 133"t
= t9"
SINANGLEC TargetS@xSinAngleA
Own ShipSpeed
6 kts.x Sin89" = 36.86"
---l0kr&

TRI.'ECOI.'RSETO STEER TargetBearing+/- AngleC

MZ"t + 36.t6"
07t.t6T
ANGLE B It0"-(AngleA+Angl€C)
Ito"- 125.86"
54.14"

RI.JNNII.IGTIMB TO INTERCEPT

12.95hoursor l2H 57M

2A NavigationProblems
 BEARING PROBLEMS
I. DOI.JBLETHEANGLE
(the 2nd bearing being double the lst angle from
The distancerun betweenthe lst andthe 2nd trearing
at the time of the 2nd
the direction of movement of the rressel)is equal,trr the distance off the object
bearing.
Bow and Beam (45"'90" or 90"'135")
the distancefrom the
The distancerun betweenthe 45' Wgjgt and the treambearing will tre equal 0o
oV7
objectwhenabeam. :
o4r/
22.5-45.0" (7/10"s Rule)
predicteddistancefrom the
0.7 of the distadcerun between6e tst and 2nd trearingis equal to the
objectwbenabean'
bearingis equalto the
0.7 of the time run betweenthe lst and 2nd bearing,plus the time of the 2nd
predictedtime dueabeam. o.tyl7
30o-60o(7/t's Rule) "."V
predicteddistancefrom the
0.g75 of the distance,un bjt*een the lst and 2nd bearing is equal to the
objectwhenabeam.
is equalto the
0.5 of the time run betweenthe lst and 2nd trearings,plus the time of the 2nd bearing
predictedtime dueabeam.
$'*1'+X
iy'.iu
2.2r..s-4s.o-
2nd and the
The distancerun betweenthe lst and 2nd bearingis equal !o the distancerun betweentbe
beambearing.
The distancerun is also equal to the predicteddistane from the objectwhen abeam'
theobjectat the
1.4timesthe distancerun betweenthe lst and 2nrtbearingis equalto the distancefrom
2ndbearing.
predictedtime
Time run betweenthe lst and 2nd bearingplus thetime of the2nd bearing.is equalto the
dueabeam.
3. OTIIER MISCELLST)OUS SPECIALCASES:
22.5"- 26.5" ,.rrl./,/
The distanc{-#^ wr*een rhe lst and 2nd bearing,multiplied w 2.33 is equalm Oe predicted
distancbftom theobject whgn abeam.
63.5" - 90.0"
from the
The distancerun betweenthe lst andbeambearing,multiplied by 2.00is equalto thedistance
objectwhen abeam.
67.5"-90.0"
distancefrom the
The distancerun betweenthe lst and beambearingmultiplied by 2.4 is equalto the
dject whenabeam.
.71.5"-90.0"
distancefrom the
The distancerun betweenthe lst and beambearing,multipliedby 3.0 is equalto the
objectwhenabeam.

4. NATI.JRALCOTANGENT RULE:
runbetween
Thedistance thelst and2ndbearingis equalto thedistancetiom theobjeclwhenabeam'
Thecotangent of the2ndangle'
of thelst angleminusunity(1.0)equalsthecot'allgent

Navigation Problemr 243

 BEAruNGSAT AITYANGLE

BU = lf,SINa I StN (F-a)

CI) = rtC$Hp

BD = BCCOSp

IX)I'BLING TIIE ANGLE

AB=BC AB=BC
CD = ECSII{p cD = 0t75 AB
DD = BCCOSp BD = (}.$13

AB=db
CD = 0.7 AB
AB=BC
CD=BD

SPECIAL CASE

AB=BD=CI)
CD = 233A8
BC - l.a At

NAE C(}T. N.ULE

AE=Qtr

CoTp = COTa - t.l

D
63.5"& 90": BC = 2AB
67.5"& 90": BC = !.4 43
71.5"& g0": BC = f,tr3

2U Navigation Problems
BEANINGSATAI\YANGLE
EXAMpLE: your vesselis steering263T at 22 knots.At 0413Ha light bears29t"T andat O421Hthe
samelightbears312T. Findthedistance dat 2ndbearingandwhenabeam.
SO{-UTION:
c0. ?53"T CO. 2637 TIL€ 2 BRrG.042l
1 BRG.294"T 2 BRG.312'T TIME I BRG.0413
o =31" F = 49" ST.TII\'IE = tm
c -31" or 0.133h
(F-a) = lt"
AB = DIST.RUN DIST. RLJN = SPD x TIME
BC = DIST.OFF2BRG. 22k|6x 0.133h
CD = DIST.OFFABEAM = 2.93 miles

BC = ABxSINa/SIN(F-a)
= 2.93x SIN31"/SINlt"
= 4.Et miles
CD = BCxSINp
= 4.tEx SIN49"
= 3.69miles

INUBLIIiG TIIE ANGLE

EXAMpLE: Enroutefrom Miami o N. York at a speedof18 kts. and steering347" rc. You dserved a
lighthousebearing3?A"re. at0?/r7E.At 0425H,)ou observethe sarnelighthouseto bear
301" FGC. What is your distanceoff at O{25H?
SOLUTTON:
co. 347"PGC c1). 347"PGC TIME2BRG. 0425
I BRG.3U" PGc, 2 BRG,301"PGC TIME I BRG. 034'I
P =46o ST.TIME 38m
a 0.613h
DISTRUN = SPDXTIME
= lt ta x 0.5t3b
t s = 11.4oilcs
t c l It.t rifas
'Ilo
find the time abeart :
BD = BCxCOSp
= 11.4x CIOS{6"
= 7.9 Filcs
Tffi - tXSTt SfEED
=
=
7.9 / lt kts
I
&lHtU
t
o+rru f
0.44hor 26'{ min.
TIMEABEAM = {}lh 25m + 26.'1min. tffil
= olh 5t.t m

Navig,ationProblems A5
 DOUBLETIIE ANGLE ( 30"-60")
EXAMPLE: On a course197"Tandat a speedof 22ks., at224f,P.a light bears227T. At2324H,sane
lightbears257T. Findth,;distance
offat 2ndbearingandthedistance off andthetimewhen
abeam.
SOLUTION:
co. tg7"T co. tg7"T TIME2 BRG. 2324
1 BRG.227"T 2 BRG.257'T TIME I BRG. 2248
0 , = 3 0 " = 60o ST.TIME = 36m
or 0.6h
DISTRI.JN SPEFD x TIME c
22kts. x 0.6h
AB 13.2miles 2
BC 13.2miles
CD 11.5miles
BD 6.6 miles A o
)r4rl{ 27>1t[
TII\@Annnvt TIME 2 BRG+(TIME RUN x 0.5)
23h?Am+(36mx0.5) AB=BC
23h?t[m+ !8m CD = 9.37543
23h 42m BD = 9.543

DOUBLE TIIE ANGLE (22.5 -45)

EXAMPLE : Yourvesselis on coursel4T at 16kts.At 0126Ha ligbt bears166.5"Tandat 0152H,same
lightbears 189"T.Findthe distanceoffat 2nd bearingand the distanceoffand time when
abeam.
SOLUTION:
co. 14r''.07 co. lu"T TIMEZBRG.Ol52
l BRG. 166.5"7 2 BRG.189"7 TIME I BRG.0126
a = 22.5" F =45" ST. TIME = 26m
or 0.433h
DISTR{JN = SPD x TItvIE
i .r. = 16kts. x 0.433h
AB = 6.9 miles
BC = 6.9 miles
CD = 4.8 miles
BD = 4.E miles ): A
0116ll OI'TH
TIMEABEAM 1. = TIME2BRG+ (TIMERLJNx0.7)
= Olh52m + (26m x 0.7 )
= Olh52m + 18.2m
= 02h 10.2m !

26 Navigation Problems
BOW AIID BEAM BEARING (45%90")
EXAMPLE : A vesselsteers165"T and makes12 kts. At noon,a fixed objectbore210"T,and at 1245H,
samedject bore 255"T.Find the distanceoffat 2nd bearing.
SOLUTION:
co. 1657 co. 165"7 TIME 2 BRG. IV15
l BRG2IO"T 2 BRG255"7 TIME 1BRG. I2OO
0 = 4 f F =90' ST.TIME = 45m
or 0.75h
=
DIST.RIJN

AB
SPD x TIME
12 kts. x 0.75h
9 miles
,/1'
BC 9 miles
A
rl O
SPECTALCASE ( 265"-45")
E)(AMPLE: Your vesselis on course079"T at llkts. At 0152Ha light bears105.5"Tand at 0209H,same
light bearsIU"T. Find the distanceoff at 2nd bearingand the distanceoff and time when
abeam.
SOLUTION:
c1). 079.0"7 co. 079"7 TIME2BRG. O2O9
I BRG.105.5"7 }BP(G 124"7 TIME IBRC. OI52
cr = 26.5" P = 4 5 " ST.TIME = l7m
or 0.28h
DISTRTJN SPDx TIME
c
11 kts. x 0.28! ?
AB 3.12 miles
BC 4.36 miles
CD 3.12 miles A O D
BD 3.12 miles ^ H 0200A ?
TIMEABEAM TIME2BRG+ TIMERT,N
O2h 9m + l7m
02h 26m

NATT'RAL COIANGET{T RT]LE

HE)(AMPLE: On a ourse 000"T, a light trlre 022"T.On what 2nd bearingmust the light againbe observed
so that the distancerun betweenbearingswill be equal to the distanceoff when abeam?
SOLUTION:
co. 000"7 co. 000"7 CUrB = COTa-1.0
I BRG.O22"T 2 BRG.O34"T = COT22"-t.0
o =22 = 34" = 2.47- 1.0
= 1.47
P = 34'1"

NavigartonProblems 24il
 couRsE To STEER TO PASSAT A REQUIREI)
DISTANCE ABEAM OF AI\ OBJECT

EXAMPLE l. While on a courseof 0t9"T, a lighthousebears11" on the port bow at a distanceof 14.4
miles. what coursewould lou steerto pass2.5 miles abeamof the light leavingit to port?
SOT-UTIOI.I:
c{). 0gg"T T.BRG. 078"7
R.BRG. -II"P/BOW R. BRG. + IO"P/BOW
T. BRG.=07t"7 c.T.s. 088"7

SINO = OPP/HYP
= 2.5I 14.4
= 0.17361
0= 10"

EXAMPLE 2. While on a courseof 343T, a lighthousebears8" on the starboardbow at a distanceof 12.3

miles. What corse would pu steerto pass3 miles abeamof the lighthouseleavingit to
starboard?
SOLUTION:
co. 343"T T. BRG. 351T
"
R BRG.+8"S/BOW R. BRG. -14"S/BOW
TiRG= 351"7 c.T.s. 3?7"T

S I N e= O P P / I r y P
= 3.0112.3
= 0.M39 t).tt
0 = 14.1"

\
EXERCISES:
I Youaresteeringaoourse of220"T.Alightbears lT0"Tandlaterbears160"T.Yourdistancerunis16
miles.What is your distanceoff whenabeamof the light?
'a- 16.0 miles c. 6l.l niles
b. 21.9 miles d 70.6 miles

2. Your vesselis steering270 rc.. The lst bearingon a lighthouseis |Z"PGC. The nextbearingon
the lighthouseis ll2"PGC.Your distancerun is 3 miles.What is your distanceoffat 2nd bearing?
a- 3.03 miles c. 7.26 miles
b. 5.40 miles d. 8.07 miles

3. Your vesselis heading(n4"T at a speedof 22.3 kts. At 0357Ha light bears030"T.At 041tH, same
light bears(b0"T. What is your distanceoff whenabean?
a 5.7 miles c. 7.t miles
b. 6.8 miles d. 8.8 miles

28 Navigution ProHems
 4. Yourvesselis on course356"T. At 1025H,youobaerveda lighthousebearing022.5"T.you decideto
run a specialcasesuchthat the distancerun betweenbearingsequahthe distanceoff when abeam.
What is the 2nd true bearingyou must observe?
a 031"7 c. 045"7
b. (xt"T d. 056"7

5. Yourship is on a oourseof 283"Tat a speedof 17.8kts.At 1158H,you observea lighthousero bear

' 305.5"Tand againat 1228Hto bear 328"7.At what time canyou expectto be abeam?
a- 1228H c. 1249H
b. 1243H d. 1258H

6. Your vesselis on course004" T. You decideto run a specialcasesuchthat the distancerun between
bearirrgs,when multiplied by 0.7 equalsthe predicteddistanceoff when abeam.What specralcase
wrxrldyou rrse?
a- l0.O"and20.0" c. 30.0"and60.0"
b. 22.5"and45.0" d. 71.5"and90.0"

7. ' Yourvesselis on course2ll"PGCat a speedof 17.0kts.At 0930H,a lighthousebears237.5"pGC.At

0951H,you increasedyour speedto 20 kts. At 1006H,the lighthousebears256. pGC. Whar is your
distanccoff at 1006H?
a 7.7 miles c. 11.0miles
b. 10.2 miles d. 15.3miles
8. While on a courseof 070" I a light bears24 on thestarboard
bow at 1830Hwhile the log readslg.
At 1906Hwith thelog reading27, samelight bears48"on thestarboardbow.Determinethetime when
yonwill be abeamof the light.
a 1854H c. 1923H
b. l9l8H d. 1930H
9. A vesselis on a courseof 315"T at a speed'of20 kts. At 1800H,a lightlouse is observedbearing
28-5"T.C)nwhat 2nd true bearingmust the lighthouseagainbe observedso that the distancerun be-
tweenbearingsis equalto the distanceoff whenabeamof the lighthouse?
a. 054'T c. 255"7
b. 231"7 d. 26t"7

10. You are running coastwisein hazyweather.The visibility improvesjust beforeyou p,tssa lighthouSe
abeam.Your speedis 15kts. and the lighthousewasabeamat 1015H.At 1037H,samelighthousewas
4 pointsabaftthe beam.What is your distanceoff at 2nd bearing?
a- 5.5 miles c. 3.9 miles
b. 7.8 miles d. 6.6 miles

ll. Youaresteamingon a courseof 071" T at 19 kts.At 1907H,you observed a light bearingIZZ"T.Al

l9l5H, samelight bears154"T.what is your distanceoff at the 2nd bearing?
a- 3.7 miles c. 3.4miles
b. 4.3 miles d. 4.0 miles

Navigation Problems 249

12. Youaresteamingon a courseof 215"T at 14kts . At 1841H,a light bears178'T. At 1904H,sane light
bears156"T. What is your distanceoffat the 2nd bearing?
L. 7.5 miles c. 5.4 miles
b. 6.6 miles d. E.6niles

13. You are sreering143"T.A light is picked up deadaheadat a distanceof 18.2miles at 2006H.You
changedoourseto passthe light 5.5 miles offi abeamto port. If you are rtaking 14.5 kts., what is lott
ETA at the position5.5 miies offthe light?
a. 2ll5H c. 2124H
b. 2118H d. 2t2lH

14. While on a courseof 283" PGC, a light bears 10"on the port bow at a distanceof t.3 miles. What
@urseshould )ou steerto pass3.5 miles abeamof the light leaving it to port?
a. 298" PGC c. 289" PGC
b. 294"rc. d. 302" PGC

15. Your vesselis on a ourse of 217"T at 18 kts. Youdecideto run a specialcaseon a lighthouseon your
starboardsidesucbthat the distancerun betweenbearings,whenmultiplied by 0.875,equalsthepre-
dicted distanceoff when abeam.What true bearingsmust you obaerveto wotk the specialcase?
a. 187"and 157" c. V43"and277"
b. 237" and267" d. 247"and277"

BEARINGS AND DISTANCE OFT'

L You are underwayon course163"Tat a speedof 15.8kts. You sight abuoy bearing161"Tat artdar
rangeof 5.5 miles at 1319H.If you change@nrseat 1325H,what is the courseto steerto leavethe
buoy abeamto starboardat 1.0 mile?
SOLUTION BY PI.,OTTING:
Timerun = 6 min.
Dist. run = SpdxTime
1 5 . 8K x 0 . 1 H
= 1.58 miles
Answer:
C.T.S.= 1.45"7

,\-

2SO Navigation Problems

Z. you are m oourse(bl"T, speed12.4 kB. Ar (tr39H, y<rt seea rock bearing059"T at a range of 4.4
miles. If yur changecornseat 0845H to have tbe rock abeamto starboardat l.5mile, at what time will
the rockbe &ut?
SOLUTIONBY PIJOTTING:

Tirnerun= 6min.
Dist. run = 1.24miles
Dist. from 0845H t0
abean of the rock is
2.7 miles.

Time =Dist/Spd
-- 2.7 | 12.4
= 0.218H
or 13min.

Alt. time = 0B45

Time to run + 13
Time abeam= 0858

TIIE SAILING TRIANGLES

0Lo The following formulas
were derived from the
SAILING TRIANGLES :

Ir Plerrc Salllng
SINCO. = DEP/DIST,
COSCO.= DLAT/DIST
TANCO. = DEP/DLAT
Mldlat Salllng
Dl-O = DEP/COSmLAT
Mercetor Sdllng

II TANCO. = DLO/DMP
DIST = DLAf,/COSCO.

NovlgationProblems 251
 PLANE SAILING
1. A vesselsteers225" T and makt.' a OeEarture
of 456.t miles.How far did sbesteam?
SO-UTION:
SINCO = DEP/DIST
DIST = DEP/SINCO
= 456.t I SIN 45"
= 646.0 miles

2' A vesselsteen 225" T and make; a departureof 456.t miles. Find the differenceof latitude made
good.
SOLUTION:
TANCO = DEP/DLAI
U-AT = DEP /TAN CO
= 456.t ITAN 45"
= 456.8 miles

3. Find the DLAT and DEP nradegoodfrom "A" to "B" if the courseis 055" T and the distanceis 350
miles.
SOLUTION:
SINCO = DEP/DIST COSCO = DLAI/DIST
DEP = DISTxSINCO DLAT = DISTxCOSCO
= 350 x SIN 55" = 350 x COS55"
= 286.7 miles = 200.7 miles

OR BY POLAR TO RECTANGLI-AR ( p-+R ) FLJNCTTON:

IXST CO DI-AT DEP
350 INV P-+R _55o = 2W.75 INV X++Y 286.70

4. A vesselmade a DI-AT of 20O.75miles and a DEP of 286.1 miles. Find her True oourseand the
distancetravelled.
SOLUTION:
BY RECTANGI.JLARTO POLAR ( R-+P) FUNCTION
DI.AT DEP DIST CO.
200.75 INV R--rP 2t6.7 = 350.0 nWx+ry 55.0

ANSWER: COLTRSE = 055"7

DIST .. 350 miles

5. FindtheDLATandDEPmadefodfrom"A"to"B'iftheoourseisl24oTandthedistancerunis5l0
miles.

2s2 Navigation Problems

 SOI-UTION:
DIST CO DI.AT DEP
510 IIW P--rRlU" = -285.19 IIWX+rY 422.81

ANSWBR: DL/[T=?l'5.19'5 DEP= 422.t1'E

"A" to "B" if thecouneis 210"Tandthedistancerun is 332
6. FindtbeD[-Af andDEPmadegoodfrom
miles.
SOLUTION:
DIST CO DI.AT DEP
332.0 INVP+R 210" = -2t7.52 II.IVX€Y -166.0

ANSUIER: DLAI = 287.52'S DEP= 166.0'W

7. A vesselmadea DLAI ot287.52miles Southanda DEP of 165.0miles West. Find her Truecourse
and the distancetravelled.
SOLUTION:
DI.AT DEP DIST co.
-287.52 II.IVR-+P -166.0 = t32.0 II.IVX++Y -150.0

Note: lf the coune ohained is negative,add 360"

ANSWER: COLJRSE=210"7 DIST= 332.0miles
"A" to "B" if the courseis 336" T and the distancerun is 498
8. Find the DLAT and DEF madegoodfrom
miles.
SOLUTION:
DIST CO DI.AT DEP
498.0 n.IVP-+R 336" = 454.94 II.IVX+'Y -202.55

ANSWER: DLAT=454.94'N DEP= 202.55'W

g. A vesselmadea DLAT of 454.94miles N and a DEP ot 202.55miles W. Find her true ourse and the
distancetravelled.
SOLUTION:
DI.AT DEP DIST CO.
454.94 II.IV R--rP -202.55 = 498.0 IIWX++Y -U.0

ANSWER: COURSE= 3367 DIST = 498.0miles

10.A Surveyvesselin position 45" 30' N, 15"20' W steamednorth for 48 miles and then st€amedeastfor
60 miles. find her arrival position.
SOLUTION:
I-ATI = 45"30.N
DI.AT + 4t,N 4il
LXI72 = 46olt' N

Naviguion Problems 253

 DLo=ffi'fli,#,';
ffi
11' A surveyvesselin position00"56'l', 55"30E steamedsouthfor 56 miles and tten sb steanedwest
for 80 miles. Find her arrival position.
SOLUTION:
?l
I-,{Tl = 00"56' N
D[-AT - 56' S ,.r
LA(12 = 00"00'

DEP = D16)

IlOt{Gl = 55"30'E
DIJO = - 1"20'W
LOIIG2 = 54"10'E

MERCATORSAILING
l. Find tbe oilrrse and distancefrom C. Villano (43"11.5'N,09"46.5W)to I ^r palmaspitot Station
(28o07.5'N,15"23.5'W).Solveby MercatorSailing.

SOLUTION:
LAT1 43"11.5'N mp 2t6Z.EZ. tnngt (D"46.5'W
I-AT2 28"02.5'N mp 174t.63' Ionq2 15"23.5,W
DI-AT = 15"04.0'5 DMp = lll4.19' DIJO = 5"37.0'W
or 904.0' a 337.0,
TAN CO = DIJO/DMP DIST = DI.Ar/COSCO
= 337' I lll4.l9' = 904'l COS 16.g"
CO = S 16.t" W or 1J)6.tT DIST = 944.4 miles
2. A vesselin position 25"47'5,163"48'8,steered03t'T fot A75 miles. Find her arrival position.
SOLUTION:
DLAT = DIST xCOSCp LATI = 25" 47.0'5
= ?475'x COS38" D-AT
= 1950.3'or32"30.3'N -- 32" 30.3'N
L;/tn ; 6"?33.N
DI.O = DMPx TANCO mpt = 1591.84,5
= 1993.33'xTAN38" mp? = + 401.49'N
= 1557.36'or 25"57.3'E DMp = 1993.33.
LONGI = 163"48.0'E
DIJO = +25"57.3'E
I-ONG2 = 170"14.7'W

254 Navigation Problcms

EXERCXSES:
l. saifing,determinetheourse anddistalrcewhensailingfromLat. 43" 08' N, Long'05"
By mencator
56' E io l.il,.39" 29' N, Long. 00" ?A'W.
a. 053" T, 361 mihs c. 233" T, 361 miles
b. 060" T,439 mibs d. 2n" T,452 miles

2. By mercatorsailing, determinethe crune and distancewhen sailing from Lat. 00" 00', Long. 00" 03'
W to lat. 51" 12'N, Long.16" 14'E.
a. 015'T, 5299miles c. 345"T, 3184mile.s
b. 015"T, 3185miles d. 195"T, 2273miles

3. By mercator sailing, determinethe onrse and distancewhen sailing from I-at. 15" 12' S, Long. 02"
12'E tal,at.2t" 49' S, Long. 17" 14'E'
a. 134"T, 1171miles c. 226" T.817 miles
b. 046" T, 1171 miks d. 04E"T, 1307mile.s

4. By mercator sailing, determinethe ourse and distancewhen sailing from lat. 08" 04' S, Long. 34"
53' W to I-at. 14" 45'N, Long. 17" 33' W.
a. 037"T,1718 miles c. l43"T,2264miles
b. 053" T, 2264miles d. 323"T.171t miles

5. Your pooitionat 1436Hqr March 22, 1993is 27" 18'S, 53" 22'W (ZD +4). At 1454Hon March 23,
1993,pu arein position31" 13' 5,42" 32'W (ZD +3). Determine)our oourseands@ by m€rcator.
a. ll2" T at 25.4kts. c. l5t" T at22.2krs.
b. ll2" T at 26.5 kts. d. A8" T at 26.5kts.

PARALLEL SAILING
|. Your vesselis sailing from lat. 37" 50' N, [ong. 18o36' W, t0 Lat. 37" 50' N, Iong. 43" 32' W.
Deterrrine ytrrr corse and distanceby parallel sailing.
a. 090" T, llE1.5 miles c. 27O"T, 1181.5miles
b. 090oT, 1496.0miles d. 270"T.1894.1miles

2. Determinelour distanceby parailelsailingwbengoingfrron42" 38' N, 162" 51' E to 42" 38' N, 176"

19'W.
a. 9O4.9miles b. 919.6miles c. 1250.0mile.s d. 1699.0miles

3. At wbat mte per hogr is GreenwichObcervatoryin L,at.51" 28.5'N being carried around the earth's
axis?
a. 560.3miles b. 560.2mile.s c. 56O.4mile.s d. 560.6miles

4. Determineyur distanceby parallel sailing when going ftom lt" 22' S, 10" 18' W to lt" 22' 5,43"
41 ' w .
a. 2ll0 miles b. 2003mihs c. 1901miles d. 1892miles

Navigaion Problcms 255

5. Determinepur oourseand distanceby parallel sailing when going ftom 23" 3l' N, 75" 52' \l a 23"
3l'N. 30" 57'W.
a. 090" T, 2695mile.s c. 270"T, Z7l miles
b. 090oT, 271 miles d. 270" T,2939 mile.s

6. In l-at 25" N, two vesselsare separatedby a DEP of 310 miles. Both steaned (X)0" T at the satrre
speeduntil their DEP is ltO miles. Both vesselswill be in Latitude:
a. 58"15'N b. 58%5'N c. 58"30'N .d. 18"00'N

7. In Lat 44" S, two vessels28 miles apart st€ameddue north keeping themselvesdue E and W until
they are 37 miles aEart.Ibw far have they sailed?
a. 1576mile.s b. 1554miles c. 1500miles d. 1591miles

8. Two vessels240 miles apart in l-at 49"52'N both steanedl80o T until [at. 21" N. The distance
betweenthe nro ships at 21" N will be:
a. 350 miles b. 385 miles c. 396 miles d. 310 miles

9. MV PRCcornmencesseapassage(Lat. 33" 56' S, [.ong. 18" U' E) at 0406HLT and sailedcresrar 16

kts. Find her positionat noon.
t. 33" 56.0'S,15"51.7'E c. 33" 56.0'S,20" 56.3'E
b. 33" 56.0'S,15"05.8'E d. 33" 56.0'S,20" 6.4' 8

10. MV PRCconmencesseapalrsage (Lat. 08" 06'S, Long. 34" 51'W) at 2348HLT and sailedeastat 12
ka. Find her positionat noon.
a . 8 8 "0 6 ' S , 3 2 "l 3 . l ' W c . 0 t " 0 6 ' S , 3 2 "3 3 . 5 ' W
b. 08" 06's,32" 23.1' W d. 08" 06'S,32" 18.9'W

11. In what Latitudeis the lengthof l" Longihrdeequalto 38 miles?

a. 50" 35.3'Nor S b. 50" 4E.9'Nor S c. 50" 42.2'Nor S d. 50" 54.6'Nor S

12. In Latitude 42" 36' N, a ship sails due eastfrom Longitude 26" 30' W to 21" 12' W. What departure
has she made?
a. 235.08miles b. 234.00miles c. 235.00miles d. 234.08miles

13. In Latitude48" 30' S, a rresselsteamedtrue eastuntil shehasmadegooda Dlo of 3" 20'. Computefor
the deparnrre.
a. 152.1mile.s h. 132.5milqs c. 135.2miles d. 123.5miles

14. A ship bearsdue westand 200 miles from a placein [at. 51" 23'N, Long. 9" 36'W. What longitde
is shein?
a. 13o56.5'W b. 16"56.5'W c. 14"56.5'W d. 15"56.5'W

2# Naigation Problems
SOLUTIONS:
MERCATORSAILING
5. By MercatuSailing,Course= 112.4"il Dist. = 616.5mihs
Tl = 1436 3122 Tf = 1434 3t23
Z D + 4 7:D +3
cMT = 1836 3122 GMT 1754 3t23
GMT r836 3t22
s.T. = 2318 or 23.3 hrs
SPBED = Distane = 616.5 mil€s = 26.5 kts.
Time 23.3 hn.

PARALLE SAILING
3. DISTANCE = DLO x COS LAT
= 9(X) miles x COS 51" 28.5'
= 560.57 miles

Nde: 15" x 60' = 9(X)miles, this is the ratc at the equator.

6. DI,O = DEP = 310 = 342.05miles

COS LAT cos 25"
CgS LAT = DEp = 1t0 = 0.52623
Dr,o v2.05
LAT = 5t" 14.9'N

7. Dtr.O = DIST 2t = 3E.9niles

COSLAT cos44"
COSLAT = DIST = 37 = 0.95
DI,O 38.9

LIfYL = lt" 05.55'S

LATI = 44"00.00'S
DI.AT 25" 54.43'xfi
1554.4miles
)an
Naigation Problems 257
t. u,o = DIST u0 321.3nibs
cos LA1 cl)s 49" 52'

DIST = DI,O x COS LAT

= 372.3 x cos 21"
= 347.6mihs

WA

oL0

9. STEAIIIINGTIME f200H 0406H = 7H 54M (r 7.9H

D[STAT.@ RT.'N SPEED x STEAMINGTTME
16K x 7.9H
DIST. or DEP. 126.4miles (W)
U.O = DtsP = 126.4miles = 152.3' (r 2" 32.3'W
COS LAT cl)s 33" 56'

LATI = 33"56.0'S I0I{G1 = lt" ?A.0'B'

DI-AT = 0" DLO = - 2"32.3'W
Ll{12 = 33"56.0'S IJOIG2 = 15"51.7'B

2S Naiguion Probbms
 MIDDLE-LATITUDE SAILING
Lat. 17" 07'S, Lnng lM" 52' w'
DE)(AMPLE l. A vessetLtLat.g" 50' s, I-ong 89" 54'W is to proceedto
Solvethecourseand distanceby Middle-LatitudeSailing'

SOLUTION:
htl = 8"50'S L.ongI = 8 9 " 5 4 ' W
l:itz = l7o 07'S Lnng 2 = 1O4"52'W
Dtat = 80 17's
x 60' x 60'
= 898 miles (W)
ffi Dlo

Mlat = G-atl+l:it?)12
= (8" 50' + 17" 07') I 2
= 25"57'12
Mlat = 12" 58' 30"

Dep = Dlo x Cos Mlat

= 898 miles x Cos 12" 58'5'
Dep = 875.07miles (W)

Using RECTANGULAR TO POLAR @-+P):

DI.AT DEP DIST COURSE

-4g7 INV R-rP -875.07 = 1006.36 INVX<+Y -119.6"

NOTE: If the courseobtainedis negative,add 360" '

Answer: COURSE = 240.4" T
DIST. = 1006.4 miles

S, Long' 31" 42'E' Required

F)G(AMPLE 2. A vesselsteams720 mileson course058'T from Lat. 30o06'
the positionof anival by MidlatitudeSailing'

SOLUTION:
yield a Dlat of 381'54miles (N) and a Depof
By usingP-+R, Disrance 720milesand course058" T will
610.59miles (E)'
Dlat = / 60'
381.5' = 6"21.5'N
Lnng 1 = 31o42.0'E
I.at. I = 30"06.0's
Dlo = ll" 2A.8'E
Dlat = 6 "2 1 . 5 ' N
= 23"44.5'S I.ong2 = 43"06.8'E
l-at.2

MLat 26"55.25'S
Dlo Dep 610.59 = 684.8' or ll" ?4.8'E
CosMLU Cos 26' 55.25'

Navigation Problems 259

 TRAVERSESAILING
1. A vesselobservesher positionto be 40o 30' N; 35o 15' W. Shethen steamsthe ff. coursesand dis-
tances:
056" T dist. 45 miles
020" T dist. 20 miles
335" T dist. 35 miles
300"T dist. 50 miles
Find the D.R; position.
SOLUTION:

Course Distance DLat Departure

N s E W
N56"8 45 25.2 37.3
N20"E 20 r8 .8 6.8
N25"W 35 3r.7 14.8
N60"W 50 25.0 43.3
100.7 44.r 58.1
_44.1
DLat 100.7N Dep.= 14.0W
l,at I = 40" 30.0' N Dl,O = Dep / CosMLat
Dlat + 1o40.7'N = 14 / Cos 41" 20.3'
I-atZ = 42" 10.7'N = 18.6'W
L,ongl = 35"15.0'W
I)lo + 18.6'W
LongZ = 35" 33.6'W
2. A vesselsteamedthe ff. counesand distances:
165" T dist. 50 miles ll2" T dist. 84 miles
072" T dist. 63 miles 256" T dist. 58 miles
A currentset 300" T, drift 10 miles. If the initial positionwas46" 19' N; 37" 47' W, find the final
position and the courseand distancemadegood.
SOLUTION:
Course Distance DLAT l)eparture
N s B w
S 15"8 50 48.3 12.9
N72"8 63 19.5 59.9
S68"8 84 31.5 77.9
s76"W 58 14.0 56.3
N60"W 10 5.0 8.7
24.5 93.8 150.7 65.0
-24.5 - 65.0
Dlat= 69.3'S 85.7'E= Dep.

260 Navigation Problems

 ktl = 46"19.0'N Dlo = Dep./ CosMlat
Dlat 69.3'5 = 85.7'lCos 45" 44'21"
I,g'tz 45"09.7'N = 121.7'E

Iong I 37"47.0'W
Dlo 2" 01.7'E UsingR+P functionwith Dlat 69.3' S
Lang2 = 35" 45.3'W andDep.85.7'E yields
Co. 129"T Dist. 110.2miles

3. A vesselobservesanoon position 37" 54'N, 178o29'E. The courseis then 230" T at 15 kts. until
1800Hwhenan SOSis receivedfrom a position 37" 15'N, 179" 35' W If the speedis increasedto 16
kts., what is the courseto be st€eredto the distressand what will be the ETA ?
SOLUTION:
15 kts. x 6 hrs. = 90 miles
By usingP+R with Co.230' T & Dist. 90 miles
yblds Dlqt 57.9'(S) and Dep' 68.9'(\\i)

Dlo = Dep / Cos Mlat ktl = 37"54.0'N

= 68.9 / Cos 37" 25' Dlat = 0" 57.9'S
= 86.7'(W) Lat2 = 36" 56.1'N

Dlo = 01" 26.7'W MLat = 37" 25.0'N

Lonl = 178"29.0'E
l-on?= l'77" 02.3'E

l.altz = 36"56.1' N Lan2 = 177"02.3'E

Lat3 = 37"15.0'N Lon 3 = 179o35.0'W
Dlat = 0" 18.9' N Dlo = 3" 22.7'E

Mlat = 3 7 "0 5 . 5 ' N

Dep = Dlo x Cos Mlat BvusinqR+P

(3" 22.7'x 60) Cos37" 05.5' DLAT = 18.9'(tg
= 161.7'E DEP = 161.7'(E)
WILLGIVE:
ThnCo.= Dep/Dlat DIST = 162.8miles
161.7 118.9 Co. = 083.3oT
= 8.5
N 83.3"E

Dist = Dlat x SecCo.

= 18.9x Sec83.3"
= 162.8miles

Trme = 162.8miles/ 16kts.

= 10h 10m30s
+18h 00rr (Timewhentt': SOSsignalwasreceived)

EIA = 04h 10m the following day

Navigation Problems xtl

 GREAT CIRCLE SAILING
The Latitude and Dlo from deparure to arrival must be properly convertedinto dbgreesand tenths of
degreesto at least 3 decimal places.tmproperlylabeling your original Dlo will result in the improper
namingof the initial and final courseand the longitude of the vertex.

ARC COSDIST = (COSL1 x COSL2 x COSDLO) t (SIN Ll x SIN L2)

Distancex60=miles
C) Subtractwhencrossingthe equator.

ARC COSI /CO. ANGLE = SINL2 - (COSDIST x SIN Ll)

@
Distancemustbe in degreesnot in miles.
MakeL2 negativewhencrossingthe equator.
Label the initial courseangle accordingto
the samenameof Ll and DLO.

ARC COSF / CO. ANGLE = SIN Ll - (COSDIST x SIN L2)

@
Distancemustbe in degreesnot in miles.
MakeLl negativewhencrossingthe equator.
Label the final ourse angle according to
the contrary nameof L2 and samenameas the
DI,O.

ARCCOSLATV = COSLl x SINI.C.

Use the initial courseangle not the true course.
Name the latitude of the vertex accordingto
the nameof Ll.

ARC SIN DLO V = COSI.C.

SINLATV

DLO V is Oe DLO from departureto the vertex.

If theI.C. angleis lessthan90 deg,then
vertexis aheadofyou and in the directionof
your original DL,O.
If theLC. angleis more than90 deg,then
the vertex is behird you and in the direction
of your DLO.

IrONG I
DLO V + /:_
I,ONGV

xl2 Navigation Problems

ARCTANLAD( = COSDL,OVX x TANLATV
Usedto determinethe points along the way.
Usedto prove )Dur solution of DL,OV and the
proper calculation of your longitude of the
vertex.
I'NGI The DI-O V2 is put into the
DI-OV + /- formula along with the LAT V.
I]ONGV You will solvefor theL2.
LONG2 If you do not get the L2, then
Tmvz- you probablyappliedthe DLO V
incorrectly t0 LONG L
Usedto detenninethe compositesailing longitudeswhen entering and departingyour limiting latitude.
ARCCOSDLOVX = TANLAiI X
TANI"{TV
I.ONGI I.ONG2
DLOVl DI' V2
I,ONGE LONG D
L-ATX = Limiting latitude
I-ATV Latitude of the vertex
DIJOVX = Dl,O ftom your departureor from your arrival point to the
limiting latitude.
LONGE = Iongitude whenenteringyour limiting latitude
I0NG D = Longitudewhendepartingyourlimiting latitude.

NOTE : DLO VX in the formula above,whensolving for LAT X, is Oe DLO from your vertex to a position
on either side of your vertex.
The COURSEANGLE whencrossingthe equatoris always90" or 270" plus or minus your LATITUDE OF
VERTEX. The 90" or 27O"dependsupon the nameof DLO.
90" or 270"
+/-LATV
couRsEQ
The LONGITIJDE OF TIIE BQUATORCROSSINGis deterurinedby applying 90" to the LONG V in the
direction of your DLO.
Remember,the longitude of the equatorcrossing must alwa)6 lie betweenyour points of departureand
arrival in the direction of your DLO from the vertex
+t-vLdeg = LONG a
-*U
EXAMPLE : M.V. PRC will be sailing fron Porto Grande(17o l8'N, 25"00'VO to NE Providence
Channel(25" 43'N, 76" 36'W).
Raiuired the following :
f . G / C distance 5. longi$de of Vertex
2. Initial Course 6. Latiude at64" 44'W
3. Final Course 7. Lad$de at54" 4/-'W
4. Latitudeof Vertex 8. Latitude at44" 4,/-'W

Navigation Problems 2n3

SOLUTION:
I,at I 17" 18'N Iong 1 25"00'w
I'art2 25" 43'N I.ons.2 76036'W
Dlo = 5 1 "3 6 ' W

'-? a

1. COSDIST (COSLl x COSL2 x COSDLO) + (SIN Ll x SIN L2)

(COS17" 18'x COS25" 43'x COS51" 36')+ (SIN 17" 18'x SIN 25" 43')
0.5343066+ 0.1290372
0.6633439
48" 26'40" x 60'
DIST 2906.67miles

2. COS LC. SIN L2 - (COSDIST x SIN Ll)

(SIN DISTx COSLl)
SIN 25" 43'- (COS48" 26'40" x SIN 17" 18')
(SIN48" 26'40. x COS17" 1E')
(0.43392rr- 0.r9726U)| 0.7r4,/.s98
0.2366587I 0.7rM598
0.33r24t4
I.C. N 70.7oW or 289.3"T

3. COS F.C. SINLl - (COSDISTx SINL2)

(SINDISTxCOSL2)
SIN17"18'-(COS48"26'40"x SIN25'43')
(SIN48' 26'40"x COS25" 43')
(0.2973748 - 0.2878398)| 0.6741931
0.0141428
F.C. S 89.2"W or 269.2"T

4. COS LATV COSLl x SINLC.

COS17"18'x SIN70"39'21"
0.9008607
LATV 25" 43.7' N

xi4 Navigation Problems

5. SINDLOV cosI.c./sINI-ArV
/ SIN25"43.7'
cos 70'39'21"
0.763046
DI.OV 49" 4,y'-'W
I-ONG1 + 25o00'W
I.ONGV 74" 4/-' W

6. TANI-ATXI COSDLOV-Xl xTANLATV

COS 10'x TAN 25" 43.7'
0.4745559
I-ATXl 25" 23.2'N

7. TANLATX2 COSDLOV-X2xTANLATV
COS20" x TAN 25" 43.7'
0.4528159
Llirx2 u" 21.7' N

8. TANI-ATX3 COSDLO V-X3 xTANLATV

COS 30" x TAN 25" 43.7'
0.4173174
I-Af,X3 22" 39.1' N

LongV 74" 4y'.'W LongV 74" 4/-'W InngV 74" 4/.'W

Long Xl &" 4/-'W lnnigX2 54" 4r'.'W Long X3 4" 4y'.'W
ffitT_JaTi=06mE- ffi
EXERCISES:
Long 06" n'W to Lat
l. What is the G/C initial courseand distancewhen going from Lat 49" 56'N,
25" 58'N, Long 77" 00' W?
a- 086 " T, 3162 miles c. 274" T,3489 miles
" d, 094'T. 4832miles
b. . 266 T, 3489 miles
Lat 11" 45' N, Long 126"
2. Determineyour initial courseand distanceby G/C sailing when going from
00'E to l,at 16" 00'S, Long 78o34'W.
a- 077"T,9347 miles c. 222" T.8587 miles
b. M2" T,8587 miles d" 103'T, 9347miles
goingfrom Lat 11" 1'5'N, Long 125"
3. Determineyour initial courseand distanceby G/C sailing wben
00'E to I,at08"00'S,Long79"?4'W.
a. 085'T, 9334miles c. 053"T, 8927miles
b. 095"T, 9334miles d" ln" T,8927miles
15'W. Find the final course
4. Enroutefrom Lat 41" 18' N, Long 69050' w to Lat 12" 16'S, Long 07"
byG/C sailing.
L 043'T c. 131"T
b. 049'T d. 137"7
45' S, Long 175" 19'E to l'at
5. DetemrinebyG/C sailingyour final coursewhen going from Lat41"
52"?A'S,Long75" 06'W.
a. 049"7 c . 1 3 1T
"
b. 074"7 d" 139'T

Navigation Problerns 265

 6. Detemtinelour latitudeand longitudeof the vertOxwhengoingfrom 22 37'N, 1.78"2l' W to 03" 03,
s, 81"00'w.
a- 22"37'N,178"21'W c. 23"17'N 163.53'W
b. 22" 37' N, 178"21'E d" 22" 39'N, 179"20'E

7. Detenninelour latitudeand longitudeof thevertexwhen goingfrom 41" 45'S, 175" 19'E to 52"?A,
s, 75" 06'W.
a. 47" 20'5,122 26.6'W c. 62" 27'S, ll3" 04.6,8
b. 47" 20' N, 113"04.6'E d" 62 27' 3,122" 26.6'W

8. Detemtineyour latitudeand longituded the vertexwhengoing from 05" 18' S, 35" 06' W ts N 27,
N.73" 49'W.
a 55" 59.1'N,121o30.8'W c. 64" 41.4'S, 31"07.3'E
b. 55" 59.1'S, 51" 1g.g'E d &" 41.4,s,101"19.3'W

9. The latitude and longi0rde of the rcrtex along lour G/C is 43" 32' S, 39" 18' E. Your rresselis on a
coune of Vl6" T. Which of the ff. is lour q)uree when crossingthe equatu?
a. 226.5"T c. 309.3'T
b. 230.7"T d. 313.5"T
SOLUTION: Vesselheading in a westerlydirection and 1ou will be crossingthe equatorfrom S to
N latitude.
270" + I-Af V
27O" + 43.5" = 313.5"T

10. The latihrdeand longifirdeof the vertexalongyour G/C courseis 38" 15'S, 68" 39'W. Your vesselis
on a courseof 102" T. which of the ff. is lour ooursewhen crossingthe equator?
a U1.4" T c. 128.3"T
b. 051.8"T d. 159.6"T
SOLUTION: Vesselis heading in an easterly direction and you will be crossingthe equatorfrom
S t0 N latitude.
O9O". LATV
090o- 38.25" = 51.75"T

11. The latitrrdeand longinrdeof the vertexalongyour G/C coinseis 43" 32'N, 39" 18' E. Your vesselis
on a courseof.25l" T. Which of the ff. is your longitude at your equatorcrossing?
a- 129" 18'E c.50"42'W
b. 50" 42'8 d 1 2 9 01 8 ' W
SOLUTION:
toNcv 39" 1g,E
-90" 00'W (samenane asDI-O)
LoNGQ 50"42'W
12. Thelatitrrdeandlongitudeof thevertexalongyourG/Ccourseis 38o15'S, 168o39'E. Yourvesselis
on a courseof 060" T. Whichof theff. is lour longitudeat equatorcrossing?
a. 78" 39'E c. 101"2l'W
b . 1 0 1 "2 1 ' E d. 79" 39'W

2ffi Navigation Problerns

 SOLUTION:
-*o u t$l
. ill Eoame asyourDLo)
name
25t" 39'

r.-q--i1ffiv
54'N, 123" 00' w by G/C sailing' Determinethe
1 3 . yqr are sailing ftom 38" 1,3'N, 124" 12'E 2.12" vertex'
of the
-il" and longitude of a'position 10" and 2ff west
talftuOe
54.t'N; $0" 32.t, E (+/- 3') c. bothaandb
i-
!4.4, N, l4O" 3Z.g'E (+/- 3) d- neitberanorb
;. 4Zo
ftom Lat. 25" 50'N, Long' 77" 00'w' Your initial cornseis
14. you are on a great circle track departing
Long' 25"57'8'W' Find the distancealongthe
061.7"T. The posiuonof G vertexis Gt . !7" 35.6'N,
of departureand the vertex'
t "", "it t" track betrveenthe.noint
a. 2420.0 milds
COS AV = SIN LAI l
b. 2583.2miles
SIN I-ATV
c. 2664.9 miles
d" 2735.1miles

15.YorrareonaG/Ctrackdepartingfrompositionl.Ar25.50'N,Long.TT"wW.Tbepositionofth
The distancealongthe G/C track-ftomlhe vertexto a
vertexis LN 37' 35.6'N, Lmg. 25" 57.8'W'
position of P-olnt(X) on the G/C track'
point (X) is 600 miles westward.Determinethe
c. 36" 55.6'N, 38"30.0'W
L 36" 47.5,N, 38o2l.t' W
b. 36o50.4,N,3t" 25.6,W d" 37" 02.3'N, 38"34'4'W

SINLx = COSDISTxSINLv
COSDL,Ovx = TANLx / TANLv

The simplest famula to detenninethe CrreatCircle

Initial and Final Courseis by SineLaw'

SIN I/CO AI.IGLE = COSL/tT2 x SINDLO

SINDIST
Distancemust be in degressnot in miles'
MakeLat2negative when crossingthe equator'
and sarnenameas Dlo.
iJta Co-." nogle is labeledoie oant" asLatl

SIN F/C0 ANGLE = COSL{tl x SINDI.o

SINDIST

Distancemu$ beln degress not in miles'

MakeLatl negativewhen crossing tbeequator'
Angle
FinalC-ourse is contrary
labeled nametal-arzandsarrenameasDlo'

NavigationProblems
2ri7
 COMPOSITESAILING
FromLat. 35" 40' N, Long. 141"J0' E !o l,at. 37" 4g,N,L,ong.l2Z" 40'W, the maximum lhtitude
tcr
be is 45" N. By cunpositesailing,computethefollowing:
a. l,ongitudewherethe track meet.
b. L,ongitudewhenleavingthe maximumLatitude.
c. Initial Course.
d. Final Course.
e. Totalcompositedistance.

SOLUTION:
Ll 35"40'N l,ongI 141"00'E
L2 37"49'N Inne? 122"40'W
LV 45" 00'N Dlo 96"20'E

a) To find the L,ongitudewherethe trackmeet;

cos Pl TANLI/TANLV
TAN 35" 40' / TAN 45"
0.7177
p l = 44" 0g.l'E
LONG 1 = 141"00.0'E
LONGVl = 174"51.9'W

b) To find the Longinrdewhen leavingthe maximumLatitude:

cosn'
= Tlilirt"'fftl1.r"
= 0.77568
n = 39"08.0'W
LONGZ 122"40.0'W
LONGV2 ; 161"48S'w

26E Navigation Problems

 c) To find the lnitial Course:
SIN ANGLE A = COSLV / COSLl Initial Courseis labeled
= COS45" / COS35" 40' sune nann as Lat I and
= 0.8?036 snrnerunv asDlo.
INITIALCO. = N60.5"E

d) To frnd the Final Course:

sIN ANGLE B = cos Lv / cos L2 Final course is labeled
= COS45'l COS37" 48' contrarynamcto lat 2
= 0.8948962 and samcnameasDlo.
FINAL CO. = S 63.49"E

e) To find the Total Distance:

COS AVI = SIN Ll / SIN LV
= SIN 35" 40' / SIN 45"
= 0.9245E
= A.45" x60'
AVI = 2,067.2miles
COS BVz = SIN L2 / SIN LV
= SIN 37" 48'/ SIN 45"
= 0.86678
= 29.91"x 60'
BV2 = 1,794.8miles
p3 = Dto-(pl+p2)
= 96" 20'- (44"08.1'+ 39" 08.0')
= 96" 20'- 83" 16.1'
P3 = 13"03.9'
VlVz = P3 x 60'x COSLV
- 13"03.91'x 60' x COS45'
= 554.3miles
TOTAL DIST = AVI + BV2 + VlV2
AVI = 2.067.2mi1es
BVZ = 1,794.8miles
v1v2 = + 554.3miles
TOTAL DIST = 4,416.3miles

2. A vesseldepartingfrom 25" 1.2'S, 30" 03'W is boundfor 38" 45' S, 144" 45' E and is limited in
latitude by 54" S. Detenninethe longitudesat which limiting parallel is o bereachedand departedby
cmrpositesailing.
a. 39" 58'8, 90" 25'E c. 70" 01'E, 90" 25'E
b. 39"58'8,54"20' W d. 70"01'w 54"20' 8
3. A vesseldepartingBaltimoreis boundfor Bordeauxand is limited to a maximumlatitudeof 47" N.
Shedepars from 36" 58' N, 75" 42'W boundfor 45" 39' N, 01" 30'W. Determinethe longitudesat
which the limiting parallel is to be reachedanddepartedby compositesailing.
L. 45" 25'W 17"2g'W c. 3L1"17'W lg" 5g.W
b. 2 1 " 0 7 ' w 1 5 " 5 t ' w d . 45"1-5' 8,18"58'W

Navigation Problems - 269

 CURRENTSAILING
l. ygur vesselis steering090" T at l0 kts. You observeda ligbthouse5 miles off on the starboardbean. If
cunent is setting I t0" T and the d. :ft is 2 kts., wbat would be the distanceand bearing of the lighthouse
after steamingfor 45 minutes? ctgRENr Udt
SOLUTION: | | ?,oKra.
= l l l
DISTRIJN
=
=
TIME x SPEED
0.75H x 10.0kts.
7.5 miles
t r t
AB

'l
TAN B = AC/AB

B
=
=
=
=
3.5I 1.5
0.4667
W 25"S or%5" T
AC /SINB
T,
tt
BC ,,il
= 3.5 / SIN25'
^rn
= 8.2t miles

c
2. your noon positionis 37. l0' N, 75" 30' W You aresteering27O"T at 12 kts. At 1315H,a fix from the
Satnavgives3{" 0B'N,75" 45'W Requiredthe following:
a. Courseand sPeedmade good
b. Current's set and drift.
SOLUTION:
l,rtffl 37" l(} N toNct 75' 30'W IzH MM
IAI2 37'(n'N l,oNG2 75'45'W l3H l5M
Dl,flT = 2S DL,O = 15'W S.T = lH l5M
or 1.25H
MLA T 37" (B'N
USII{G R+P DEP = DLOxCOSMLAI
DIAT -2-O = 1 5 ' r C O S3 7 ' W
DEP -11.9 = ll.9'W
dVES:
DIST = l2.l2miles SI\|G = DIST /TIME
CIttG = 260.5oT = l2.l/ I l'25H
= 9.7 lils.
SETANDDRIFTCANBESOLVEDBY PI-OTTING
SET = l2l"T E. DIST. = E. SPD.x TIME
DRIFT = 3.4miles / 1.25H = 2.7krs 12 kri. x 1.25H
= 15 miles

o$4

270 Navigation Problem

 SET AND DRIFT
is 070"T' drift
1. youwisbtomakegoodaourseof350" T withanenginespeeddlOkts.Tbesetofthecurrent
goodalong tbe trackline.
is 1.5 kts. Find the True courseto st€erand the speednade
SOLUTION BY PI.OTTING:
(l.skts.) usingaonvenientscale'kbel it e-m'
a Drawthecurenrset (tr/0-T) andthedrift
b. DrawtbelineCMG (350"D' Label it e-' 'm" andtheotherendatthe3s0"line' I-abel
c. setapairofdividersfclokts.plremeenddthedividersat
"r".
tteintersection
paralleltothe@ntef.Thedirectionindicatedis
d. Drawalineconnecting m_r. Movetbeline r_n
your cour$eb steer.
e. Speedmadegodistbeline e-n
e--r CMG&SMG
--
e m SEI&DRIFT
m -- r CTS&E' SPD

cr?'
V.
_: ANSWR:
'. 341"1''
C.T.S.
\ :1 10'1kts.
S.M.G.
\

\
\
\

Naiguion Probhm nl
 2. Yourvesselis makingoverthegrounda speedof 12kts.Thevesel traveled
30n.m.in 2H 20M. what current
ge ),0uexperiencing?
SOLUTION:
SMG = DIST/TIME
' = 30n.m.12.333H
SMG = 12.86kts.
"'tto = t3:33*
Forowing
curenr
Youaresteering?AoTatanenginespeedof11kts.After steamingforonehour,afix takenandshows
vesselis makinggoodacourseof235"Tand aspeedtztcs. rino oe setand thatyour
driftof thecurrent.
SOLUTIONBYPTJTTING:
CMG& SMG e--r 235"T 12 kts.
co. &8. sPD. m--r 240"T ll kts.
SET&DRIFT e--m 190"T 1.5kts. e
gET 2
cnJrr.

:* a€
.,' "q. 6,0'
r
I
I

r
4' A vesselnoonpositionbyobservation is Latitude N" 02' s andInngitude 15"0g, w. tler deadreckoning
positionadvancedfrom-thepreviousnoonpmitionisLatitude 4tr,20'Sandlongitude15"0g,w.Findtheset
anddrift of thecurent for thepreviousZ houn.
SOLUTION:
oBs. tAT 40" 02'S LONG15"09.w
D.R. rAT 40"20'S LONG15"09'w
DI.AI' 18'N DLO 00'
SET = 000"7 DRIFT = 18 miles l24H = 0.75kt.

272 Navigation Problem

 TRTJEAND APPARENTWIND
l. Ashipisoncour*,?A0"T,speedl8kts.Therelativewindacrosstledeckis30kts.from040"
Reluive.Find
the directionandspeedof thetruewind.
SOLUTIONBYPLOITING, ,6o

Answer: DIR = 315"T SPD. = 20 kts

2. An aircraft carrier is proceedingon course240. T, speedlt kts. True wind hasbeendetenninedto befrom
315" T, speedl0ka. Determinealauncbcourseandspeedthatwillproduce arelativewindacrosstheflight
deckof 30kts. from 350orelative( 10"port ).
SOLUTIONBYPI.OTTING:
Answer:
TnreWind 315'T
+ 32"R \
C.TS. =347" T \

SPD = 2l Kts \r
\?a o
t
Z
u
I
q7
n
N
I
I
o

Navigation Problem 273

3. EstimatetheEu€windvelocityin tnotsabmrdaship steaming330" T at 17kts.wherethewind appeantoblw
from theeastat Beaufortwind foroe5 (18ks.).
SOLUTIONBY PTOTTING:

0900 T tg KTg

z- -E

Answer: WIND SPD = 30.5kts

4. your vesselis on course 150" T at a speedof 17 knots. The apparentwind is from 40" starboardbow
speed15 tnots. What is the direction and speedof the true wind?
Answer: Truewinddirection= 270"T Speed= ll.2knots

5. A shipis on course195"T at a speedof 15knots. The apparentwind is from 40" port bow,speed30 knots'
Find the direction and speedof the tnre wind.
Answer: True wind direction = 127"T Speed= 20.6 knots

6. your vessel on oourse135" T at a speedof 18 knots. From the appearanae of the sea you estimatethe
speedof the true wind as ?A.5 knots. The apparentwind is from 40" starboardborv.Determinethe direc-
tion of tbe true wind and the speedof apparentwind.

Answer: True wind direction = ?-O3"T

Apparentwind sPeed= 35'5 knots

274 Navigation Problem

Navigation Problem 275
 TIME PROBLEMS
1. Whel avesselis at Long. 68o2'vW the ship'sclock is set to aorrectzonetime 0350Hon Jan.6. What
is the time and dateat Greenwich?
a. 2250H on the 5th of Jan.
b. 2350H on the 5th of Jan. SOLUTION:
c. 0750H on the 5th of Jan. ZT 0350 Jan.6
d. 0850H on the 6th of Jan. Z D + 5
GMT = 0850 Jan.6.
2. July 11, DR Long. 179" 30' E. Zt at ship is 1500H. True courseis 090o. Aft€r steaning fu 12 hours,
what is the dateand time at Grepnw^ch?
L. 12th, 0300 H
b. 10th, 0300 H SOLUTION:
c. 13th, 0300 H n 1500 July 11
d. llth, 1500 H ZD - 1 2
GMT 0300 July 11
SEA TIME +12
GMT = 1500 July 11
3. Youare in Long. 54oE headin9270"T. Wheredo you changeclocks?
a. 67" 30' c. 52" 30'
b. 60" 00' d. 45" 00'
4. A vesselis steaning in Eastlongitude on Jan.25 and crossesthe International DateLine on an eastbound
courseat 0900 ZT. What is the time and dateat Greenwichwhen the vesselcrossesthe line?
a. lan.24 at 0900 H c. Itn.25 at 0900 H
b. Jan.24 at 2100 H d. Jan.26 at 0900 H
SOLUTION:
n 0900 lxn.25
zD -12
GMT 21.00 lan.24
5. You arein Long. 175"E and heading270" T. Wheredo you changeclocks?
a. 172" 30'E c. 180"00'
b. 1 7 2 " 3 0 ' W d . 1 6 5 "0 0 ' E

E w
lvo' tcr. 4&' 'l6V'
44\oV' 47f Vo' 117"0'

I
t-
I
EO
I
+.1{}.1

n6 Navigation Problern
6. You are in eastlongitude headingeast,and crossingthe datelineat 1200 hrs. on luly 25, 1992.
a- GMT is 0000 hrs. on July 25.
b. Your rrcw time will be 1200hrs. Jnly 26,1992.
c. Both a andb
d- Neitheranor b
SOLUTION:
July 25 12 00 H
p (-) 12 oo
GMT July 25 00 00 H
July 25 12 00 H
(-) I Retard
luly 2tl 1200 H New Time

7. WatchtimeonSept.29inlong.25"59'WwaslOH48M 30S andthewatcherroronzonetimewas9sslo

TheGCTanddareis:
a. lZh 32m 35s Sept.29 c. l2h 32m 35s Sept.28
b. 09h 04m 43s Sept.29 09h (Xm 43s Sept.28

SOLUTION:

\ry.T. 10h 48m 30s Sept.29

W.E. (+L 9s slow
C.W.T. 10h 48m 39s Sept.29
Diff. inTime lh 43m 56s

Diff. inTime = Long.Zi" -59'W / 15"

= lh 43m 56s

8. Whatisthel,CTatl-ong.118"17'E whenthezonetimc.s
22h 30m 40s?
a. 22h 23m 48s c. 22h 30m 48s
b. 22h 00m 48s d. 22h 23m 00s
SOLUTION:

Diff.inTime = Long. 118"17' I 15"

= 7h 53m 08s
G)8h 00m 00s
Diff. inTime = 0h 06m 52s

ZoneTime = 22h 30m 40s

Diff. inTime (-) 06m 52s (E)
L.C.T. = 22h 23m 48s

Navigation Problem 277

9. Sept.5th,thezonetineinlong.169"25' Wwas llh 30m 27s.ComputetheLMT.
a- llh l2n 47s c. llh lZm 00s
b. llh 08m 47s d" llh 00m 47s
SOLUTION:
Diff. in Time = Long.169"25'W / 15o
llh l7m 40s
TnneTime = llh 30m 27s
Diff. in Time = 17m 40s (W)
L.M.T. = llh l2m 47s

10. The steamingdistancefrom Manila t(. CostaRica is 9700 mile. If MV PRC departedManila on July 25,
1994at 0800hrs.and shipspeedis 12kts.,whatwill be thedateandtime of arrival assumingthatlongitude
of arrival is 75" W?
a- Aug.27 1120H c. Aug.27 1800H
b. Aag.27 1400H d. Aug.26 1420H
SOLUTION:
Tlme = Dist./Spd.
= 9700nm ll2lKts
= 33d 16h 20tn

MLA JVLY 25 08 OO
-08 D
JULY 25 00 00 GMT
+33 t6 20 .ST.TIME
AVG 27 16 20 GMT
o5 7rt
c. RrcA AUG 27 11 20 rl

11. Thesteamingtimefr,omManila toPananais2Tdays.MVPRCdepartedManilaonJuly02x?fr00brs.Calcu-

latethe dateandtimeof arrival if Longitude is 75o W.
a. Jury29 0700H c. July29 0400H
b. July28 220[,H d" July28 nIf,H,
SOLUTION,
MANILA July 02 20 00
- 0 8 n
July 02 t2 00 GMT
+27 00 00 ST.TIME
July 29 t2 00 GMT
05 D
PANAMA Iuly 29 07 00 x[

NE Navigation Problern
 and astarisobservedrising'Atwhattimewillthesane
12. YourveselisattheequatoratmidnightonJanuaryl
locationis still at the equator?
starrise onFebruaryi assumingyour vessel's
a- 2158H c. 2208H
b. 2l lOH d" 2217H

SOLUTION:
tine is 3m 56s'
The diffirence betweenSolartime andSidereal
3m 56s x 31 days = 2h 01m 56s
24h 00m 00s - 2h 01m 56s = 2lh 58m Ms

|3'TheLMTofLANisl2l0.YourlongitudeisT0o30'E.WhattimewouldyouenterintheNauticalAlmanac
determinethe declinationof thesunatLAN?
& 0728 c. 1652
b. 1042 d" 0652

SOLUTION:
70" 30' I 15" = 4h 42m

LMT = lzh 10m

rD - 4h 42!q-(D
affi
14.Youareinlong.165"EatM00H(ZT)Nov.l.Whatisthezonetirteanddateinlong'165'W?
a 1800H Oct.31 c' 0600H Ocl 31
b. 1800H Nov. l d' 0600H Nov' I

SOLUTION:
Long.165"E zl = 0 4 0 0 Nov. I
D -11 00
GMT = 1 7 00 Oct.31
D -11 00
l.ong.165"W Zl = 06 00 Oct.3l

15.Star'shourangleis3h30m.Whatwillbeitsmeansolartime5hourslater?
L 8h 40n 50.0s c' 7h 30'm 49'Es
b. 7h 40m 50.0s d" 8h 30n 49'2s

SOLUTION:
Siderealtime is aheadof 3m 56sto Solartine'
3m 56s I Uh = 0rr 9.83s x 5h = 0m 49'15s
3h 30m + 5h 00m = 08h 30m 00.00s
+ 49.15s
= 08h 30m 49.15s

NavigationProblem
n9
 16. Find thewatchtimeofsun'stransitin
lJtitude 40" 53'S. Longitude157""31,
E. watchis 9s fast.GMTis
Olh 43m 27s.
a- llh 50m 30s c. l}h 05m 40s
b. lzh 40m 36s d l}h 43m 36s
SOLUTION:
GMT = 0l h 43m 27s

ZI = lzh 43m 27s

WB + 09s fast
WT = l1h 43m 36s
17. convert 13h15m50ssiderealintervalinto correspondingsolarinterval.
a. 12h05m50s c. 14h30m 00s
b. 13h13m40s d. l3h05m 50s
SOLUTION:
Siderealtime is aheadof solartime by 3m 56s.
3m 56s I Uh = 0.1637m x l3h 15m 50s = 2m 10.2s
13h 15m 50s
(-) 2m lOs
-=-l3E-l3m--4-

GEOGRAPHTCALPOSTTTON
(cP)
At anymomentthedeclinationof a celestialbodyis equalto thelatitudeof its
Gp.TheGreenwichhour angle
(GHA) of thebody'if not greaterthan 180",is equalto thi longitude(w)
of the Gp.If GHA is grearertian lg0o ,
its explement(360" - GHA) is equatro longitude(E).
EXAMPLE 1.Find thegeographiclongitudeof a bodywhoseGIIA is z3z" 27,
.
SOLUTION:
Geog.L,ong. = 360" -GI{A
= 127"33'E
EXAMPLE 2. Find thegeographiclongitudeof a bodywhoseGHA is 12,1.30'
.
SOLUTION:
GHA of the bodyis 124" 30' (les than lg0o) therefore
Cieographiclongitudeis l?t1" 30, W.

2E0 Navigation Problem

 E>.
,/N M

,$\
lt- ,t

rn

TIME DIAGRAM

Time Diagram is a circle whosecenterrepresentsthe SouthPole,whoserim is the Equatorand whosc

radiusis a meridian.

The Longitude of Observer indicatesthe position of GreenwichMeridian. If longitudeis east,Green'

wich meridian is weslof Local meridianand if longitudeis west"Greenwichmeridianis eastof Local merid-
ian.
from the local meridianwestwardthrough360".
Local Hour Angle (LHA) is mea^sured

Greenwich llour Angle (GI{A) is measuredfrom the Greenwichrqeridian westwardthrough 360"'

Sidereal llour Angle (SIIA) is measuredfrom the First Point of Aries westward through360".

Meridlan Angle (t) is measuredfrom the local meridian eastwardor westwardtbrough 180" and labeledE
or W to indicate the direction of measurement.
Right Ascension (RA) is measuredfrom the Vernal Equinox (First Point of Aries) eastwardthrough 24
hours.

Navigation Problem ?81

 Note that when LHA is lessthan 180o, " t " is numerically the sameand is labeledW, but when LHA is
greaterthan 180", " t " = 360" - LHA andis labeledE.
EXAMPLE l. Given: L,ongitudeof Observer 120" E
GHA ofthesun 330"
Required: LIIAandMeridianAngleofthesun.
SOLUTION:
GHAof thesun 330"
Long.ofObs. +l20E
450"
i600
LHAof thesun = 090"
Mer.Angle(t) = 90" w
EXAMPLE 2. Given: Inngitude of Observer 040: W
GHA of Aries 140
SHAof theStar t70"
Required: LHA and Meridian Angle of the star.
SOLUTION:
GHA of Aries 140"
Long.ofObs. - 040"w
LHAof Aries = 100"
SHAof theStar + 170'
LHAoftheStar = 270"
Mer.Angle(t) = 90" E

E)GRCISES:
1. Whatisthemeridianangle(t)of
SpicaiftheGHAof Ariesis130"andtheSHAofSpicais160' ? Youarein
Longitude150" E.
a 080"W c. 280"W
b. 140" w d 290"w
2. IfyourLongitudeisl04'EandtheGHAofaStaris2ll",whatisthemeridianangle(t)ofthestar?
a- 045" E c. 315"E
b. 045" w d" 315"W
3. Foragiventime,theGHAofaPlanetis150"andtheG}IAof Ariesis 315'.WhatistheSHAoftheplanet?
a. 195" c. 11hours
b. 165" d. 045"
4. YouareinLongitude60"W.Whatwillbethemeridianangle(t)ofttresunifitsGHAis080"?
a. 140"8 c. 20'W
b.140"w d 20"8

282 Navigation Problem

 EQUATION OF TIME
The rotationrelativeta theapparenlsrz (the actualsun that appearsin thc sky) docsnot providetime of
unifmrr rate,bcause of variationsin the rateof revolutionand rotationof the earth.The error dueto lack of
uniformrate of revolutionis removedby usinga fictitiousmeansun.
Mean solar fime (meantime) is somedmesaheadand sometimesbehind apparent solar time (sundial
time).The difference,which neverexceedsabout16m24s,is calledthe Equatlon of Time ( F-q.T. ).
EXAMPLE1.Themeansunisahead(west) of theapparentsun. of timeis 12m00s.YtrurLongitude
Theequation
I
is 7 1" E. At what zonetime wouldthe suntransityourmeridian?

L.AT. lzh 00m

E Eq. T, + l2rn
L.A,T,
tz?o t'rr,r L.M.T. l2h lZm
Diff. T. ?4il -$f D
lv., t
E"lv
tv
Z,T. 1lh 48m

EXAMPLE 2.The equationof time is 12m00s.The apparenttime is ahead(west)of the meanlrrnc.You are
locatedon the centralmeridianof yourtime zone.At whatzonetime will thesuncrossthemeridian'/

E L.A.T w L.A.T. l2h 00rn

Eq.T. 12m
tzoo
L.M.T. = llh 48m
Diff. T. 00m
Z.T, llh 48m
Io
E
I

EXERCISES:
1. Themeansunisahead(west)oftheapparentsun. is09m00s.\bu arein Longitudel24"E.
Theequationoftime
At whatzonetimewouldthesuntransityourmeridian?
L 1153 c, 1151
b. 1209 d 1200
2. The equationoftimeis 09m 00s. Theapparent timeis ahead(west)of the mean timc. YtruareinLongitude
75' W. At whatzonetimewill thesuncrossthemeridian?
a- 1209 c. 1200
b. 1151 d. t205

Navigation Problem 283

 ORTHOGRAPHICPROJECTION

I Fl'

A DIAGRAM ON THE PLANE OF TIIE CELESTIAL MERIDIAN FOR LAT.45" N.

The diagram on the plane of the celestial me- Moving on up its parallel of declination,it ar-
ridian is usefulin approximatinga numberof rela- rives at position 4 on the celestialmeridian about
tionships.Considerthe figure. The Latitude of the noon- whent and LHA areboth0", by definition.
observer(NPn or ZQ) is 45" N. The declinationof On the celestialmeridiana body'sazimuth is 000"
the sun (Q4) is 20" N. or 180". In this caseit is 180" becausethe body is
At sunrise,position 1, the sunis on the horizon southof the zenith.The maximum altitude occursat
(NS). Its altitude,h, is 0". Its azimuthangle,Z, is meridian transit, in this casethe arc 54. 65". The
thearc NA, N63" E. This is prefixedN to agreewith zenith distance,z, is the arc ZA, 25". The body is
the latitudeand suffixedE to agreewith the merid- not in the zenithat meridiantransit unlessits decli-
ian angle of the sun at sunrise.Zn = 063" T. The nationis numerically,andby name,the sameaslati-
amplitude,A, is thearcZA, E27'N. The meridian tude.
angle,l, is the arc QL, 110" E. The suffix E is ap- Continuingon, the sunmovesdownwardalong
plied becausethe sun is eastof the meridianat ris- thefront or westernsideof thediagram.At position
ing. TheLHA is 360" - 110"=250". 3 it is againon the primevertical.The altitudeis the
As the sun movesupwardalong its parallel of sameas whenpreviouslyon theprime vertical,and
declination,its altitude increases.It reachesposi- the azimuthangleis numericallythe same,but now
tion 2 at about0600,whenI = 90" E. At position3 it measured lowardthe west.Theazimuthis 270".The
is on the prime vertical,ZNa. Its azimuthangle,Z, sun reaches position2, six hoursaftermeridiantran-
is N90" E, and Zn = 090" T. The altitudeis Nh' or sit, and setsat position1, whenthe azimuthangleis
sh. 27". numerically the sameat sunrise,but westerly,and

?34 Navigation Problems

Zn = ?60" - 63" = 297" T. The amplitudeis W 27'
N.
After sunsetthe sun continueson downward
alongthe parallelof declinationuntil it reachespo-
sition 5, on the lower branchof the celestialmerid-
ian, aboutmidnight. Its negativealtitude,arc N5, is
now greatest,25o,and its azimuth is 000o.At this
pointitstartsbackupalongthebackofthediagram,
arriving at position 1 at the next sunrise,to start
anothercycle'

SAMPLE QT]ESTIONSON ORTHOGRAPIilC PROJBCTION

1. If your Lat. is 60" N and a bodyhasa declinationof 40" N, then:

a. The body is belowthe horizon.
b. The body will rise and setfor an observer.
c. Both a and b
d. Neithera nor b
SOLUTION:
90" 90'
- Dec -40'N
PX 50"
+HO = ?
ffi
Body is 10" abovethe horizon at lower transit.
2. A body having a declinationof 24" S would:
a. Be seenat lower transit if you arein Lat. 70" S.
b. Neverbeseenifyouare atLat.70" N.
c. Both a and b
d. Neithera nor b
SOLUTION:
90" 90" 90" 90"
-Dec -24"S -HO
PD 66" m 94"N
+HO ? tDec 24"S
LAT 70" S LAT 70" N

Body is 4" abovethe If the zenithdist. is greaterthan 90"

horizon at lower transit. thebody is belowthe horizon'

3. The declinationof Vegais 38' N.

a. For an observerat 60" S, the staris circumpolar.
b. Starcould not be seenfor an observerat 60" N.
c. Both a and b
d. Neithera nor b
SOLUTION:
For a bodyto be seenat lowertransittheybothmusthavethesamenameandtheLat. plusthe Dec.
equals90" or more.

Navigation Problems ?3s

 DIAGRAM ON THE PLANE OF TIIE CELESTIAL HORIZON

N CELESTIAL
CELESTIAL
HORIZON
MERIDIAN

LN 5O"N

PRIME
VERTICAL
AMPLITUDE

a 4
W r
r

VERTICAL
+A CIRCLE
I
,A I
Given:
Amplirude
I
I of sunriseE 32'N
Lat. -50''N
Dec.@ 20" N I
t 60" E or4H HOUR
Azimuth = Angle PZX
CIRCLE
100'T
Alt. = Length of XH
= 34

The Navigational Thiangle is formed by Arcs ol':

1. A CelestialMeridian (P--Z)
2. An Hour Circle (P--X)
3. A VerticalCircle (Z--X)

The Three Sidesof the Thiangleare :

1 IZ or co-latitude
YZ = 90o-Latitude
2. PX or PolarDistance Lat. & Dec.Diff. Name(+)
PX = 90"rDeclination Lat. & Dec.SameName(-)
3. ZX or Znnith Distance
U. = 90"-Altitude
'l'he
Three Angles of the Thiangleare :
1. AngleP or MeridianAngle
2. AngleZ or Azimutlr
3. AngleX or ParallacticAngle

2K Navigation Problems
 SOLUTION OF RIGIIT SPIMRICAL TRIANGLES
Whentwo partsof a right sphericaltrianglein additionto theright anglearegiven,theremainingparts
canbe computedfrom formulasobuined by usingNapier'srules'

NAPIER'S RULF-S
I. The sineof any middle paft is equalto the productof the cosinesof the oppositeparts'
Sinmiddlepart = cosoppositex cosopposile
II. The sineof any middle part is equalto the productof the tangentsof the adjacentparts.
Sinmiddtepart'= tan adiacentx tan adiacent
Irt usassumethatangleZ=90"i sidePX = 70" andsideZX = 60". To find angleX, angleP andside
W, drawapu,right sphericaltriangleletteredin conventionalway.Encirclethe givenparts.

6oo

-
The barson P, PX, & X meanthe complimentsof; thus PX means90" PX or the declination.In the
pie
Napier'spie, the angleor the sidewhich is 90" is placedbelowtle verticalline. The five partsof the are
pX, p and W acrordingly. The threecircular parts above the horizontalline (X, PX & P)
namedT., X,
werebarred.PX was barred because it is the hypotenuse (opposite of the right angledZ). X and P were
barredbecausethey are adjacents of the hypotenuse.
..@"Jwoh9'
lA\E: +
Tofind angleX, aPPIYRuIeII :
Nerl Bl.*sla-Y' DY\t
SINCO-X = TAN CO-PX x TANZX
bf lsIrAary
cosx d'
= :3I # : 20"x rAN
fiT,ff"orrAN 60",ld*lgrr-t ^r"'in
'Ar\ou
= 0.63Mt49 b"s'U d zJY"
X = 50"55'09.3" eoliFtn$Yr'I '
RuleI :
Tofiwt angleP,aPPIY he^t evf-l knf"nlFl
SINZ)( = COSCO-P x COSCO-PX 7 JY \ilg it 6#t.
SIN P = SINZX/SINPX
= SIN 60" / SIN 70" PrDT\'t d hu I
= 0.9216049 {- q.rvru5 'J? r
P = 67" 09'42.6"
>- r5e9' d"c
rx(/lr
Navigation Problems 2E7
 Tofind side PZ, apply Rute I :
SINCO-PX= COSPZ x COSZX
COS PX = COS PZ x COSZ)(
COS PZ = COS PX / COSZ(
= COS 70" / COS 60"
= 0.68404,02
YZ = M" 50'23"

SPECIAL RELATIONSIIIP AS APPLIED TO ASTRONOMICAL TRIANGLE

l. When the body is on the rational horizon, it is 2. WhenEquinoctial(QQ') and diurnal circle (dd')
rrsing or setting. It's altitude = 0" i ZX = 90". coincide, the declination of the body = 0":
PX = 90".
t\

z-
v. =\,

4. When the body is on the Prime Vertical, True

J. When the observeris at the equator,Latitude =
0"iW=90" Azimuth is either 090" or 270". The azimuth
angle= 90".
t\
?
i+\
\x
,l
?z-
5. When the body is on the PnPsline, the local hour
angle of the body is either 090" or 270", merid-
ian angleis either90" E or 90" W.

288 Navigation Problerns

EXAMPLE l. Find the true azimuth of the sunand the local apparenttime of theoreticalsunrisein latitude
40" N. The declinationof the sun is 20o S.
SOLUTION:
l:it = 40" N Declination of the sun = 20" S
The sunis on the horizon (rising), Alt' = 0o; D(' = 90"
Tofind tlrc azimuth:
SINCO-PX = COSCO-U x COSZ
SINDEC = COSLATxCOSZ
cosz =:lN?Fit3?'-ls
= 0.4464755 co'Dec
Z T
= S 63" 28'55"E or 116.5" cd-LN

fo find ttu nuridian angle(angleP) :

SIN CO-P TAN CO-U x TAN CO-PX
COS P TAN LAT X TANDEC 900
TAN 40" x TAN 20"
0.3054072 L.A.N. = lzh 00m 00s
72" 13'02"| 15" H.A. - 04h 48m 52s
Mh 48m52s SUNRISE(L.A.T.) = 07h llm 08s

EQUIDISTANT
ORTHOGRAPHIC
z

H,

q N a

GIVEN: SUN IS ON THE IIORIZON

LAT 40" N DEC. SUN 20" S ALT. SUN = 0" ZX = 90"

NavigationProblems ?89
EXAMPLE 2. The true altitudeof the sun(morningobservation)was 30oand thegyro compassbearing
was 100". The observerwas in Lat.20" N, Long. 151' E. The sun wason the equinoctial.Find th" gy-
compasserror and the meridianangleof the sun.
SOLUTION:
Lat = 20" N T. Alt = 30" G/C Brg. = 100"
The sun wason the equinoctial, Dec. = 0"; pX = 90"
fo find thc azimuth :
SIN CO-Z = TAN CO-ZX x TAN CO-PZ
cosz TAN ALT x TIANLAr
= TAN 30" x TAN 20'
0.2101383 TZN to2" 07.8'
z s 77" 52.2'E G/BRG 100'00.0'
TZN 1 0 2 "0 7 . 8 ' T 2 07.8'E
Tofrnd thc meridianangle(angleP) :
sIN CO-ZX = COSP x COS CO-PZ
SIN ALf = COSP x COSLAI
cos P = SIN AUt / COS LAT
= SIN 30" / COS20" P
= 0.5320888
= 5 7 "5 1 . 2 ' E

EQUIDISTANT ORTHOGRAPHIC

N .-'-;[-].
a'
I
I ztl
h h'
FNl ' - - f ."\
Ea, H [.'!7" H

PS

s d4 Na
GIVEN:
LAT 20" N AI]T. SUN 30" DEC. SUN = 0" PX = 90"

2m NavigationProblems
 equatoruqs to]-an0 bue 067' T'
EXAMPLE 3. The mrc altitde of tbe sun takenby an ds€rv€r at t[e
of the sm is ltl" 52 '
Find the sun'sdeclinatim ad lbe lmgitude of the observerif GHA
SOLUTION:
Altitndeof thc $rn = 30o T. Azimuttr = 067"T
= ltl" 52' ktitude = O"iW =90o
GIIA of the sun
Tofind thc declination of tlu swt :
SIN CGPX = COSCGD( r COSZ
srNDEc
r :llllllllllllllllS:
ff,'":?';.
= 0.338383
DEC = 19"467N
fo fr.il tlu nwridian angle (angle P) :
SIN Z = TANP x TAN@7X
SIN Z = TAN P x TlAl{ ALiT
TAN P =
=
SIN Z / TAN AUI
SlN6f /TAN 30'
z
= 1.5941612 CHA = l8l' 52.0
P = 57o54.t E - 360" U|A = 302'05.8
LHA = 30r 05.8 IlNc = l2(f 13.8'E

EQUIDISTANT ORTHOGRAPHIC

N -- -.
, e i-;z

d fi
E i l
H H,

a' ila
d'
GIVEN:
ALT. SUN 30" TZN. SUN 067" oBsEnvER AT TEE EQUATOn'

Naigation Problems 29r

 flxAMl'l,l'1 4. InwhatLatitudeandl"ongitudewasanobserverwhenthesunthatbore2T1,Tgaveatr
altrt,rrf,'l'30". The sun'sdeclinationis 20oN andthe GHA is 130"20,.
t(ttllll()n :

I)eclination of the sun = 20" N Altitude = 30"

I'rue azimuth of the sun = 2't0" T GIIA = 130" 20'
1,, lrwl the Latitude:
';IN CO.PX
COSPZ x COSZX P
SIN DEC SIN IAT x SIN AIjI
stN LAI SIN DEC / SIN ALT
= sIN 20' / sIN 30.
o.6840402
I-AT 4 3 ' 0 9 . 6N
'
'1,;
p):
!ttttl the meridian anglQ4(angte
SIN ZX = COSCO-p x COSCO-PX
' {!s Al-T = SINP x COSDEC
:iJN l' = COSALI / COSDEC
= COS30'/ COS20'
= O.9216049 GHA = 130"20.0,
P = 6'1"09.7'W LHA = 67" 09.7'
iltA = 67'09.7' LONG 63' 10.3'W

IlQUIDISTANT ORTHOGRAPHIC

( l
J r t
P d
A ,.^
,/+
l

w , ii.-- * r Z
l\.
\ \ . X

s
(i IVHN:
SUN IS ON THE PRIME VERTICAL
Ar.'t.suN 30" DEC. SUN 20" N zN IS 090" T OR 270" T

292 Navigation Problems

 1lr111111titt
EXAMPLE5. ThealtitudeofthesuntakenbyanavigdtorinLatitude50"Swasl5'C5'.Jl1g1l1
of the sunis 20' S and the LHA is 270". Find the sun'sazimuthand intercept.

Solution:
Lat. of observer= 50" S Declinationof the sun = 20" S
LHA of the sun = 270" ObservedT. Altitude = 15" 05'
P or t = 360"-LHA = 90" E
fo find thc azimuth:
SIN YZ = TAN PX x TANCO-Z
COS LAT = COTDEQ' x COTZ
corz r x TANDEC 4O'aT
33:ifl. TAN 20"
= 0.2339555
Z = S76.83"E
TZN = 103.17"T

Tofind thc comPutedaltitude :

SIN CO-U = COSPX x c--os lZ
SIN ALT = SIN DEC X SIN LAT PX
= SIN 20" x SIN 50"
= 0.2620026
C. AUI = 15" 11.3'
O. AUf = 15"05.0'
..a,' 6.31A

EQUIDISTANT I('
ORTHOGRAPH

W
i H

GIVEN: SUN IS ON TIIE PNPS LINE

LAT 50" S DEC. SUN 20" S Mf,R.IDIAN ANGLE - 9I}. U / W

Navigation Problems 293

 EXERCISES:
l. An obcerverin IJt 30" l5' S takestte sun;sEuebearingto be 090or with an IJIA of 30t" 37,.Find
the srn's dec. at that instane.
t. 14" f l.7' S b. 20" 00.0'5 c. 09" 28.2'N d. ll" lS.3' N
TAN DEC = COS HA x TAt{ LAf
2. In l-at. 27" 45,'N,when the centerof a bright starwason the horizongavean hour angleof 7H lpM.
The doclination of the star wurld be :
a. 29" 4' b. 39" 58' c. 40" 23, d. 40" 03'
TAN DEC = COS HA / TAN LAf
Convert hour angle in time into luc.
3. An obaerverat the equatortmk an altitude of a bodyand gave18" while the azimuth was ll2" T. Tbe
dec.of &e body obcervodis :
a. 19" 05' b. 21" 03' c. 20 52' d. 19" 4g'
SIN DEC = COS ZN x COS ALI
4. Solveby Napier's Rule a right sphericalriangle WX, wbereinangleZ = 90", sideW,= 47" and side
PX = 71". Solvefa the anglep.
a. 61" 17' b. 57" t2' c. Zl" 05, d. 69" 20,
COS P = TAN PZ / TAN PX

5. What will be the meridian angle in Lat. 49" 20' N if the true altitude of a body on the prime Vertical
is 28" 56'?
a. 70ol0' b. 69" l0' c. 71" 08' d. Zl" 03'
COT P = COS LAf x TAN ALT

6. In Lat 29" 50' N when the bodywason the Prime Vertical gavean hour angleof 4H 32M. What is the
declination of the body?
L. 12" 53' b. 12 32' c. 11" 50' d. lZ" W,
TAN DBC = COS HA x TAN LAf,
Convert hour angle in time inlo arc.
7. Right angledsphericaltriangleABC, right angledat C, sidea= 45"46', angleA = 5g" 45'. Find side
c.
a. 56" 56'29" b. 56" SS'29" c. 56" 56.39" d. 56" 27,m
SINc=SINa/SINA

8. Right angledsphericaltriangleABC, right angledat C, sidea = 45o46', angleA = 5t" 45'. Find angle
B.
a. 48" 02'43 b. 48" 4i'OZ" c. 4g" 03, 43" d. 4g" 05'43"
SINB= COSA/COSa

9. Right angledsphericalhiangle ABC, right angledat C, sidea= 45"46', angleA = 5g" 45'. Find side
b.
a. 38" 33'30" b. 3t" 1J0,31" c. 39" 32'.00" d. 39" 3l'00"
SIN b = TANa /TAN A

294 Navigation Problems

10. To an observerin Lat. 50" N, a body is on the PrimeVertical. If dec. is 2lf N, find its dtitude.
a. 26" 31'04" b. 26" 34'01" c. 26" 4l'30" d. ?fi" 04'31"
SIN ALT = SINDEC / SINLAtr

11. To an dserver on the equator,a celestial body bore 2g0" T. True altitude was 32" 10'. Find th€
declination.
a. 16"49'45" N b. 16" 49'45"S c. 16"45'49" N d. 16"45'49" S
SIN DEC = COS ALT x COSZI{

12. The sunrosebearing064" T to an observerin Lat. 47" 30'S. Calculateits PolarDistance(PX).

a. lO7" l3'?A" b. 107" 24' 13" c. 17" l3'U" d. 106" 14'23"
SIN DEC = COSLAT x COSZN
PX = 90"+DEC

13. The declinationof the star baring 270" T is 34," The observerwas in lat.4lo N. Find the true
altitude.
a. 58"27' b. 55ol0' c. 60" 03' d. 59" 06'
SIN ALT = SIN DEC / SIN LAT

14. In what latitudewasan observerwhena star that bore270" T whosedeclinationwas22" 27'N gave
a true altitude of 36" 22' ?
a. 40" 05' b. 40" 39' c. 39" 30' d. 41" 05'
SINLAT = SIN DEC / SIN AUT

15. A body wason the rational horizon and on the Prime Vertical at the sametime to an observerin Lat.
35" S. Find its altitudewhen it b€ars040" T.
a. 32" 17.6' b. lE" 28.7' c. 47" 34.2' d. 29" 16.6'
TAN ALT = COSZN / TANLAI

16. An observerin DR 14" 25' N, 39" 58' W observes the true altitudeof the sunbearing090" T to be4O"
16' . GHA of the sun is 349" 01.2' . If the declinationof tle sunis 09" 12' N, find the intercept.
a. 1.9' towards b. 19' towards c. 3.5' towards d. 17' away
SIN HC = SIN DEC i SIN LAf,
"d' = Ho-Hc

17. Find the true amplitudeof the sunwhen settingat Lat. 37" 30'S, declinationis 22" 15' S.
a. E 48" 16.0'N b. W 2E"30.5'S c. W 16" 11.0'N d. E 30" 11.6'N
SIN AMPL = SIN DEC / COSLAf

18. In what latihrdeis the shortestnight equalsto l/3 of the longestday?The sun is on maximumdecli-
nation north.
a. 58" 28'N b. 58" 30'N c. 58"45'N d. 58" 35'N
TAN LAT = COS P / TAN DEC

NavigationProblems 29s
 SOLUTION OF OBLIQTIE SPIMRICAL TRIANGLE
THE LAW OF SINES:
In any sphericalEiangleWX, thesinesof tle sidesare proportionalto the sinesof the corresponding
oppositeangles.
SINPX = SINPZ = SINZX
SIN Z SIN X SIN P
or using the compliments of PX, W , & Z X :
COSDEC = COS LAT = COS AIJT
--mP
SINZ SIN X

THE LAW OF COSIhNESFOR SIDES :

In any spherical$ianglePZX,
COS PX COS PZ COS n< + SIN PZ SIN ZX COSZ
COS PZ COS PX COS Z( + SIN PX SIN ZX COSX
COS ZX COS PX COS PZ + SIN PX SIN PZ COSP
or usingthe compliments
of PX,PZ &ZX:
SIN DEC SIN LAT SIN ALT + COS LAT COS ALT COS Z
SIN LAT SIN DEC SIN ALT + COS DEC COS ALT COS X
SIN ALT SIN DEC SIN LAt + COS DEC COS LAT COS P

THE LAW OF COSNIES FOR ANGLES :

In any sphericaltrianglePZX,
COS Z = -COS X COSP + SIN X SIN P COS PX
COS Z = -COS X COSP + SIN X SIN P SIN DEC
COS X = -COS Z COSP + SIN Z SIN P COSPZ
COS X = -COS Z COSP + SIN Z SIN P SINLAT
cos P = -COS Z COSX + SIN Z SIN X COSZX
COS P = -COS Z COSX + SIN Z SIN X SIN ALT

296 Navigation Problems

OBLIQUE SPIIERICAL TRIANGLE WITII TWO SIDF-SAI\ID TIIE INCLUDED ANGLE ARE
KNOWN.
To find the declination,hour angleandthe parallacticangleof a bodywhenthe latitudeof the observer
and the altitudeand azimuthof a bodyaregiven,we solvea sphericaltrianglefor which two sidesand the
includedangleare lmown.
EXAMPLE : The truealtitudeof a certainstaris 52" 36.1',azimuthis 84" 55'from tle observerin Latitude
47" 51.7'N. Find the declination,LHA and the angleof position(parallacticangle)of the star.
SOLUTION:
Latitude of observer 4 7 "5 1 . 7 ' N
Azimuth of star 84" 55' Altitude = 52" 36.1'
To find the declination of tle star :
sINDEC
= :lilii{"iltf;u1rJr.?t.'$t";:ttriSrt#"ru
,' cos84"5s
= 0.6251982
DEC = 3 8 " 4 1 ' 4 8N"
To find the meridian angle (angle P) of the star :
sINP
= :NA""!'f 418'
3#i""i.:,P7?o.38"
= 0.7751317
P = 50"49'01"E
LHA = 360"-P = 309"10'59"
To find the parallactic angle of the star :
sINx
= 333|t""iil"i:i"'#1"o,38"41.8'
= 0.856262
X = 5 8 "5 3 ' 5 7 "

(
f
t r H
d

EQUIDISTANT ORTHOGRAPHIC'

Navigation Problerns 297

OBLIQIJE SPEEruCAL TRHNGLB WIIH THREE SIDES GIVEI\
To find the hou angle md azinuth of a body when the latitude of observerand the declination and
dtitu& of a body re given, we solve a sphericaltriangle for which threesidesare lnown.
E(AMPLE : An &crver in Lati$de q" l7' N measuresthe altitude of a star in the easternsky to obtain
25" ?6'.If the declinationof &e star is 30" 23' N, what is its local hour angleand azimuth?
SOLUTION:
Irtinde = 40" 17'N Dec. = 30"23'N Alt. = 25" 36'
lio fud tbeAzimuthof thesar :
COS Z = COSPX - COSZX x Cl0SIZ
SINZX x SIN IZ
SIN DEC - SIN ALT x SIN LAf,
COSALt x COSLAt
SIN 30'23'- SIN 25" 36'x SIN40o17'
COS25" 36'x COSN"l1'
= 0.3290993
Z = N 70" 47.1'E or 070"47.1'T
To ftnd rbe meridian angle (angleP) :
COS P = COS ZX - COS PX x COS PZ
Sn{ PX - SIIrIPZ
= SINALT - SINDEC x SINLAf,
COSDEC x COSLAT
= S I N 2 5 " 3 6 ' - S I N 3 0 " 2 3x'S I N 4 0 " 1 7 '
COS30" 23' x COS 40" 17'
0.1596489
P 80" 48.8'E
LTIA 360"-P=279"11.2'

A.L^r

EQUIDISTANT

tm NavigationProblems
EXERCISES:
l. An observeris in Lat. 46"5, calculatethe altitudeof the star if thedcclinationwas42" 22' S andLHA
is293"2l'.
a. 58" 27'
b. 29"10' S I N H C = ( C O S L x C O S D x C O S L H A )+ ( S I N L x S I N D )
c. 43" 30' I
'
d. 67" 13'

Z. A bodyeastof the meridianwasobserved by a navigatorin Lat. 47"50'N.Truc allittrtlt:of'thebody

mkenwas50"48' and the declinationwas29" 11' N. Find the meridianarlglc ol the hodv.
a. 3H 07M 01S
b. 3H 05M 03S COSP = SIN ALT -'SIN DEC x SIN LAT
c. 3H 03M 00S COSDEC x COSLAT
d. 3H 00M 29S f
The answerin arc is to be convertedinto tinte'

3. Find sideAB if anglec= 30" , sideAC = 65 min., sideBC = 80 min. solveby sphericaltriangle'
a. 0" 35'
b. 3" 01' COSAB = (SIN AC x SIN BC x COSC) + ( COS AC x COSBC)
e. 3" t4'
d. 6" 03'

is
4. At DR 39" 1g' N, 17" 43'W, find the inrerceprof the bodyif theGHA is 341" 26.2'; declination
19"25'S, truealtitudeis 22" 01.5'eastof themeridian'
a. 10.3AwaY
b. 5.6 AwaY
c. 2.6 Towards
d. 4.8 Towards
SIN HC = (COSLAT COSDEC COSHA) - (SIN LAT SIN DEC)
u d ' = H O - H C

by
). An observerin Latitude40" N finds the declinationof the sunto be 23" N and iLsaltitudeto be 50"
usingthe sextantwhen the sun is in the sky.
eastern Find the local time.
apparent

a. 09H 07M 37S

'l4H = SIN AI-jT- SIN DEC x SIN LAT
b. 52M 23S COSP
c. 08H 52M 23S COSDECxCOSLAT
d. 09H 20M 33S
The answerin arc is to be converted
into time andto be subtractedfroin
L.A.N. (l2H 00M 00s).

Navigation Problems 299

 CORRECTION OF ALTITUDES
l. The sextantaltitudeof the sun'slowerlimb was45" 20',l.E. 7.2'on the arc; H.E. 50.0feet;sun's
semi-diameter15.9';parallax0. i l' ; refraction0.94'.Find the true alitudeof the sun'scenter.
a 45" 26.9' c. 45" 30.6'
b. 45" 20.5' d. 45" 10.2'
SOLUTION:

4 45" 20.00'
LE. - 1.20' on the arc
tt 45" 18.80'
DIP - 6.93' REF. - 0.94'
H^r, 45" 11.87' S.D. + 15.90'
M.C. + 15.07' PAR + 0.11'
4 = 45" ?.6.94' M.C. = 15.07'

2. Thesextantaltitudeofthesun'supperlimbwas53" 14.4';1.8.1.4'offthearc;Dip7.5'; refraction

0.7'; semi- 16.3';
diameter parallax0.1'.Find the zenithdistanceof thesun.
a. 27" 08.6' c. 27" 12.3'
b. 27" 15.8' d. 27" 05.2'
SOLUTION:
Hs 53" 14.4'
I.E. + 1.4' off the arc
Ho 53" 15.8'
DIP - 7,5' REF. - 0.7'
Hnr, 53" 08.3 s.D. -16.3'
M.C. - 16.9' PAR + 0.1'
= 52" 5l'4' M.C, = -16.9'
4
- 90000.0'
U. = 27" 08.6'

3. The sextantaltitudeof tre starSPICAwas57" 18.9';I.E. 1.0'off the arc; H.E.2l feet;refraction
0.6'.Find the truealtitude.
SOLUTION:
tI. 57o18.9'
LE. + 1.0' off the arc
Ho 57" 19.9'
DIP - 4.5' (H.E.21feeO
Hor, 57" 15.4'
REF - 0.6'
4 = 57"l4'8'

300 Navigation Problems

 INTERCEPT METHOD
l. onFebruarylg,lgg:zatl2h36m20sGMT,thesextantaltitudeofthesun'supperlintbwa'sobserv
t o b e 7 0 " 3 0 . 5 , ; I . E . t . o ' o n t h e a r c ; H . E . 6 3 f t . a n d a p p a r e n t a l t iGHA
t u d eis
c o005"
r T c 35"
c t i ( )Find
n . 1 6the
.4'.The
ii it' +Z' S and the
in DR 25" 32' S, 09" 34' E. Declinationof the sun
azimuthand intercePt.
SOLUTION:
005"35' DR I,at = 2 5 "3 2 ' S
GILA of thesun
+ 09"14'E Dec. = 1 1 "4 7 ' S
L.ong
t-fte of thesun = 15"09'
SIN Hc = ( C O S L x C O S D x C O S H A )+ ( S I N L x S I N D )
= 70"09'6'
4
SIN an = (SlN HA X COSD)
cos Hc 4 70"10.5'
I.E. I 0' on the arc
an N 48.9"W
3 1 1 . 1T" H o = 70"29.s'
TZN
DIP n.l' (HE68f0
-l;
o.9s ./ IrE feet 70" 21.4'
DIP
M.C. 16.4'
F t = 70"05.0'
70"09.6'
4 =
--v---= -a3-r-
altitudeof the sun'sloworlimb wasobserved
2. On Decemberll,lggzat 09h 33m 10sGMT, the sextant
theapparentatt!!$ correctionis l3'7'' The vessel
!o be20"08.3';I.E. 1.0'of tn" arc;H.E.56 ft' and
of thezun is2?"02'SandtheGIIA is 324"57'' Find
is in DR position25"48'N,16"33'W. Declination
the azimuthand intercePt.
SOLUTION:
3U"57' DR l,at = 25"48' N
GHA of the sun
- 16"33'W Dec. = 23"02's
Long.
LFIA of the sun = 308"2'1'

SIN Hc = ( C O S L x C O S D x COSHA) - (SINL x SIN D)

H c = 20" 08.5'
SIN ZN = (SIN HA x COSD)
COSHC I.E. + 1.0'
= s 50.2" E DIP 1.3'
ZI\f
= 129.8"T M.C. +13.7'
TZN
TOTAL CORR.= i 1 T

= 20"08.3' H
--T = 20' 15.7'
q
= * '7.4' r{
--c = 20"0t{.5'
T.C.
= 20" 15.7' w --- 7 z't
4

301
Navigation Problems
 MERIDIAN ALTITUDE
Fittd the scxtantsettingfor the estimatedmeridianaltitudeof Fomalhaut( Dec. 29" 52.2' for
S) an
observerin DR Lat. 35' 50' N, dip 6.9' , I.E. 3.0'off thearc,andapparentaltitudecorrection-2.1.
a. 24" ll.8'
b. 24" 23.8' SOLUTION:
c. 24" 17.8' LAT 35. 50.0'N
d. 25" 07.2' DEC 29" SZ.Z,S
D( 65" 42.2'
- 90" 00.0'
ALTT 71" 17.8'
T. Corr. - 6.0' (rev)
ALTS = 24" 23.8'

Alpheratzwas obaervedon the meridianbearingSouthwitd a true altitudeof 75" 03.g', declination

28" 51.1'N. Find the Latitudeat time of sight.
a . 2 9 "1 7 . 8 ' N
b . 1 4 "5 7 . 2 ' S SOLUTION:
c . 1 1 "2 8 . 6 ' N H, 75"03.8' BearingSouth
d. 43"47.3'N - 90" 00.0'
D(. 14" 56.2'
DEC. + 2 8 "5 1 . 1 ' N
LAT 43" 47.3'N

3. The true meridianaltitudeof Man was49" 32.3'N bearingNorth on the 20th March 1992(Dec.0l"
22.5'N) in Long. 45" W. Find theLarirudear timeof sight.
a. 28" 10.7'N
b . 1 4 "1 8 . 2 ' s SOLUTION:
c. 39" 05.2'S H, 49" 32.3' BearingNorth
d . 4 1 "5 0 . 2 ' N - 90" 00.0'
D( N" 27.7'
DEC - l" 22.5'N
LAT 39"05.2'S
4. A navigatorobservesthe sun on the meridianbearingsouth.The declinationof tle sun is 17" 20, S
and the corected altitudeis 65"33'.Find the latitudeof therobserver.
a. 7"07'S c . 4 1 "4 7 ' S
b. 7"07'N d . 4 1 "4 7 ' N

5. A navigatorobservesthe sun on the meridianbearingnorth. The declinationof the sun is 23" 00' N
and the correctedaltitude is72" 30'. Find the latitudeof theobserver.
a. 40" 30'N c . 5 "3 0 ' N
b. 40" 30's d . 5 "3 0 ' s

302 Navigation Prohlem^s

 CHRONOMETER ERROR
L The daily error of a chronometerwould be more likely affectedby:
L. Pressurechange c. Irregularwinding
b. Vibration of the vessel d. Temperaturechange

Z. You takea time tick using the 2000 GMT signal.You heara 10 sec.dash,a 5 sec.silentperiodand
rlen six dots. At the sixth dot yorrrcompiuingwatchreads07H 58M 53S. When comparedto the
chronometer,the comparingwatchreadsOBH00M 09S and the chronometerreads08H 01M 15S.
Find the chronometereror.
z. lM 07S slow c. lM 165 fast
b. 0M 09S fast d. 0M 01S slow
SOLUTION:
wAf,cH 08H 00M 09 s cMT = ?frH 00M 00S
CHRON. 08H 01M 15 S WATCH = 19H 58M 53S
'
DIFF. = OlM 065 fast W ERROR = 01M 07S slorr
DIFF. = 01M 065 fast
C.E. = 00M 01S slow

j. "A" is gaining 1.0 sec.daily. Chronometer"B" is gaining 4.5 sec.daily. "A" is 14M
Chronometer
"B". 'B" on "A" at the endof 38 days
05Sfast of What will be the error of
a,. 7M 10S slow c. 13M 00S slow
b. 9M 15S slow d. llM 52S slow

SOLUTION:
"A" gaining 1.0S dailY x 38D = 38S
"B" gaining4.5S daily x 38D = 1715 o r 2M 51S
"A" is 14M 05S fastof "B"
x 51s
= llu;;i*""'"
4. At GMT 10H 00M 12S,the chronometerreads10:01:30,The chronometererror is:
a. 12Sslow C tu 18Sslow;'
b. lM 3GSfast d. lM 18Sfast
SOLUTION:
Chron.Time = 10H 01M 30S
cMT = 10H 00M 12S
Chron.Error

NavigptionProblems 303
5. At GMT 00H 00M 315,thechronometer
reads11:58:05.The chronometer
error is:
a. llH 58M 465 fast c. 2M 265 slow
b. llH 58M 465 slow d. 2M 265 tasr

SOLUTION:
GMT 00H 00M 3rs
or uH 00M 31S
Chron.Time 23H 58M 05S
Chron.Error = 2M 265 slorv

6. On July2 at GMT 12H00M fi)S, theChronometerreads12:02:40.On July 17at GMT 12H00M 00S,
the Chronometerreadsl2:02:l0. The chronometerrate is:
a. 30 seconds c. 25 per day gaining
b. 25 perday losing d. 2M l0S fast

SOLUTION:

Jufy2 CT r2H 02M 40S

GMT IzH OOM OOS
CE 02M 40S fast

July l7 CT l2H 02M 10S

GMT TzH OOM OOS
CE 02M 10S fast

Changein error luly 2 2M 40S fast

July 17 2M l0S fast
l5d 30S lost
ld 25 lost
Chronometerrate: 2s per day losing

7. Thenavigator'sstopwatchwasstartedat theinstantof observation

and stopJrdwhenthechronometer
readl:17:23.The stopwarch
thenreads21S.Thechronometer time of sightwas:
a. l:17:02 c. l:17:23
b. 1:17:44 d. I:l'l:20

SOLUTION:

Chron.Time lH l7M 23S

Elapsed - 2lS
cTofsight lH l7M 02S

304 Navigation Problems

OTHER PROBLEMS :
1. A greatcircle crossesthe equatorat 134"E. It will crosson tbe westernhemisphereat:
a. 34" E a
o
b. 134"W
c. 46"W EAUAr4R,
d. 124"W ffif"

4A'
2. A greatcircle crossesthe equatorat t73" E, on the of the hemisphereit will cross thc
equatorin longitude: |T;t;,at
a. 73" E
b. 173"W
c. 7"W dw gfe
d. 73" W

3. A vesselcrossesthe equatoron a G/C tracksteering235" t:*t":t'hs further1,320miles,rindthc

courseat the end of tie run.
a. 225"7
b. 23'1"T
c. 248"7
d. ul" T
SOLUTION:
Cot X = CosXE/TanE
= Cos22" / Tan 55" X
= S 57"00'W or 237"7

4. Usingyour logarithm table' solvefor 71 | 149'5'

a. 47.492
b. 0.4749
c. 4.7492
d. 0.7494

5. Usingyour usefultable,fin<lthe logarithmof 0'0000763'

a. 4.ll7$
b. 4.rr748
c. 4.11752
d. 4.11754

6. What will happenif you get the logarithmof zero(0)?

a. Thereis no logarithmfor zertl,thereforeit is an error'
b. The logarithm for zerobasa largeinfrnite value'
c. The logarithmfrrr zerohasa small infinite value'
d. Thc logarithmis cqual to negativevalue'

y)5
Navigution Problerns
 SPEEDBY REVOLUTIONS
SLIP = 100%- EFFICIENCY EFFICIENCY= 100%-SLI|
EFFICIENCY = OBSERVEDSPEEDORDISTANCE
ENGINE SPEEDOR DISTANCE

PERCENTAGEOF SLIP = ENGINE SPEED- OBSERVEDSPEED x 100

SPEEDOF ADVANCE = RPM x 60 x PITCH x EFFICIENCy

6 0 s 0 .
ENGINE SPEED = RPM x 60 x PITCH
6080

FUEL CONSERVATION
PER HOUR OR PER DAY (TIME) NEW CONSUMPTION = NEW SPEED3
OLD CONSUMPTION OLD SPEED3
PER MrLE (DTSTANCE) NEW CONSUMPIION = N. SPD' x N.D.
OLD CONSUMPTION = O. SPD' x O.D.
PER DISPLACEMENT NEW CONSUMPTION = N. DISP.z3
OLD CONSI.JMPTION O. DISP.,/]

To find the value for displacementB

GIVEN: DISPLACEMENT = 14.000Tons

x2 3{-
14000 rlrv

Or by Logarlthm

14000LOG 4.146128x2 = 8 . 2 9 2 2 5 6 I13 = 2 . 7 6 4 O 8 5 4

lox
NV t-] s80.87857

306 Navigation Problems

 The pitch of the propelleris 20 feetand
EXAMPLE 1. The distancecoveredin 24 hourswas348miles.
the enginehaveturnedan averageRPM of 71' Find the slip'
SOLUTION:
ObservedSpeed = Distancetraveled/ SteamingTime
= 348 miles / Z hours
= 14.50knots

EnginesPeed = RPM x 60 x P/6080

= 71 x 60 x 20ft / 6080ft. Pern.m'
= 14.01knots

% of SliP = Eng. SPd.- Obs'SPd' x 100

--
E"g. Spd-
= 14.01kts. - 14.50kts' x 100
w
= -0.034975 x 100

SliP = -3.5%

propellerslip is 107o'If the propelleris

EXAMPLE 2. The pitch of your propelleris 19 feet and the
turning 70 RPM's, what is your speedof advance?
SOLUTION:
EfficiencY = 100%-SliP
= lW%o - l0%
= 90% or 0.9

Speedof Adv. = RPM x 60 x P x Bff' / 6080 ft' per n'm'

'."
= 70 x 60 x 19 ft x 0 / 6080ft. p€r n.m'
= 11.81knots

propellerslip is 3.5'l'. If your speedol'

EXAMPLE 3. The pitch of your propelleris 19.8feet and the
advanceis 20.5knots,how fast is the propellerturning?
SOLUTION:
SpeedofAdv. = RPM x 60 x P x Eff'/6080
RPM = SPd.ofAdv' x 6080/60 x P x Eff'
= 20.5kts x 6080/ 60 x 19.8ft x 0'965
= log.72

I-et us recall bow to find efficiencY:

EfficiencY = lA0Vo -SliP
= lN% ' 3.59o
= 96.5% or 0.965

Navigation Problems 307

 EXAMPLE 4. If the pitch of thepropelleris 20.1fentandtherevolutionsper dayare l18,1Zg.What
will
be the day'srun if the slip is -6%?

SOLUTION:

Efficiency = 100%-Slip
= 100% _ (_6%)
= lO6% or 1.06
Day'sRun = Rev.per Day x p x Etr / 60g0
= 118,178 x 20.1 x 1.06 / 6080
= 414.13miles

EXAMPLE 5. If the enginespeednecessaryfor roachingport at a designatedtime is 16 knotsand the

pitch of the wheelis 22 feel"how manyrevolutionsper minutewill the shaftturn assumingthat slip is
TVo?
SOLUTION:

EngineSpeed = RPM x 60 x p/6080

RPM = Eng.SPeedx 6080/60 x P
= l6kts. x 6080 / 60 x 22ft.

EXAMPLE 6. Yourvesselmakesher normal2O.Olcrots while consuming100Tonsof fuel daily.In order

to conservefuel for the remainderof the trip, you docideto reduceconsumptionto 75 Tons.What will be
yourvesselsnew speed?

SOLUTION:

N. Consumption = N. Speed3
O. Consumption = O. Speed3
N. Speed3 = N. Cons. x O. Speeds/ O. Cons.
= 75 Tons x 20.S / 100Tons
N. Speed = ,r/-eOOO
= 18.17knots

EXAMPLE 7. A vesseloonsumes 250bbls.per day while steaming at 16.0knots.If shetraveledat 19.0

lmots,how muchwould sheconsume?

SOLUTION:

N. Consumption = O. Cons. x N. Speed3/ O. Speed3

= 250 bbls. x 193 | 16,
= 418.64trbls.

308 Navigation Problems

EXAMPLE E. Your vesseltravels a distanceof 750 miles at 12knots. What speed could you make to
travel 625 miles consuning the sane amotmtof fuel?
SOLIJTION:

N. Cons. = N. SPd.2 x N. Dist.

O. Cons. O.SPd.' x O. Dist.

N. Speed' = N. Cons. x 0. Speed2 x O. Dist.

= lxl?] x75011x625

N. Speed = .m23
= 13.14knots

EXAMpLE 9. Your vesselconsumed20 T of fuel when traveling 175 miles. How much fuel will she
consumetraveling 400 miles?
SOLUTION:

N. Cons. = O. Cons.x N. Speed' x N. Dist'

O^Sp""d' . 0 Di*
2OTons x 12 x 4ffi ll2 x 175
= 45.7T

EXAMpLE 10. A vesselof 12 ,000 Tonsdisplacementburns250 bbls.of fuel whenfully loaded.Find her
per day for
daily oonsumptionat the sames@ after discharging5,000 Tons of cargo,allowing 25 bbls.
auxiliary puryoses.
SOLUTION:
O Disp. = 12,0(X)Tons 250 t$ls.
-
Disch. - 5,000Tons -zzsnr-terouv
25 bbls.
ffi
N. Cons. = N. Disp. m
O. Cons. O. DisP. 4

N. Cons. = O. Cons. x N' DisPB

O-D"P.'"
225tibls. x ( '{Jffi )
t.m

.'T;'Jol,3''*
= frifrhf
NavigationProblens 30!)
EXERCISES:
1. Yourvesselsteaned4827milesin 11days00 houn 30 min. Thepitch of thepropelleris 20.3feetand
you turnedan aver4geof 91.1RP vl's. What is the slip for the voyage?
a -1.7% c. 1.7%
b. 0.0% d. n.8%

2. Ths?itch of your propeller is 22 feet and the propellerslip is -5%. If the propelleris turning 85
RPM's, what is your speedof advance?
a. 19.4kts c. 17.5kts
b. 18.4kts d. 16.1kts

3. The pitch of yourpropelleris 21.5 feetandthepropellerstip is -1.5%.If pur speedof advanceis22.5

kts, how fast is the propellerturning?
a. 92.2NPM c. 104.5RPM
b. 95.4RPM d. 107.7RPM

4. If the enginespeednecessaryfor reachingport at a designatedtime is 16.7kts and the pitch of the

wheefis 21.4feet,how manyRPM will the shaftturn, assumingan averageslip of 6%?
a. 74.JRPM c. 84.1RPM
b. 79.1RPM d. 107.8RPM

5. You are turning by enginesenoughrevolutionsto makea speed6.21.5 kB, assumingno slip. If your
slip were6Vo,whatwouldbe the speedof advance?
a. 20.2 kts c. 22.7 kts
b. 21.5kt$ d. 22.9 kts

6. For a daysrun, a vesselturnedan averageof 80 RPM.The pitch of thepropelleris 28fet. Fromnoon

to noortshemadegocxl543 miles.Find the slip for the day'srun.
a. 48% c. 0.0%
b. 2.3Vo d. -2.3Vo

If the pitch of the propellcris 18.8feet and the revolutionsper day are 108,000,calculatethe days
run allowing-ZVoslip.
a. 267.2 mlles c. 340.6miles
b. 327.3miles d. 400.7miles

8. Your vesselsteamed6't83 miles in 19 days18 hours30 mins. The pitch of the propelleris 19.8feet
and you turnedan averageof 80.4RPM. What is the slip for the voyage?
a. l3.lVo c. 10f%
b. 9.6./o d. 15.0%

9. It is 1200on July 4 at your vesselandyouhave555 miles to run. Youareto arrive at the pilot station
at 1800on July 5. Yourvesselhasbeenmakingan averagespeedof 20.5kts. Thepitch ofthe propeller
is 21.5 feet. You anticipatea slip of 5% far the remainderof the voyage.At what speedyou must
increaseor decreaseto in order to arrive at the pilot s0ationat your scheduledETA?
a. 17.6kts c. 19.5kts
b. 18.5kts d. 22.6kts

310 Navigation Problems

10. your vesselconsumed280 tons of fuel while traveling a distanceof 915 miles at a speedof 18.5kts.
you must travel an additional 325 miles. You haveonly 65.5 tons of fuel remaining on board.What is
the maximum vo)'agespeedwith the remaining fuel ?
a. 3.5ks c. l2.2krs
b. 11.4kts d. 15.0kts

ll. your vesselst€amed350 miles at 20 kts and onsumed 80 tons of fuel. If you travel the sane distance
at 15 kts, how much fuel would you consunre?
a. 33.8T c. 45.0T
b. 41.27 d. 57.5T

lZ. your vesselst€amed400 miles at 18kts and consumed65T of fuel. Ibw far could the vesselsteamat
20 kts on 80T of tuel ?
a. 263.3miles c. 443.1miles
b. 398.8nile.s d. 607.8miles

13. you are making a2100 nile voyage.After traveling 1375miles at 18 kts you find that you have
consumed2TlT of fwl. You have 80T of fuel renaining. Yor want to arrive at port with 10T of fuel
remaining. What numberof RPM would youorder if the pitch of the propeller is 19.5feet and the slip
exPectedis7%?
a. 82RPM c. 72RPM
b. 77RPM d. 67RPM

14. A vesselof 14,000Tdisplacementburns 350 trbls.of firel per day when fully loaded'After discharging
5,500T of cargo, what will be the new frrel consumptionper day?
a. 187.7trbls. c. 261.8bbls
b. 251.0 trbls. d. 467.8ttbls'

1 5 . On a voyage,your vesselSMG is 1l kts. while using39T of fuel per day.After steaming4 days,only
l05T of fuel renain with 950 miles to go. What maximum speedcanyou make and arrive in port?
a. 4.8 kts c. ll.0 kts
b. 9.5 kts d. 15.3kts

16. A vesselof 10,000Tdisplacementburns 200 trbls of fuel when fully loaded. Find her daily consump-
tion at the sarnespeedafter discharging 4,000T of cargo, allowing 25 bbls per day for auxiliary
purposes.
a. l2$.5 bbls c. 168.7bbls
b. 149.5bbls d. 207.5bbls

you have
1 7 . ' you are making a voyageof 3600 miles. After raveling 2250 miles at 15 kts, you find that
you make and
consumed230T of fuel- You have 90T of fuel remaining. What maximum speedcan
still reachport having 15T of fuel remaining on board?
L. 6.6 kts c. 11'l kts
b. 10.3 kts d. 12.1kts
(ZD 0). The
1 8 . your vesseldepartsN. York (ZD +4) at 0800 July 26 on a round trip voyageto Liverpool
you haveon boardat departure650T offuel. The pitch ofthe propeller is 21
distanceis 3150miles.
feet. The slip anticipated on the \oyage over is 6%. Yout vesselwill be operating at full sea speed
turning 11O RPM. What is your ETA at Liverpool,consideringthe slip ?
Answer: 1500on August1

Navigation Problems 311

 REQUIREDBOARDINGARRANGEMENTS
FOR PILOTS
In compliancewith SOLASregulations
h handhold danciions
ngidly surd lo ship'3

rGpnsrblc
{

s e i l - r g n i l r n gl r g h '

bulwarl
hddcr
PILOTACCESSPOIM
: KEEP CLEAR - \
L _ _ _ _ _ l
NO
MMIMUMRIGGING
HEIGHT
9 METRES
HANDHOLD NO!
no shac*les
= srANcHloNS
diam,min.4 cm
frn. 120 cm long rso 799
75 fr apan

NO!
SPREADER ihc alcps hu3t
180 cm long
be equally
SHIPSWITHHIGHFREEBOARD spacd

(MORETHAN9 M):
SIDE ROPES plot boillng lhough si(b &of
mniL nd nylon or wlh ladder conbhatkm
NO!
dirm. 2 ch thc 3laPs musl

t t
b horizonlal

l l
lw. 8 3lcF
NOt
MspraedcB
not bc bshd

I
t l
t l NO!
lha sda rcpca
musl b. .qually
oftaer in
radao@nlad
with bridgp
sth slcp
must tr ACCOMODATION
3prcedar
LADDER
ru3t f6t laghlly agaanlt t st
shap'3 s&
|wtum 55" slopr
9d gz
p
bwd pLltm
ngir, hendr.ib
ho?izodll
] EE lE
PILO] LAOD€R
md
2dc
abva
c{.nd

bEr
d lrqt

phltom
{
I NO LOOPS!
lh. loops ar. e ldpphg har.rd tor
lhc pibt end can bG loulcd wnh
lha pilol launch.

312
 MARINE, POLLUTION (MARPOL 73-78)
1-!L meanspetroleumin anyfomt including crude
\,.-foil, fuel oil, sludge, oil refuseand refined
products.
ANNEX I (O[)
Discharging of Oil. The regulation govern the
discharges,except for clean or segregatedballast"
from all ships.They requireinter alia all shipsto be
fitted with pollution preventionequipmentto comply
with the stringentdischargeregulations'They also
designateSpecialAreas.
They prohibit the dischargeinto the seaof oil or
oily mixtures except when all the ff. conditions are
satisfied:
From a shlp other than an oll tanker' and
machlnera spacebllges of an oll tanker (excluding
ciugopumproombilges) unlessmixed with oil cargo
residue:
2. The tankeris morethan 50 nauticalmiles from
the nearestland.
3. The tankeris proceedingen route.
4. The instantaneous rate of dischargeof oil con-
tent doesnot exceed 60 liters per nauticalmile.
5. The total quantityof oil dischargedinto tle sea
does not exccedfor existingtankersl/15,000of
thetotal quantityof the particularcargoof which
the residue formed a part, and for new lankers
(as definedin the Annex) 1/30,000of the total
quantity of the particular cargo of which the
residueformeda part.
6. The tanker has in operation, except where
provided for in the Annex, an oil discharge
monitoring and control systemand a slop tank
iurangement.
ANNEX V (GARBAGEFROM SHIPS)

1. The ship is not within a SpecialArea This Annexprohibitsthedisposalinto the seaof

all plastics,including but not limited to synthetic
2 T\e shipis morethan 12nauticalmiles from the
ropes,syntheticfishing nets, and plastic garbage
nearestland.
bags.
3. The ship is en route.
The disposalinto the seaof the following gar-
4. The oil contentof the effluent is less than 100 bage shall be made as far as practicable from the
ppm.
nearestland,but in anycaseis prohibitedif the dis-
5. The ship has in operation an oil discharge tancefrom the nearestland is less than:
monitoring and control system,oily water
separatingequipment"oil filtering systemof othef 25 n.m. for dunnage,lining andpackingmateri-
installation requiredby this Annex. als which will float;
12 n.m. for food wastesand all other garbage
From an oll tanker (except from their bilges including paper products,rags, glass,metal and
mentionedabove): similar refuse.
1. The tanker is not within a SpecialArea

Saferyof Ltfe at Sea 313

 MERCHANT SIilP SEARCHAND RESCUE
(MERSAR)
DISTRESS INCIDENTS 4 Maintain a continuous listening watch on the
frequencyused for the distress.This will nor-
In general,distressincidentsfall into two main
mallybe:
categories:
(a) 500 kHz (radiotelegraphy)
l. Coastal - in which someor all of the following (b) 2182kIIz (radiotelephony)
may be available to assisr ships, aircraft, heli- (c) 156.8 MHz (VIIF Channel 16 - radiote-
coptersand shore-basedlifesaving facilities; lephony) for ships fiaed with VIIF equipment
2. Ocean - in which ships and long range aircraft ody;
may be available although, in the more remot€
5. Maintain warchon 156.8MHz (VHF Channel
o@anareas,only ships may be available.
16) asnecessary;
COMPONENTS OF TTIE DISTRF^SSMESSAGE 6. Operateradar continuously;
bnportant componentsof the distressmessage 7. If in the vicinity of the distress, post extra
include: lookouts.

1. Identificationof the ship; DEF'INITIONS

2. Position; Datrmr. The most probable position of the search
3. Natureof the disressand thekind of assistance target at a given time, 0aking into account tbe
required; expectedeffect of drift since the initial position of
incidentwasestablished.
4. Any otherinformationwhichmight facilitatettre the
rescue (e.g. courseand speedif underway;the Drift. The estimatedresultantof wind. currentand/
master's intention, including the numher of or tidal streamthat will causea changein the posi-
persons,if any, leavingthe ship; typeof cargo, Gonof the searchtarget.
if dangerous).
Xlxpandingsquaresearchpattern. A typeofsearch
patternsuitablefor a singleshipwhichshouldsearch
ACTION BY ASSISTINGSHIIIS
outvrardin expandingsquaresfrom the datum.
Thefollowingimmediateaction-(shouldbe L*on
by eachshipon recciptofa distressmessaqe: Sectrir sr:archpattern. A rype of searchpattern
suitablefor a single ship in specialcircumstanc€s
l. Acknowlcdgereceipt and if approprilrtc, (e.9., man overboard)in which the ship searches
rctransmitthe the distressmessage; radially from datum using a systemof sectorsofa
2. Tr,1to take immediatelyD/F bearingsduring circle.
the transmissionof the distressmessageand
Parallel track search patterns. Searchpatt€rns
maintain a D/F watch on 500 Wlz andlor 2182
suitablefor two or more ships in which all ships
kHz;
maintain parallel courses.
3. Communicatethe following informationto the
ship in distress: Shlp/atrcraft coordlnated searchpatt€rn. A search
pattern in which a ship and an aircraft conduct a
(a) Identity oordinated search.
O) Position
(c) Speedand expecledtime of arrivd (ETA) T[ack. The path followed by a single ship.
(d) When available, true bearing of the ship in
Sweep.Defhed as one long leg of the track.
distress;

314 Safetyof Ltfe at Sea

PLANNING THE SEARCH coordinated manner,all units shouldproceedat the
It will be necessaryto establisha datum taking samespeedas directedby the coudinator surface
into accountthe following factors: Search(CSS).This shouldnonnally be ttre maxi-
mum speedof the slowestship present.In restricted
1. Reportedpositionand time of casualty; visibility, the CSSwill nonnally order a reduction
2. Time intervalbetweenshipsproceedingto assist in searchingspeed.
and arrival on the scene;
3. Estimatedsurfacemovementsof the casualtyand/ INITIATION OF SEARCH
or survivalcraft during theperiodmentionedin Whenone ship arriveson scenewell in advance
(2). This will dependprimarily on drifg, of theothers,sheshouldproceeddirectlyto thedatum
4 The likelihood of SAR aircraft arriving on scene and commencein expandingsquaresearch.
before assistingships; If possible,datumrny bemarkedby puttingover
5. Any supplementaryinformation such as D/F for examplea liferaft or other floating marker as a
bearingsor sightings. checkon drift. This can then be usedas a datum
markerthroughoutthe search.
SFARCHING SPEED
To carry out a parallel track search in a

MOST PROBABLE AREA

DRIFT

e--
INITIAL
POSmON

USER = 10Mn ES FOR INITTAL ARBA

DETERMINING TIIII TNITIAL MOST PROBABLE AREA FOR SEARCII

Safety0f LW at Sea 315

 EXPAI\IDING SQUARE SEARCII PATTERN

SECTOR SEARETT-PATTERN

-J

"g

3r6 Safetyof hfe at Sea

PARALLEL TRACK SEAR,CHPATIERN - TWO SHIPS

E
4
$t
8+ il
t a ri
E
-"6i $i
El
rATUM
$i
ti
l.v
; - wtvrA4\tEJREoF.ag€,Fu1-z4Mrtl€ *,

PARALLEL TRACK SEARCII PATTERN - TIIREE SIIIPS

K- -tJgB-s-- >F- - - Jzgl9g - - - - -l

-- )\
1 - :
sl
xq l .. '
Ei
LI *
ir' '

$i
6
>t
0,
al
H
(r r
sl
Fl
sl
rBt
Mtr.E lrtur J-y
I

nrAa< ) I?IZK { l?|rr7

r,+Mll5lr
Wr9ftf AGN X(Ate,A- _ _\l

Saferyof Ltfe at Sea 317

 PARALLEL TRACK SEARCII PATTERN -FOUR SHIPS

-T
I

!i
iir l

ti
b:
s;
{l
fRxrctta - --tI
I TR€(Z lFAct(l Tt4,d<,
I
I
k- yw ffi."'sA./+{ -rrMtLEs
- ---t

smP/ AIRCRAFT CO.ORDINATED SEARCH PATTERN

|-- A---+i a---|' --+'

I I
I I
I I
I
a I
I
I
I
I I
I I I
I
I
I I I
I I I
- t I I
aSOtWCrto I

I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
---f

31E Safetyof Ltfe at Sea

 SAFETY OF LTFEAT SEA
l. When can an officer of the watch deviatefrom the Rules of the Road?
a. Only if thereis a risk of collision. c. Whenthe bearingof a vesseldoesnot change.
b. Never d. To avoid immediatedanger.

2. How often should a vesseloperating in seawaterbe dry docked?

a. 24 months D. 6 months c. 18 months d. 12 months

3. Which of the following is not requiredthat the ship'snamebe printed on?

a. Fire hose c. Portablefire extinguisher
b. Lrfepreserver d. Lifeboat oars

4. To avoid collision or to allow time to assessthe situation, a vesselshall:

a. Reducespeed c. TakeallwaYoff
b. Stop or reverseher engine d. All of the above

5. When setting a safe speed,you must considerall factorsEXCEPT:

a. Visibility, wind, sea
D. Presence ofbackgroundlight suchas lights ashore
c. Traffic density and your vessel'smaneuverability
d. Scheduleyour vesel is to keep

6. Heatcausedskin injury called:

a. Wounds b. Burns c. Blisters d. Bruise

7. Narcoticis given to a patientwhen:

a. Intoxicated b. Ingreatpain c. Heisgroggy d' Unconscious

8. Universalantidot€is usedto neutralizea sick personwith:

a. Poison b. Hemorrhage c. Diarrhea d. Cleuwounds

9. A srimulantis given to a personwho is:

a. Fainting b. Intoxicated c. Poisoned d' Noneof these

10. Wherewill you find the lifeboatstationif youwereassignedto lifeboatno. 3?

a. Port side behind tr,at#Z c. Stbd.side,behindboat#l
D. Stbd.side, forward boat d. Port side,behindboat#1

11. You are approachinganothervesseland will passstbd.to stbd.without dangerif no coursealteration

is made.What action will you take?
a. Hold on coruseand sound I blast. c. Hold on courseand soundno blast.
b. Hold on courseand sound 2 blasts. d. Nter to stbd. and soundI blast.

12. Whendeckwashingwith high pressurewaterhose,what precautionshouldyou take?

a. Weardeep-grooved rubberbootsto avoidslipping.
b. Remainbarefooted avoid slipping on wet deck'
to
c. Wearswimming trunks to avoid wetting clothes.
d. Reducewater pressureso that the hoseaction is avoided'
13. What is the safetyfactor for all lifeboatequipments?
a.5 b.6 c.4 d'7

Safetyof LW at Sea 319

 14. While undenvay,fre breakout in the forwardpart of the vessel.Wheneverpracticable,what will be
the first thing you shoulddo if you areon watch?
a. Keepgoing on halfspeed. c. Call for assistance.
b. Abandonshipto windward. d. hrt the vessel'ssterninto the wind.

15. Whenmay a passenger visit the pilot housewhen the vesselis undenvay?
a. Passengersare not allowedwhen underway.
b. Whenauthorizedby the Masteror officer on duty.
c. Whenescortedby a ship offrcer.
d. During daylight only.

16. Who shouldsign eachentry in the oil recordbook?

a. The Chief Engineer c. The watchofficer
D. The officer in-chargeof the operation d. The Master

17. Beforelaunchinga lifeboat,which of the following eventsshouldhappen?

I. Boat'splug shouldbe pluggedin.
II. The lifeboatshouldbe clearofblocks and lashins.
III. The limit switch shouldbe closed.
IV. The lower tackleshouldbe clear.
a. I,II,&tV ,. II,III,&IV c. I,il,&tV d I. II.&III

18. Youareon watch at seaand a man falls overboardon the port side,forwardnear#l hatch.Which of
the following shouldyou do FIRST?
c. Call the Master.
,. Put the helm hard over towardthe port side.
c. Soundthe alann to arouseall hands.
d. Stopthe engine.

19. What is the importanceof ascertaininggyro error by azimuthor otherdependable

meansat leastonce
a watch while a vesselis underway?
a. To detectany changein error.
b. To be ableto main0aina recordfor futurereferenceif on the sameheading.
c. Both a and b.
d. Neithera nor b.

20. In writing up the logbookat the endof your watch,you madean error.Which of tlte following is the
way to correct the error?
a. Carefullyand neatlyerasethe entry andrewrite it cgrrectly.
b. Removethis pageof thelogbookand rewriteall the entrieson a cleanpage.
c. Slot out the error completelyand rewrite the entrycorrectly.
d. Crossout the error with a singleline and rewritethe error correctly.

21. lf a spill occurs,wherewould you log it?

a. Oil recordbook b. Bell book c. Smoothlog book d. Official log book

22. Fueloil ventsare fitted with corrosionresistantscreensto prevent:

a. Escapeof flammablevapors. c. Conosionin the tank vent.
b. Flamesenteringthe tank vent. d. Damageto the bdl check.

320 Safetyof Ltfe at Sea

23. Oil is discoveredaroundlour vessel'You should:
a. Shut down the transfer operationsimmediately.
b. Notify the CoastGuard.
c. Both a and b.
d. Neithera nor b.
24. Foanextinguishesfire by:
a. cooling b. chemical action c. Inerting the air d. smothering

25. During you watch, what you ate not requiredto makeentriesin?
a. Smoothlog book b. Rough log book c. Bell book d. Official log book

26. Limirswirch on a lifeboatdavit mustbe inspectedat leastevery:

a. 3 months b. week c. montl d. 2 nonths

27. Which of the following is not consideredasoIL as definedin the MARPOL?

a. Oil mixed with dredgespoil c' Sludge
. ,. Oil mixed with waste d. Oil refuse

28. While loading tuel oil, you seea fresh oil slick alongside.What would you do FIRST?
a. CaIl the Engineeron watch.
b. call the chief Mate.
c. Stoploading.
d Determineif the slick is coming from your vesselbeforetaking action.
29. Whena vesselviolatesan oil pollution,who may be held responsible?
a. Master
b. Owner
c. Licensedofficers
d. Anyindividual connectedwith the vesseloperation

30. While on seawatch,the ofhcer on duty is alwayspreparedto:

a. Preparefreshcoffeefor the incoming duty.
b. shouldbe particularlyconcernedwith avoidingcollision and stranding.
c. Shouldseeto it that fire watchis maintained'
d. Nl navigating instrumentsare working properly.

31. The term PARTYunderthe IMO regulationsmeans:

a. Socialgathering
b. stateabiding to the termsof the convention
c. A political PartY
d. Personthat signedin theconvention

32. Which statementconcerningstorm oil is correct?

a. It has moderateeffect on the surface., c. It reducesfriction betweenwind and water.
in
b. It is mosteffective shallow watef,i d. Mineral oil is the mosteffectivetype.

33. The purposeofstorm oil in a seaanchoris to:

a. *eigh down the anchor' c. Repeldangerousfish'
D. Lubricate the anchor. d. Smooththe sea.

34. Which of the following is consideredprimary lifesavingequipment?

a. Lrfepreserver D. Lifeboat c. Life ring d. kscnal flGtatim devioe

Safetyof Ltfe at Sea 321

 35. If a fre startedfrom a switchboarddue to shortcircuit, this classof fire would be:
a.D b.B c.A d.C
36. On a tanker,regularsanitaryinspectionis madeat the crew'squarterby:
a. Master& Chief mate c. Master& SecondMate
D. Master& Chief Engr. d. Master& Union delegate
37. An orangecoloredsmokesignalor thesedetonatingluminoussignalsfired at intervalof oneminute
means:
a. To embarkhereis dangerous.
D. We seeyou, we will providehelp as soonaspossible.
c. This is the mostsuitableplaceto embark.
d. Man in the buoy.
38. On a rigid life raft which is equippedwith all of the rqquiredequipment,youmay not find:
a. Seapainter b. Lifeline c. Fishingkit d. Boathook
39. Extinguishingoil fire is very effectivewhen:
a. Cutting off oxygensource. c. Removingfuel.
b. Cooling belowits ignition temperature. d. Sprayingwith water.
40. What lifeboatequipmentwouldbe mostsuitableat night for signalingto ship on tle horizon?
a. Flashlight c. Redparachuteflares
b. Red hand flares d. Lantern
41. The steeringoar of a lifeboatis usuallyreferredto as the:
a. Becketoar b. Sweepoar c. Strokeoar d. Bumpkin oar
42. In the MERSAR manual.EPIRB standsfor:
a. Emergencyposition indicatingradio beacon
b. Ilarborbeacon
c. Aircraft comnunication system
d. Radio direction beacon
43. The most commontype of davit found is:
a. Quadrantal b. Gravity c. Radial d. Vertical
44. A hydrostaticreleasemechanismfor a life raft:
a. Will inflate the raft.
b. Shouldkept watertightbeforerelease.
c. Must be submergedto a certain depthto releaseautomatically.
d. Must be wet beforeit will release.
45. Spontaneous combustionis most likely to occurin:
a. Rag soakedin linseedoil. c. Dirty cleaninggears.
b. Partially loadedtanks. d. Overloadedelectrical circuit.
46. Small oil spill on deck can be kept from going overboardby:
a. Pluggingthe soundingpipe. c. Closingthe lid to the vent.
D. Driving woodenplug to the vent. d. Pluggingthe scupper.
47. The minimum length of lifeboat carried on board ship that tradeson oceanserviceis:
a. lOft b. 16ft. c. 28ft. d. UfL

322 Safetyof LW at Sea

48. In cleaningoil spill, chemical agentswould:
a. Notaffecttheoil c. Absorboil for easyremoval
D. Removeoil from the water d. Dispene or dissolveoil into the water

49. For how long distressflares maintain their approval?

a.3yean b. 2years c. 5 years d. lyear

50. when entering a spaaewhich hasbeen clooedfor a long perio4 always:

a Know what hasbeen storedin the comparonent.
D. Tell your intention to other person.
c. Be familiar with where gasmask and safetylampsare slored'
d All of the above
51. yoty vesselhas flounderedand you reachedashoreon a life raft. The fint thing to do is:
& Drag the life raft ashoreand lash it down for shelter.
b. Set the raft back out to seaso somemay spot it.
c. Get provision on the life raft
d, Find somewood for fire.

52. When should you preparethe lists of duties and regulationfor emergencies?
a During the roYage c. On arrivalatnextPort
D. Before leaving Port d. After leaving port
purposes?
53. Itrowoften should abandonship and fire drills be performedfor crew training
a. Only upon boarding the shiP c. At leastonce a month
b. At leastevery6 months d. Onceayear
site, how would you
54. When you receivethe proper signalsfrom an aircraf to headtoward an accident
indicate the signal's correctcomprehension?
a. By sendingblack smokesignals c. By launchingparachuteflales
b. By hoistinga red flag d. Bychangingcoursetowardstherequireddirection
by:
55. LifebOatsfor oceangoing vesselsshall carry in excessof the requiredregulation
a. 7l%ofpersonsonboard c. 25%ofpersonsonboard
b. s}%ofpersonsonboard d. 100%ofpersonsonboard

56. Annually,all CO, fire extinguisheron boardvesselare:

a Weighed c' Checkfor pressureloss
a. OirJnirged and recharged d. Sentashoreto an approvedservicetacility

57. In the eventof fre in the crew'squarter,oneof your first act is to:
a. Ventilate the quarters' c. Closeall ventilationto the quarters.
b. Preparcto abandonshiP. d. Att€rnpttoputoltthefirebyprtable fireextingui$er.

approachthe victim:
5g. you arepicking up a personthat hasfallen overboard.A small craft should
a. with the victim to leeward c. wind on your port side
b. With the victim to windward d. Wind on your stbd side

extinguishingsystem'you
59. Xiosafelyentera compartmentwhen CO, hasbeenreleasedfrom a ltxed
should:
a. Wear a canistertype of gasmask. c. Testair for pure air indicator'
b. Testair for supportof life. d. wear self-con&ained breathing appafatus.

Safetyof Life at Sea 323

60. The lowest bmperatur€ required to causeself -sustainedmrbustion of a substanceindependentof
any outsidesoutceof ignition is:
a Bxplosive range D. Ftashpoint c. Ignition t€mpera$re d Cmhstio t€mperagrc
61. C1)26rc sltinguisher is requin d to be rechargedif the nreightlossexoeeds:
a- l% b. 5% c. 7% d. l0%
62. When a shipmatehaqxs obviously severcdepression:
c. Avoid him until he snapooutofit.
D. Disorss his problemswith hin, watch him closely for suicidat tendencies.
'
c. hrt him in a locker room and stayaway.
d. Tdl him dirty jokes and seastoriesto take bis mind offhis troubles.
63. Which extinguishing agent will abso6 the most heat?
a. @, D. Foan c. Water d. Drychemicals
6. Dry chemical fire extinguisherwould be effectivefor which type of fire?
c. Burningoil &. Elecrical c. Paint d- Nlof theabove
65. Yur just rescueda personin an unconsciousstaE, what will be the proper stimulant?
a. Ta, b. C-affee c. Whisky d. Ammonia inhalant
66. The most effectiveooling agentamongthosenormally usedto ftght fire is:
a Waterfog D. Chemical foam c. Mechanicalfoan d COz
67. A passengervesselthat had beenissueda stability letter must haveit posted:
a Adjrcnt to certificab of inspection c. In the wbeelhouse
D. In the ship's office d. Fassengerarea

6E. What data is nor yainted on the bow of a lifeboat?

a. Weight of the boat c. Hme port
D. Capacityin cubic feet d. No. of persursallowed

69. If a helicopter is going !o land on bmrd your ship, what measureshould you take?
a. Sop your ship and ponr fuel oil to dampenthe sea
,. Sail into the wind at the highest speedpossible.
c. I{ave a rescueteam readyin casetbe helicopterfalls into the sea"
d. Clear the landing site and mark it witb a large white H.

70. What is tbe most imporant considerationwhen determining how to fight an elecrical fire?
a. Whether the fire is in machineryor passengerspace.
D. Dangerof shoct to personnel.
c. Amount of toxic fumes createdby the extinguisher.
d. Maintaining electrical power.

71. Each lifeboat shall be loweredto the wabr, loadedto its allowedcapacityevenly disributed tbrough-
out the length, lowered3othe water until it is afloat and rcleasedat leastonceevery:
a. 18 months b. 6 months c. Z months d. 12 montbs

72. Accessto a cargo prmp room in a tanker carrying GradeD liquid cargorequires:
a. Only on areaswith power ventilation. c. Awayfrmr galley,crw'squtrter, navigatim spaa.
D. Isolatedfrom souroeof vaporignition. d. Fhomopendecl.

324 Safetyof Ufe at Sea

 a tanker is:
73. The most likely locatiqr for a cargo fire on board
a. At tbe manifold c' At the openendof the cargoline
b.Inthepumprmmd,Atthelocationotblankflange

74. Extinguishing oil fire is very effectivewben:

a. SPraYingwith water c. Coolingbelowits ifnition temperature
D. Cutting offoxYgensouroe d. Removingfuel

T5.whichextinguishingagentisthebesttofightelectricalfire?
c' Foam d. Q2
a. Waterfog b. DtY chemical
mustcontaina:
76. The fueman'soutfit whenrequiredin cargovessel
a. Combustiblegas indicator c' Canistertype gasmask
b. Fresbair breathing appara$s d. Self-containedbreathingapparatus

7'l. AccordingtosoLASrequirementforlifeboatfall,whatactionmustbetakenwiththefallatinterva
of not more than 5 Years?
D. Weight tested c. hoof tcsted d. Renewed
a. End for end
andcannotbe controlled,whatactionshould
78. Whenmooredalongsidepier and fire brokeout on board
you take?
o. lUuoOon the ship and notify the port authorities'
D. Dischargethemost valuablecargo'
ge:rs'
c. Castoff and sait the ship out of port by her own
d Both a andb
of
within 24 hrs. after leavingport if thepercentage
79. on a cargovessel,fire andboatdrill mustbe held
crew replacedis more than:
b. 20% c. 5% d. 25%
a. l0%
is:
80. In a fixed CO, system'the amountof CO, to be carried
space
largest proteded' c' Enough for the enginespace'
a. Enoughfor the
a. nnouit for 30%oitpu"" protected' d' Enough all spaces'
for

you do?
81. Whenyour ship is in distress,what should
c. Transmitttre appropriatealarm signals followedby thebell'
b. Blow long whistleblast on the ship's siren'
c. Sendblack smokesignals'
d. Transmit distressmessageand ask for assistance'
extinguisheris:
82. The frrst stepin operatinga portablefoam fire d' Breakthe safetydisc'
Pull the lock pin'
a. Openthe vatve. a] furn upsidedown.. c.
loweredto the wat€'rat leastonceevery:
83. On a cargoor oankvessel,eachlifeboatmustbe d' Year
a. Wcek b. Month c' 3 months
"personin charge"of loadingand dischargingoperationin a tankership?
84. Who may serveas the
a. Licensedofftcer c' PumPman
b. Certifiedtankerman d' Bmun

85.Ifpassengersareonboardandifaboatdrilliscarriedout,the"ymust:
a. Takepart. c' Go to their guarters'
.
D. Watchhow it is conducted d' Stayout the wayof crewconductingthe drill'

Safetyof Life at Sea 325

 86. What precautionarymeasureshouldbe takenbeforeenteringclosedareaswherechemicaldissolvents
and paint productsarepresentin order to avoid intoxicationby inhalation?
c. On enteringthe area,checkthat no productis split.
b. hepare extinguisherto sprea(overany toxic gases.
c. Wearprotectivegogglesto aveid any injury to theeyes.
d. Beforeenteringcarry out a completeventilationin the area.
87. To carryout a paralleltracksearchin a coordinatedmanner,all vesselshouldproceedat what speed?
a. Maximum speedof eacbvessel.
b. Minimum speedof the fastestship present.
c. Maximum speedof the slowestship present.
d. Speedeachvesselmay efficienttyaccomplishthe search.
88. A personmaking falseentry in the oil recordbook is subjectto which penaltyin the US laws?
a. Imprisonmentand revocationof license.
b. Monetaryfine and imprisonment.
c. Monetaryfine and suspension or revocationof license.
d. Monetaryfine, imprisonmentand suspension of license.
89. Whenfloating in the seawaiting for rescue,what shoulda persondo?
a. Remove all clothing to make staying afloat easier.
b. Stay afloat with a minimum of movement and in crouched
C, Swim continuously to avoid heat loss and hypothermia.
d. Drink small amount of salt water to frequently recover.

90. Is oily bilge water dischargepermittedwhenthe ship is in port in a specialarea?

a. Yes. c. Yes,if a separatorwith automaticcontrolis used.
D. Yes,if settledfor sufficienttime. d. No.
91. what is the primary hazardotherthan fire damageassociated
to classc fire?
a. Susceptibleto reflash c. Electrocutionor shock
D. Explosion d. Deep-seatedfire
92. When enteringa compartmentwhereCO, hasbeenreleasedfrom a fixed extinguishingsystem,you
should:
a. Testthe air with pure air indicator. c. Weara self-contained breathingapparatus.
b. Weara canistertypegasmask. d. Testthe air with live bird.
93. The mosteffectivemeansfor fighting an oil fire on the watersurroundingthe vesselis a :
a. solid streamof waterat theedgeof thefire. c. Dry chemicalover the fire.
D. Foamdirectedagainsttlre sideof the ship. d. High velocityfog over the fire.
94. Most fire explosionon a tankeroccursin tank when:
a. During the first strike at the tank bottom.
b. Shortlyafter fueling when fuel vaporgather.
c. During fueling when fuel strikesfuel alreadyin the tank.
d When undenvaywhen fuel is agitated.
95. If it becomes to pumpbilgeswhile a vesselis in port, which of the following procedurewill
necessary
you follow?
a. Pumponly asmuchasneces.;ary. c. hrmp arly if disdrargeisledtoa shaetanku strrage.
D. Pumponly duringhoun of darkness. d. Pumponly on tlreoutgoingtide.

326 Safetyof Ltfe at Sea

 from the fire by using:
96. Whenapproachinga fire fron windward,you shouldshieldfirefighters
a. Hig[ velocity fog c. A straight stream water
of
b. l;6,;'xvelocity fog d. Foan sPraY

g7. what instfurlent is themostaccurateto beusedin measuringthe amountof oxygenin the atmosphere
in a confined sPace?
a. Oxygen indicator c, Combustiblegasindicator
b. Flarne safety lamP d. A1l of these
shouldbe ready?
98. In the vicinity of a collision area,which of the following equipment
a. Firefighting equipment c' Intercom telephone
D. An explosivegasmeter d' Oxygen analyzer
escapinggasis to:
99. Generally,the first action in extinguishingan LPG fre causedby
a. seepflame away with water. c. call the local fire department'
D. Usgchemical fre extinguisher. d' Shutoff the leak'
voyage'you should:
100. Beforehaving a man enter in Oe chain locker after an ocean
a. Make sure that tbere is sufficient oxygenin the compartment'
b. llavesomeonestandingbY.
c. De-energizethe windlass.
d. Nl of these
maintainan oxygencontentof not more
101. An inert ga.ssy$emon a crudeoil carriermustbe designedto
than what Percentin the tank?
b.8% c. 4% d. ll%
a. 0%
ships shouldby day display the code
102. A vesseloordinating a searchand rescueoperationby merchant
group:
b. FR C. CSS d. CR
A. CV
systemon a cargovesselshallbe at
103. The Otal availabtesupplyof CO, for usein a fixed extinguishing
leastsufficient for:
a. All the sPaceof the vessel c. Engineroomand largestcargospace
D. All qugo space d. Spacerequiringlargestamount

lM. The lifesavingequipmenton all vesselshall be:

a. Inspected*""nv b. worn at all times c. Readilyaccessible d' Testedyearly
not |g taken when there is no water
105. Besideslnowing how to producewater, what liquid should
available?
a. Urine c. Rainwater
b. Water from marine animats d. Desalinatedseawater
what element/sshouldbe eliminated
106. The threeelementsof any combustionare heat,fuel and oxygen.
to avoid combustion?
b. Fuel c. Ileat d. AnY of the three
a. Oxygen
beent&nsmittedto rescueservices'what is the
107. Beingsurvivorsin a lifeboatand lour positionhasnot
first action You should do?
a. Light a fire at night to showlour position'
D. Ration lhe water and food in caserescueis delayed'
c. Fire smokesignals to showyour position'
d. Start rowing in a fixed direction to look for help'

Saferyof Life at Sea 327

 108. The r€motecontrol for a fxed fire extinguishing systemshouldbe:
'.Cmoealod
a fron the crery. c. painted red and labeled.
D. Probct€dbyPlexiglas. d padlocked.
109. In heavy watber, which of the following should not be usedto reduce the effpct of the seafa tbe
purposeof rescueexcep as a last resort?
c. Fish oil D. vegeabb oil c. Animar oil d Fuer oil
110. chlorine gascan be htat if expoeedto severely.cblorine gas is primarily a:
a. Nerve pralyzing agent c. Respiraforyirritant
D. Skinburningagent d Bloodpoisoningagent
1ll. Any vesselofany nationatity departingon a voyagemore than 24 hrs. shall be to participate
to AIVTER syst€m.
c. obliged D. compened c. Required d. Encouraged
ll2. Anothernemefor pain relieveris:
a. Depressanr b. Analgesic c. Tranquilizer d. rlypnotic
113. Tbe mmt effective agentin combatingwmd fire is:
a. hy chenical D. Foam c. Waler d. @2
114. In a rescueoperationin beavy sea,you decide!o hove to, the lifebmt should be:
a. Brought to a position with the stern into the sea
D. Allow to take its own head.
c. Brought bow into the sea

115. A tanker carrying carbontetrachlorideis dangerousbecausethe cargoreact wherrcxposedto fire by:

a. Forming poisonou phosganegaswhen in contactwith hot metal.
D. Forming an acid which would causeextensivedanage to the environmentif it leaks to the water.
c. Burning so hot that it will melt mostmetal.
d. Exploding.

116. In rescueoperations,what doesthe expression"searchin spiral square"means?

a Searchin squaresformedby 4 shipseachone searching
D. Searchin a squareareaof fixed dimension
c. Searchin a squareperformedby a ship and an aircraft
d. Forming squaresearcharreaincreasingconcentrically

117. You are on watch at night in port and discovera fire in hatch#1. What actionwill you take first?
c. sound the generalalarm. c. Advise the Master and chief Mate.
D. Releasec1), in hatch that is on fire. d. r,grda fre hoceto the hatch.

118. The proper time to leave the bridge after the relieving officer gets to relieve you is:
a. When he comesto the bridge.
b. Afte,rthe relbving offroer bas takena goodfix,
c. Afte,rhe saysyou are relievcd.
d. lftex the relieving officer is suisfied with the position and situation.

119. Blood flowing from a cut artery would appear:

a. Bright red with a steadyfloil. c. Dark red and in spurts.
D. Dark red with a steadyflow. d. Bright red and in spurts.

32E Safetyof Ufe at Sea

120. Ventilating storagebattery sprcesis requircd becalse:
c. Lesselectrolyteis requireCfamainmane. c' Ventilation avoidsflammable gasacotmulation'
D. Ventilation gives exlaoxygen charging. d' Ventilation avoids Cil), build-up'

121.Theprimaryobjctiveof Fint Aid is:

a To Preventfurthermjury' c. To help a patient.
b. To alleviatePain. d. Tb give life.
is requiredin quick closing shut off valves?
122. AccordingO regulation, what fire safetyonEol features
c' A fusible link'
a. Electrical cut ofrswitch .
b. AwatersprayenEbr. d Manualcutoffswitch'
firing them require assistanoe?
123. What colc of parachuterocket flares indicatesa vessel
a. Red D. Orange c' White

124. Which of the following is a good conductorof elecricity?

D. Freshwater c' Distilled water d. coz
a. Salt water

125. Concemingoil spill, which statexnentis correct?

a. They usually disappearquickly'
b. TheYusuallYstay in small area"
c. A small spill is not dangercusto marine life'
d.Theyrnaycauseserious-pollutionastheeffecttendstobecumulative.
pfeventbonedisplacementis:
126. Adeviceusedto immobilize fracturesand help d' Stretcher
a Bandage D. Tourniquet c' Splint

127. To treatfrostbite:
a. Rub with ice or snow. c. Rub briskly to r€storeciiculation'
b. Warm exPosedPartsraPidlY' d WraPtightlY in warm cloths.

GradeD liquid cargobe isolat€dfrom source

128. Regulationrequiresthat cargopump in tankerscarrying
of vapor ignition bY:
a. Generalcargo spaces c. Gas tigbt bulkhead
d. Passageway
D. Cofferdart
what part of the ressel is down wind?
l2g. Acapsizedlifeboat can be righted most easily when d' Stern
a. Centerboard D' Mast c' Borr
grosstonnageof 125'000'how many international shore
130. A tankeron an inprnational royagehaving a
connectionshould be Provided?
b.4 c.3 d. I
a.2
a fire nain sys0em'In the eventof an electrical fire in
13r. A vesselis equippedwith fxed co, systemand
fire is:
the engineroom, the correct procedureof fighting the
a. UJ the C0, syst€mand eracuate the engine room'
D. Evacuatethe engineroom and usethe Cl)2'
c. Evacuatethe engineroom and usefire main'
d. Usefire main and evacuatethe engineroom'
outfit shall baveat leasthow many compleleoudits'l
132. Everycargovesselrequiredto carry a ftreman's d ' l
a . 2 b . 4 c ' 3

Safetyof Ufe at Sea 329

 133. In port, you are on watch fu a vesselthat will load brmkers.Before oommencing,what
will be your
first action?
a. Notr$ the Engineer on duty c. Ensurethat no personis smoking
D. Preparescupperplugs for oil spillage d. Put up No Smokingsign
134. one of the most prevalentdiseasesof,seamenis sexually transmitted,the most conunon
medicinein
the vessel'smedicinechestfa this is:
a. Penicillin D. Chloramphenicol c. Codeine d. Epsomsalts
135. An emeticinducesone to:
a. cry D. Sleep c. Vomit d. Nl of the above
136. Which of the following is consideredto be the most important pieceof abandonship
equipment?
c. Lifeboar D. Life buoy c. Life raft a. LtterirKei
137. what is the primary reasonfs the prohibition in dumping of oil at sea?
d. It destroysthe sea c. It causesfire.
b. It destroysmarinelife. d [t keepsthe beachesdirty.
138. The meaningof CPRis:
a. Cardinal pulmonary respiration c. Cardiovascularrespiration
D. Cardiopuhnonaryresuscitation d Combinepulnonary resuscitation
139. Catharticsaregiven to patientto:
a. Induceconstipation c. Relieveconstipation
D. Inducevomiting d. Induceurinating
140. The averageman at rest will breathabout:
a. Every 10 seconds b. Every 5 seconds c. Every 12 seconds d. Every g seconds
141. In reviving a personwho hasbeenovercomeby gasfrmes, which of the following would
1ourvoro
doing?
a. Prompt removalof the patient from the suffocatinga0nosphere.
b. Giving stimulants.
c. Applying artificial respiration and massage.
d. Keepinghim wann and comfortable.

142. When it is necessaryto rcmovea victim from a life threateningsituation, the persongiving first
aid
must:
a. Placethe victim on a stretcherbeforeattemptingremoval.
b. Avoid subjectingthe victim to any unrrccessarydisturbance.
c. Pull the victim by the feet.
d. Cany the victim to a location whereinjuries can be assessed.

143. The emergencytreament given to the ill or injured beforeprofessionalmedical servicescan be ob-
tained.
a. Medication c. First aid
b. Medical treaonent d Emergencyaid
lM. A substancewhich neutralizesthe effectsof a poisonor preventsits absorption.
c. Antidote b. stimulant c. Euretic d. catlartic

330 Safetyof Life at Sea

145. An injury in which the bonehasbeenbroken.
a. Strain D. Fracture c. Sprain d. Dislocuion
_
146. Occurswith severewrenchingor nvistingof a joint.
a. Dislocation b. Sprain c. Strain d. Fracture
147. An injury to a muscleor tendoncausedby sudden,forcibleover stretchingdueto vigorousmuscular
effort"suchasheavylifting, running or jumping.
a. Sprain b. Srain c. Fracture d. Dislocation
148. An injury to a joint in which the ligamentsand other tissuesare damagedby violent stretchingor
twisting.
a. Dislocation D. Fracture c. Sprain d. Strain
149. An openwound that is causedby rubbing or scrappingthe skin.
a. Abrasion D. Contusion c. Puncture d. l,aceration
150. An open wound causedby suchobjeca as woodenor metal splinters,knives,nails, hsh hooks,ice
picksand bullets.
a. l.aceration b. Puncture c. Contusion
151. An openwoundthat may be causedbyexplosion,car accidents,heavymachineryand animalbites.
a. Contusion b. Avulsion c. Incision d. l-acer*ion
152.A closed,superficialwoundusuallycausedby a blow from a blunt objecga bumpagainststationary
object,or a crush.
a. Puncture b. Avulsion c. Abrasion d. Contusion
153. An openwoundcausedW sharpobjeca suchasknives,brokenglassand sharpmetaledges.
a. Incision b. t aceration c. Puncture d. Contusion
154. An openwoundcausedby objectssuchas dull knives,b'rokenglass,stones,movingpartsof machin-
ery and directblows.
a. l,aceration b. Incision c. Contusion d. Abrasion
155. A kind of burn that affectonly the outerepidermalareaand chuacternedby redness,mild swelling,
increasedwarmth, tenderness and pain.
a. lstdegreeburn b. 2nddegreeburn c. 3rddegreeburn d. 4thdegreeburn
156. A kind of burn that involvesthe entirelayer of the epidermisand extendinto the under layerof the
skin.
a. lstdegreeburn b. Znddegreeburn c. 3rddegreeburn d. 4thdegreeburn
157. A kind of burn that involvesthe epidemris,dernfs, and may extendto the underlyingfat, muscleand
bone.
a. lstdegreeburn b. 2nddegreeburn c. 3rddegreeburn d. 4thdegreeburn
158. Lifeboatfalls shall be of sufficientlength to lower theboatto the light loadlinewith vesselheeled:
a. 10" inboard b. 12" inboard c. 15" inboard d. 20" inboard
159. Whena rescuevesselapproaches a lifeboatin heavyseas,the personin chargeof the lifeboatshould:
a. Wait for calmer weatherbefore transferring personnel.
b. Tie up to the rescuevessel.
c. Transfer all personnelimmediately.
d. Transferonly thosepersonnelwho are not seasick.

Safetyof Ltfe at Sea 331

160. Generally,when lifting an inflatable life raft aboardship,you would usethe:
a. Righting strap b. To*,ing bridle c. Main weathercove d. External lifelines

161. With the air supplyon, the air p-essurein the survivalcraft will be:
c. Equal to outside air pressure. c. [.essthan outsideair pressure.
b. Greatetthan outsideair pressure. d. Changing in relation to the speedof the craft

162. lt water is rising in the bilge of a survival crafl you shouldfirst:

a. Check the cracks in the hull. c. Aba'ndonthe survival craft.
,. Shift all penonnel to lhe stern. d. Check the bilge &ain plug.

163. Which oar is the strokein a lifeboat?

c. Foremostoar D. Midshrp oar c. Aftermost oar d. My of the above

164. In sailing a lifeboat, what is the effect/sof putting morc weight in the forward end of the boat?
c. Boat will tend to fall off or away from the wind.
b. Boat will tend to headinto the wind.
c. Either a or b
d. Neither a nor b
165. In sailing a lifeboat, what is the effect/sof putting more weight aft?
a. Boat will tendto fall offoraway from the wind.
b. Boatwill tend to headinto the wind.
c. Either a or b
d. Neithera nor b

166. What equipmentis requiredfu signalingdistressfrom a lifeboatat seain the daytime?

a. Parachuterockets c. Daytime smokedistresssignals
b. Line throwing gurr d. Red hand flares

167. AclassCEPIRB:
a. Can be detectedby SARSAI sat€llite.
D. Transmitson VLF.
c. Is artomatically activatedafter floating ftee from a sinking vessel.
d. Is designedfor vesselsoperatingup to 20 mil6s,eff-sfuereor on large protectedwaters.
168. What is requiredin additionto heat,fuel and oxygenof the fire triangleto haveafire?
a. Electricity b. hessure c. Smoke d. Chain reaction

169. A fire in a pile of dunnagewould be classifiedas class:

a.D b.A c.B d.C

170. The tendencyof a flammableliquid to vaporizeis indicatedby its:

a. Flash point D. Convectioninder c. Flarunable range d. Ignition temperature

171. The internationalshoreconnectionis designedto:

a. Satisfypollution prevention requirements.
D. Allow hook up of firefighting water ftom the dock to a vessel.
c. Allow emergencyuseof the fire main for deballasting.
d. Permitdischargeof oil waste.

172. The processwherebyhot air erpand and move from one location to another.
a. Convqction D. Radiation c. Conductibn d Insulation

332 Safetyof Lrfe at Sea

173. H@tcan transfertbrougha st€elbulkbeadand ignite a ank of fuel without the aid of an openflame.
This heat transfer is an examPleof:
a. Advection b. Convection c. Conduction d. Radiation

174. Whicn typeof fire extinguishershouldnot be usedin electricalfres?

a. llalons b. Dry chemicals c. Foam d' Carbondioxide

175. A chemicalreaction,giving offi heatand light, which is the result of a rapid union of oxygenwith
other substances.
a. Radiation D. Combustion c. Conduction d. Advection

176. The purposeof fusesin electricalwiring is to:

a. Preventovedoadingof circuit. c. Allow for cutting out branchcircuit.
D. Preventthe useof smaller wiring.

177. What is the minimum oxygencontentof the atmospherein a compartmentin which a canister-type
gasmask may be safelyused?
a. l0% b. 16% c. ll% d. 15%

17E. Causedby breathingpoisonoushydrocarbonvaporsinsideemptycargotanks.

a. Poisoning b. tnerting c. Asphyxiation d. Gassing

179. lt is a dangerinsidean emptycargotank causedby lackof oxygen.

a. Asphyxiation b. Gassing c, Poisoning d' Inerting

180. Which of the following statementregardingBenzeneis/arecorrect?

a. Severecumulativeactionwhen inhaled.
D. Causesirreparabledamageto blood-fonningorgansof thebody.
c. Dangerousin amountsover 25 partsper million.
d. Nloftheabove.

181 Which of the following equipmentshouldbe availablefor tank pumproom rescues?

a. Lifeline c. Self-contained breathingapparatus
b. Harness d. All of the above

182. An instrumentdesignedto detectexplosiveconcentrationof vapor.

a. Oxygenindicator c. Combustiblegasindicator
b. Reid vaporindicator d. Manometer

I 83. The methodof frefighting whereintheoxygencontentis reducedto below15q"W volumeby adding

othergases,or if the air is excludedby blanketingoff.
a. Inerting b. Smothering c. Cooling d Purging

184. A methodof hrefightingwhereinthe supplyof inflammablematerialsis stopped.

a. Cooling b. Smothering c. Starving d. Purging

185. If a personsuffersa simplefractureof a limb, youshould:

c. Attempt to set the fracture. c. Apply a tourniquetwithout delay.
b. Preventfurther movement of the bone. d. Alternatelyapply hot and cold compresses.

186. What is the minimum numberof certifiedlifeboatmenrequiredfor a lifeboatwhich carries42 persons

on a vesselin oceanservice?
c. Two D. Three c. Four d. Five

Safetyof LW at Sea 333

187. You are alone and administering CPR o an adult victim. How many chest compressionsand how
many inflationsshouldyou administerin eachsequence?
Answer: thp.n2inflations.
15 compressions

188. If your liferaft is to leewardof a fire on the water,you should frst:

Ansuer: Cut tlu line to the seaanchor,

189. When refueling a power-operatedindustrial truck in the hold of a cargovessel,the numberof persons
presentwho must be experiencedin the useof portablefire extinguishersis:
Answer: One.

190. When administeringmouth to m\'ruthresuscitation,you shouldbreatheat the rate of how manybreaths

per ninute?
Answer: Twelve.

191. If an inflatablelife raft is overtumed,it may be rightedby:

Answer: Standingon tlv inllating cylinder and pulling on the strapson thc undersideof thc rafi.
"Chemox" typeOBA?
192. What is the nost dangerouscharacteristicof usedcanistersfrom the MSA
Answer: Thc contentsof tlw canisterexplodeon contactwith oil.

193. You have abandonedship and are in chargeof a liferaft. How much water per day shouldyou permit
after the ftst24 hours?
Answer: I pint.

194. At eachinspectionfor certification of a cargovessel,portable sodaacid, foam and pump tank extin-
guishersshall be:
Answer: Disclnrged, cleanzdtlwroughly,and recharged.

195. First aid treatmentfor small cuts and openwoundswouldbe to:

Answer: Stopbleeding, clean, mcdicate, and covertlrc wouttd.

196. A personhassuffereda lacerationof the arm. Severebleedinghasbeencontrolledby usinga sterile

dressingand directpressure.What is the next action to be taken?
Answer: Apply a pressurebandageover thc dressing.
apparatusis to:
197. The functionof thebypassvalveon the bottle-typeoxygen-breathing
Answer: Allow the wearerto manuallygive himselforygen'
the greatestdangeris:
198. If you:ue at seain an inflatableliferaft in cold temperatures,
Answer: Lack ofhcat due to coldternperatures.

199. While adrift in an inflatableliferaft in hot, tropical weather:

Answer: Deflating tltcfloor panelsmnyhelp to cool personnel.

200. Bleedingfrom a vein may be o:dinarily controlledby:

Answer: Applying directpressureto the wound.

334 Saferyof LW at Sea

 TRANSFER
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I
I I
I
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I
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I
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l1
DIAMETER
TACTICAL

uJ
I
t I
n
o l I
z ,
> o:
o l
I u
I
il
I

I
I
Pl
l I
I A
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t l
t l
t l
Y
I TURNING CIRCLE

Advance. The distancetraveledin the direction of
the original heading measuredfrom the point at
which helm wasfirst applied.The ma,ximumadvanoe
is usually between3 and 5 ship lengths for a mer-
chantship of any sizegoing at full aheadand using
tull helm.
Tfansfer. The distance of the center of gravity of
the ship ftom the original tracklinemeasuredin the
direction 90" to the original heading. The transfer
for a turn of 90" is abut hilo ship lengths.
Tactical Dlameter is the transferfor a turn of 180"
which is almostequal to the maximum transfer.It is
usuallyaboutthe samedistanceasthe maximum ad-
vance.
Drtft Angle is the angle betweenthe tangentto the
turning circle at any point and the fore and aft line
of the ship.
Plvot Polnt is the point aboutwhich thevesselpiv-
ots with the bow swinging inwards and the stern
swingingoutwards.It is aboutone third of the ves-
sel's length ftom forward when going ahead.When
going asternthe vesselpivots abouta point approxi-
mately one quarterof the length from astern.
Flnal lXameter is the diameterof a circle traversed
by a vesselafter turning through 360" and main-
taining the sarnespeedand rudder angle.This di-
ameteris alwayslessthan the tactical diameter.It is
measuredperpendicularto the original courseand
betweenthe tangentsat the points where 180" and
360" of the turn havebeencompleted.

ShipHandling 33s
 HEAVE

SIIIP MOTIONS

MOTIONS OF A VDSSEL IN A SEAWAY IIYDRODYNAMIC Ef,'TECTS

Surge is the bodily motion forward and backward Squat is the namegenerallyappliedto the difference
along the longitudinal axis, causedby the force of betweenthe verticalpositionsof a vesselnoving and
the seaacting alternatelyon the bow and stern. stopped.It is madeup of seulementandchangeof rim.
Settlement is thegenerallovteringin thelevelof a mov-
Heave is the oscillatory rise and fall due to the en- ing rressel.It doesnot dt€r the draugbtof the vessel,
tire hull being lifted by the force of the sea- butcausesthelevelof thewaterarurnd her to belower
thanwouldothenvisebe thecase.Changeof trim nor-
Sway is the side-to-sidebodily motion, independent mally
causesthe sternof a movingvesselto sit lower
ofrolling, causedby uniform pressurebeing exerted thanwhensheis stryped.It varieswith speed.
all alongone side of the hull.
Bow cushlon. The tendencyfor the bow of a ship to
Yaw is the oscillation abouta vertical axis approxi- be pushedaway ftom the bank. It is causedby the
mately through the center of gravity of the vessel. pressurefield of the boq forcing the bow awayfrom
the bank.
Roll is the oscillationaboutthe longitudinalaxis.
Bank sucdon. The tendencyfor the vesselto be at-
Pitqh is the oscillation about the transveneaxis, tractedbodily towardsthe bank. It is causedby the
due to the bow and stern being raisedor loweredon lossofpressureassociatedwith the increasedveloc-
passingthrough sueessive crestsand troughs of ity of water in the restricted spaceben*,eenthe ves-
$,aves. sel and the bank.

336 ShipHandling
 SIIIP IIANDLT]IG
l. Which of the following statementsis/are correct?
a. Bank suction increaseswith enginespeed. c. Both a and b
D. Bank cushion increaseswith ship's speed. d. Neither a nor b
2. Which of the following stateinentsis/arecorrect regarding a vesselnavigating in a narrow channel?
a. Effects of bank cushion are strongerwhen near st€epbanksthan sloping banks.
D. Currens are strongerin the bend of a channelthan near the point.
c. Both a and b
d. Neither a nor b
3. Which of the following is / arc oorrect?
a. The speedof the current in a sraight channelis usually greatestin midstreasr.
D. The greatrr the range of the tide, the greatermaximum velocity of the current.
c. Both a andb
d. Neither a nor b
4. A ve.sselother than crossing vessel,shall ae1 nonnally enter a traffic separationzone or cross a
separationline except:
a. In caseof emergencyo avoid imnediate danger.
D. To engagein fishing within a separationzone.
c. Either a or b
d. Neitheranorb
5. A vesselis docking stbd side to a solid facepier. You can preventthe stern from striking hard on the
pier by:
a. Putting your engine astem. c. Pntting your engineaheadwith left rudder.
b. Putting your engine aheadwith rudder. d. Thking in the slack on your sternbreastline.
6. A vesselproceedingalong the bank of a channelor canal has the tendencyto:
a. Sheeraway from the bank. c. Hug the bank.
b. Continue to lie with the bank. d. Increasespeed.
7. A vesselthat is deadin Oe water on an evenkeel with most of her superstructurefonrard will lay:
a. With the wind abaft the beamor on the stern.
D. With the wind on the beam.
c. With the wind on the bow.
d. With the wind deadahead.
8. Yorr vesselis anchoredin a channeltnown to havesrong tidal currents.To checkyour position, you
take a round of bearings,oneof which is a range in line. One hourlater, the bearing on the lights in
rangeopensup. This indicates:
a. The ship is swinging. c. Either a or b
D. Theshipisdraggingheranchor. d. Neitheranorb

9. A vesselnavigating in shallowwater might experience:

a. Bank cushion D. Yawing c. Bank suction d. Squatting
10. The distancetraveled perpendicularto )our original heading ftom which )ou put your rudder over
until your headingdiffers by 90 deg. is:
a. Advance D. Transfer c. Ilead reach d. Tactical diameter

ShipHondling 337
ll. Whenthe pilot vesselis comingalongsidefor thepilot to boardthe ship,how shouldthe ship'sengine
be?
a. slow astern b. stopped c. Full astern d. slow ahead

12. A controllablepitch propellerwhengoing aheadhasa right handedpropeller.In what directionwill

tle vesselgo if the enginewill be goingastern?
a. Straightdown oncesternwayis made. c. Both a andb
b. At stbdwhen first going astern. d. Neithera nor b

13. The bestforwardmooringline to stopa ship's advanceis:

a. Breastline. c. Bowlineoppositeof the pier.
b. Bowline on the side of the pier. d. Springline.

14. What is the advantageof a controllablepitch propellerovera conventionalpropeller?

c. Propeller turns at all times in one direction.
b. Doesnot needmuch throttle control.
c. Smallerengineis neededto the propeller.
d. Not much time lost from going full aheadto going astern.

15. "smelling the bottom" refersto :

a. Pitching b. Bank cushion c. Squatting d. Bank suction

16. Which of the following doesnot indicatemotion of a vessel?

a. Pitch b. Roll c. Trim d. Yzw

17. When steamingin a stronggalecoming from abaftthe engineshouldbe at:

a. tlalf speedahead b. Yery slow ahead c. Stopengine

18. During forwardmooring maneuver,whenshoulda springline be passedto the pier?

a. When the ship is alongsidethe pier.
b. The spring line shouldalwaysbe the frst line to be passed.
c. When the pier mooring staffrequiresit.
d. As soonaspossibleif the springline is not the frst'
when:
1g. A ship with two steeringmotorshaveboth of theseoperatingsimultaneously
a. At eachchangeof watch. c. At night.
D. A ship is seensailing in oppositecourse. d. In dangerousnavigationalwaters.
20. After the anchorhasbeendroppedat the let go command,whenis the brakeapplicationto theanchor
chain?
a. Whensufficientchain hasbeencastto ensurethat the anchoris holding.
b. Innediately after the anchorstrikesthe ground.
c. When the ship has lost her headway.
d. The anchorchain shouldbe lashedon the brake'
21. Which of the following is themostadvisableanchoringsystemat a sitewherewind andcurrentcomes
alternatinglyfrom oppositedirectionsand the ship hasnot enoughroom to swing?
a. Anchor wifh oneanchor.
b. Anchor with running moor system.
c. with one anchorwith suffrcientchain and the other with shortlength.
d. Witir botil anchorsforming an angleof 60" to 120"

338 Ship Handling

22.Awobbling tail shaft is an indication of:
a. An enginethat is missing. c. Shallow water.
b. Worn stem bearing or misalignment. d. A tight tail shaft gland.

23.In regardsto an automatedbridge, the lamp testbutton on the enginecontrol consolewill do which of
the following:
a. LigbtlarnPs when dePrassed.
b. Extinguishtampswhendepressed.
c. Give a light signalto the engineroom whendepressed'
d. Indicate to tle engineroom that the bridge will assumecontrol.
u. A vesselwill have a Ereaterdegreeof heelcausedby rudder action when it:
a. Is deeplyladen. c. Is deeplyloadeddown by the head.
b. tlas a very little stability. d. Is deeplyloadeddown by the stern'
'CONTRAGUIDB' is usuallyassociated with:
25. T\e tenn
a. Typeofcargogear b. Rudder c. Bow thruster d. Steeringengine

26. What measuresshouldyou do if you stopa singlescrewvesselin a narrowwaterway?

a. Slow astern,helm to stb4 and let go stM anchor'
b. Slow aheadand let go stbd anchor.
c. Itrehnto port" full asternand let go port anchor'
d. Full istern, helm 0ostbd and let go port anchor'
of the next neighbor
27. Thepitch of an anchor chain is the distancefrom the centerof one point to that
link which alsomean:
a. Extreme length b. Irngth c. Insidelength d. Broad length

28. Whenevacuatinga s@manby helicopter,the vesselshouldbe:

a. Underwayon a cogrseto irovide no wind. c. Stopwith the wind deadahead.
with thewind 30 degon theboru. d. Stopwith the wind on your beam.
b. Lhrdenrray
'\vakd'' The ratio of the
29. When a ship moves through the water, it drags with its bdy water called
wake speedto the shiP is called:
fraction
a. hopeller velocity b. speedof advance c. wake distribution d. wake

30. In caseof gyro compassfailure, what stepshouldbe taken?

a. S1opthi engine c. Setco'rse to the closestport
b. Noiify the engine room d. Usethe magneticcompass
is usedto rcfer to the
31. When anchoredwith both and the vesselhas swung180 deg,what expression
ship's anchor chains?
a. The anchorshave crossed. c. The anchorshave takena turn'
D. The anchorshave taken ahead. d. The anchorshavetaken acrossthe hawsepipe'

32. In changing ourse radically, the vesselwill list outward if:

c. The vesselis heavilYladen. c. G is abovethe lateral resistance'
'0. The vesselhas a light draft. d. G is below the lateral resistance.
control can be transferredfrom
33. In an automatedbridge control, in caseof an emergency,the throttle
ihe bridge to the engineroom most expeditiouslyby:
a. using engine teGgraph. c. Tripping the aheadthrottle
..Maneuviring" plant mode "N',1rmal"plant mode
b. Shifting io d. Shifting to

ShipHandling 339
 34. If you have the right radar,from what distancecan large icebergsmore than 600 meten be detected?
c. From 5 miles away c. Between10 and 15 miles
b. From over 20 miles d. From 10 miles away
3 5 . To separatethe ship's sternfrom thepier if it is soughtto suethe fivd spring line and thereareno wind
and current,which of the followir-gsbouldbe the hehn and engine?
a. Aheadon the engineand heln anidships c. Astern on the engineand hehn to port
D. Ahead on the engineand helm to stbd d. Astern on the engine and helm tb stbd
36.A vesselintentionallygroundedis said to be:
a. Foundered b. Stranded c. Beached d. Gfounded
37. The scopeof the anchoris 6 and the depth of water is 7.5 fathoms.Find the length of anchor cableto
be paid out.
a. 3 Shackles b. 2 shackles c. 4 shackles d. 5 shackles
Solution: Depthof water in feet = 7.5 fathomsx 6
= 45 feet
Length of Anchor Cable = Depth of Water x Scope
= 45 feetx6
= 270 feet or 3 shackles

38. On a singlescrewvessel,with a right handedpropeller,whengoingaheadwith the rudderamidship,

the bow cants to:
a. Port D. Yawsto port c. Starboard d. Steadyon course
39. A vesselgroundedaccidentallyis saidto be:
a. Stranded D. Beached c. Both a and b d. Neither a nor b
40. Usedfor supportingdamagedor weakenedstructures,watertightdoors,hatches,plating, bulkheads
and tank top under pressurepatchesandpadscovering fractures,otler leak-stoppingdevices,and for
reinforcing decksare called:
a. Shores D. Parches c. Welding d. Bars
41. A lookout shouldreportobjectssightedusing:
a. True bearings D. Magneticbearings c. Gyrobearings d. Relative bearings
42. You are standingthe wheelwatchon enteringport and the Mastergives you a rudder corunand which
conflictswith a ruddercommandfrom the pilot. What shouldyou do?
a. Obeythe Pilot.
D. Bring the rudder to a positionmidwaybetweenthe two conflictingorders.
c. Ask the Pilot if he relinguishescontrol.
d. My the Master.
43.The force exertedby a propeller which tendsto throw the stern right or left is termed-as:
a. Wakecurrent D. Suctioncurrent c. Sidewise pressure d. Dischargecurrent

4 . You are stoppedwith no way upon your vesselat the Pilot station.Your vesselis a large twin-screw
ship.You must comearoundto board your Pilot. How shouldyou usethe enginesand rudderto turn
the ship fastestin the leastamountof space?
a. Half aheadwith hard over n'dder,thenfull asternon inborn engine.
D. Slow aheadwith hard overrudder.

340 ShipHandling
 c. Full aheadon the enginesand hard over rudder.
d. Full aheadon one engine, full asternon the other.
"bow-cushion" acts in which of the following ways on a single screw vessel
45. The effect known as
proceedingalong a narrow channel:
L It forc"s the stern away from the bank. c. It forcesthe bow awayfrom the bank.
D. It forcesthe entirevesselawayfrwr thebank. d. It heelsthe vesseloward the bank.
46. T\e tendencyfor the vessel!o be attractedbodily Owardsthe bank when proceedingalong a narow
channel.
a Bank suction b. Bow cushion c. squat d. Transfer

47. Ina restrictedchannel,thereis a tendencyfor the bow of aship to be pushedawayfrom the bank, this
effectis known as:
a Bank suction b. Bow cushion c. squat d. Transfer

48. The anchon on the bow are known as:

a. Kedgeanchors b. Spareanchors c. Boweranchors d. Streamanchors

49. Using a scopeof 6, detenninehow many feet of anchorcableyou shouldpay out your anchorin a
waterwith a dePthof 12feet.
a. Z2fegt b. l2feet c. 18 feet d' 48fent
=
lzngth of cable scoP€x depth of water
point at which helm
50. The distancetravelledin the directionof the original headingmeasuredfrom the
wasfrst apPlied.
a. Transfer b. Advance c. Thcticaldiameter d. Pivot point

51. The transferfor a turn of 180 deg.which is almostequalto the maximumtransfer.

a. Advance b. Pivot point c. Drift angle d. Trcncal diameter

52. Theanglebetweenthe tangentto the turning circle at anypoint and the fore and aft line of the ship.
a. Drift angle b. Tacticalangle c. Turning angle d. Transferangle

53. The ratio of the amountof cableoutsidethe hawsepipe to the depthof water.
a. Scopeofcable b. Lrngthofcable c. Lengthofthechain d. Scopeoftheanchor

54. Which of the following searchpatternis recommended for a single ship in specialcircumstances,
suchas man over board?
a. Sectorsearchpattern c. Parallel track searchpattern
b. Expandingsquafesearch pattern d. Ship/aircraftcoordinated pattern
information
55. If you wereinchargeof the foc'sleheadwhengettingunderwayfrom an anchorage,what
wouldyou furnish the bridge?
a. How the chain cableleads. c. Whenanchoris aweigh'
b. lrngth of cablestill out. d' Nl of the above

56. What scopeof chain is usedundernormal conditionsin anchoring?

a. Four times the depthof water c. Six timesthe depthof water
D. Five timesthe depthof water d. seventimesthe depthof water

ShipHandling 341
 57. While you are on watch at night, the gyro alarm sounds,indicating a power failure. You should
immediately:
L Put the locking latcheson to keepthe compassfrom toppling.
II. Direct the helmsmanto steerby magneticcompass.
Answer: II only.
58. If electricalpowerto the steeringgearmotor fails, the ruddermaybemovedusing:
I. Hand pumpsteering.
II. Trickle wheelsteering.
Ansver: I only.

59. A buoy in shallowwater:

Anrwer: Tbndsto lay over sideways.

60. Whenheadingon a courseat full speed,youput your enginesfull astern.The distancetraveledalong

your original courseuntil you comedead in the water is known as:
Answer: Head reach.

61. A deeplyloadedvesselwill tendto answerher:

Answer: Enginesslowly,rudderslowly.

62. A light vessel,having her screwand ruddersubmerged,

will tendto answerher:
Answer: Enginesquickly,rudderquickly.

63. A deeplyloadedvesselin respondingto engineand steeringorderstendsto:

Answer: Maintain way on oyer e long distance.

64. A vesselwhen in heavyseaswill:

Answer: Seekthe trough.

65. A vesselcould experienceyawingwhen:

I. Vesselis trinmed well by the headin a slight to moderatesea.
IL Going from a high crestof a waveto a trough.
Anrwer: Both I and IL

66. One wrong turn (180")when riding two anchorsmay resultin:

Answer: A cross.

67. Whenon the bow and standingby readyto let go anchor,you should:
Answer: Checkthat the brakeis engagedand the riding pawl is off.

68. After dropping the anchor,you see4 turns of wire aroundthe 4th stud on eachside of the detachable
link. This indicates:
Answer: 360feet of chain are out.

69. Whendocking and stationedon the stern,you shouldmakesurethat:

Answer: All the linesare madefast with an equalstrain.
70. Whenputting a mooring lind o'-rthe bitts, it is bestto:
Answer: Takeone roundturn aroundtlu bitt nearestthz pull and thznfigure eight.

342 ShipHandling
 DEFINITION OF TERMS

Canrber. Arched form of a deck or beamto shedttre water'

herbreadthat upperdeckbeinglessthanher
Tlmrblellome The inward inclinationof a vessel'ssidedueto
maximumbreadth.
level. Distancethat statutory deck line is
Freeboard. Ileight tbat outboardedge of deck is ahve water
ahve waterlevel.

Beam. The greatestwidth of a vessel'

to the bilge' This is to allow drainageof oil
Deadrise.The upwardslopeof the ship'sboftomfrom thekeel
or water towardsthe centerof the ship'

Flare. Upwardand ounvardsreep of a ship'sbows'

a vessel'sfteeboarddeck' The amountthat
sheer. The 'pward sweep,from amidshipsto forward and aft of
part whenkeel is horizontal'
the forwardof the after endof a deckis higherthan midship
in closecontact'
ButL Joining of timber oI platesin which the endsare flush and
plates'
Seam. Inngitudinal meetingof edgesof planks,strakesor
round hollow section'
Stanchion. A vertical structural memberbetweendecks,usually of
along thebottom of a ship' The ship's
Keel. The main centerlinestructuralmember,running fore and aft
backbone.
next to the keel'
Garboard strake. The first rangeof plankslaid on a ship'sbottom
sidebetweencentergirder and margin
Longitudinal or side Glrder. one of the girdersfrtted on each
putJin a doublebottom. Usually continuousbenreensolid floon.
bottom' In cargo holds' it is the
Tank Top or Inner Bottorn Plating forming the top palt of a double
flooring on which the cargo rests.
anglesof a centerlinekeelsonrunning
Rider plate. A horizontal fore-and-aftplate riveted !o the to the top
abole the floon.
middle-line member of any ship that is
Center Glrder or Vertlcal Keel' The continuousfore-and-aft
built with a doublebosom.
part of the floor plates and longitudinals of a
Air llole. one of the air passaSesprovided in the upper
holes, air containedin the tank may still
doublebottom so that wnen oe water rises abovetneligntening
the completefilling of the tank'
haveamplemeansof escapeand nowherecheckthe rise of water and
at turn of bilge'
Margin Plate. A longitudinalplatewhich boundsthe doublebotOm

Ship Construction 343

 Llmben A passageon each side of the keelsonfor bilge water, coveredby movableplanks called limber
boards.

Floor or trloor Plate- A structural memberin the bottom of a ship, usually at everyframe, and running
athwartshipfrrombilge to bilge.

Lightentng lIole. One of the large aperturespunc.hedor cut in floor plates, side girders, tank bracket
plates.Any hole cut in a platewhich forrrs part of a vesselstrucfire to weight without impairing
strength.
Shore. A timber or metal strut or prop usedasan emergencysupportfor a weakenedor damagedportion of
the ship'sstmcturesuchasa deck,a bulkhead etc.

Glrder. Strong beam of H sectionusedfor keelsonand other membersrequiring considerablestrengtl.

Strake- A continuousline of plating, or planking, extendingalong ship's side from forward to aft.

SheerStrake. Strakeof the shell platingrunning next to themain,or strength-deck,

its upperedgehaving
the curvature or sheerof the vessel.

PermlssibleLength. The maximum distanceallowedbetweentwo transversebulkheads,due considera-

tion being given to the lengthof the vesselandnatureof servicefor which the ship is intended.

FloodableLength. The maximumfractionof a ship'stotal lengthat any given point which canbe flooded
withoutthe ship beingsubmerged
beyondthe margin line.

Intercostal.A generaltenn usedfor denotinglongitudinalpartsof the hull's structurewhich on accountof

obstructionscannotbe workedcontinuous,andmust be cut in comparativelyshort lengthsbetweentrans-
versestructural members.

StealerPlate. Owing to reducedbreadthof plating towardvessel'sends,two strakesmay be conveniently

mergedinto one, suchsinglestrakeis tenneda "stealer",becauseit reducestle numberof strakesby one.

Cant Frames. Framesset in the structureobliquelyto the fore and aft line. They are corlmonly usedto
shapeand supporttle overhangingcounterin an elliptical or roundedstern,beingbracketedto the aftermost
transom floor.

Gusset.A pieceof plate roughly triangular in shapeor a n:urow continuousplate, fitted as a unit and
stiffeningmemberwherediscontinuityo@urs,as at thejunction of frame-bracketsand margin plate.

TYPES OF VALVF^S
1. Gate Valve.For conpletely openingor closinga line.

2. Throttle or Control Valve.For controlling exactflow, as in loadinga tanker.

3. Swlttg Check Valve. For non-return flow, effectedby drop or swing of check upon releaseof
pressurefrom within, as in a boiler-feedline.

4. Llft or floating check valve.In largerpiping, is to preventreturnflow, asin a fresh watersupply

line from shoreto ship.

3U Ship Construction
 A. Camber

B. Thrnble llome

C. Freeboard

D. Beam

E. Deadrise

F. Flare

G. Sheer

A. Gudgeom
B. Rudder Post
C. hopeller APerture
r--7-7
--"- + B D. Boss
E. hopeller Post
G A D
---\-- F. Skeg
L-------
c G. Arns
II. Plntle

J. Rudder Stock

Ship Constntction 345

 1. Butt

2. Seam

3. Stanchlon or pillar

4. Keel

5. Garboard strake

6. Longltudlnal

7. Thansverse frarne

8. Inner bottom or tank top

1. Rlder Plate
2. Vertical keel

A-7- 7r:7;; #
-r-=, ;iU,:
3. Inner bottom
4. Longthrdlnals
-:,t'^-tr
. | l t r
t_^ 7/
5. Alr lIole
6. Margln Plate
7. Llmber lIole
8. Floor
9. Llghtentng lloles

36 Ship Construction
 SHIP GONSTRUGTTON
1 . The bilge keel is for the PurPoseof:
a. Strengtheningthebilge c. Adding strengthtomain structuralmembers
b. Reducingrolling d. Aaing bumperwhen vesselis on drydock

, 2 . A'DOG"isa:
a. Crow bar c. Ileavy steelbeam
,. Deviceto faCIea $atertightagainstthefrane d. Sheerstrake

3 . The inwardcurvatureof the ship'ssideis the:

a. Tumblehome b. Flare c. Hogging d. Sagging

4. The horizontaljoint formedby joining platesin hull plating strakesis known as:
a. Scraph b. Butt c. Sean d' Bracket

5 . In a longitudinallyftamedvessel,thelongitudinalframesareheld in a placeandsupportedby athwartship

memberscalled:
a. Stringers D. Margin plates c. Floors d. Web franes

6. A standusedfor housingcompasses so that they maybe usedconvenientlyis:

a. compassbowl D. Bilge way c. Divider d. Binnacle

7 . A strong slip securedt6 the main franing of the ship's chain locker that holds theinboardof an anchor
chain is called:
a. Bitter end D. Senhouseslip c. Chainshackle d. Shacklehold

8. In ship construction,keel scantling shouldbe the greatest:

a. ll3 the distancefrom the bow c. Midships
b. At eachframe d. Il3 the distancefrom stern

9. Which of the ff. is a part of a vessel'sstandingrigging?

a. Downhaul b. Sheet c. Backstay d. Toppinglift

10. The elevatedperforatedbttom of a chain locker which preventsthe chain from touching the bottom
of the chain locker and allows water to flow to the drain is:
a. Draft D. Craddle c. Manger d. Harping

1 1 .What standingriggingssupportthemastin tie foreandaft and athwartshipdirection?

a. ShroudsandstaysD. Craddle c. Guysandvangs d. sheetandguys

t 2 . Structural membersthat fit betweenthe floors of a vesseland siltfen the doublebottom are called:
a- Buckler plates b. Floor stiffeners c' Boss plate; d. Intercoscals

13. The part of the vesselwhich givesher watertightintegrity,covershull and binds the wholestructure
together:
a. Deck plates b. Fore deck c. Shell plates d. PooPPlates

14. The frane of the vesselthat mns parallel to the keel is called:
c. Transverseframe b. Center frame c. Parallel frame d. Longitudinalframe

harboris:
15. A specialform of winch usedto hoist the anchors,housethemsafelyandwarp the ship in
o. Cup.tao b. Windlass c' Gypsy d' Winch

Ship Cowtruction 3{'

16. That part of the vessel that cuts the water forward:
a. Bow b. Keel c. Prow d. Stem

1 7 .A partition on a ship which dir idestheinterior spaceinto variouscomparfinentsis called:

a. Intercostal b. Travenewall c. Bulkhead d' Divider

1 8 .Theuppersectionof theframeanclsideplatingswhich extendsaboveandaroundtheupperdeckis the:

a. Railing b. Fantails c. Cant frames d. Bulwarks

19. The steeldisc that screwsdown the glassshuttingout the light if necessaryis:
a. Blind port b. Port light c. Dead light d. Port hole

20. Thefonvardpartof the hull, usuallyraisedabovethemain deckformerlyusedasquartersfor thecrew

but now usedas storeroomsor boatswain'slocker:
a. Forecastle D. Paint locker c. Fore peak d. Fore deck

27. The equipmentor specialwinch usedfor loweringor hoisting lifeboats:

a. Davit b, Boatwinch c. Boat falls d. Boat blocls

22. The strakenext to the keel is called:

a. Garboard b. Gangplank c. Gunwale d. Keelson

23. Aparual deck above the main deck located at the stern is called:
a. Forecastle deck b. PooP deck c. Upper deck d. Weatherdeck

24 . A ver1caldrum, revolving on an upright spindle and either power driven or turned by hand for heaving
on rope or hawser:
a. Windlass b. CaPstan c. Winch d. Bollard

25. The othernamefor foundationbar,an anglebar which connectshatches,deckhousecoaning or other

raisedstructureis:
a. Coamingchock b. Coamingstay c. Coamingbar d. Coaming stiffener

26. The upwardslopeof tle ship's bottomfrom the keel to the bilge. This is to allow drainageof oil or
watertowardsthe centerof the ship:
a. Roundof the bilge b. Deadrise c. Cutwater d. Bilge flush

2j . A metalfitting which holds a menber in placeor pressestwo memberstogetheris the:

a. Girder D. Gouge c. Grating d' G1b

28. Metal platesthat coverthe top of the hawsepipesare called:

a. Buckler plates ,. StoPwater c. Trotings d. Longitudinal plates

29. A diain hole curthough the gunwaleand shellplating to allow liquid to flow overboard.
a. Scupperhole b. Scuttle c. Drainage d. None of these

3 0 .The maximumlength allowedbetweenmain transversebulkheadson the vesselis refeffedto as:

rz. Permissiblelength b. Lengthoverall c. Floodablelength d. Extremelength

3 1 . A compartmentof the ship'shold partitionedoff specificallyto carrywater,liquid cargo,or for trim

and stability.
a. Deeptank b. Doublebottomtank c, Peaktank d Settlingtank

32. To heata metal and to cool in sucha way tlat it is softenedor toughened.
a. Anneal b. Temper c. Btaze d. Tensile

348 Ship Construction

 through which bilge waterflows t'opump suction'
33.Holesin floor timbers,or tank side-brackets, d' Deadrise
a. Limber holes b. Bilge wells c' Suctionholes

of membersusedin constructionof either wood or steelships'

34.Measurements
b. Scantings c' Frames d' Shell plates
a. Scantlings
plating dueto variationsin waterpressure'
3 5 .A moreor lessrhythmic in and out movementof ship's
D. Pirching c' Rolling d' Yawing
a. Panting
"margin
36.The Plate"is the:
a. Platewhich sits atop the centerverticalkeel
a vessel
b. Outer strakeof plating on eachsideof the main of
of plating on each side of an inner bottom
c. Outboardstrake
continubus strate of plating on the shell of a vessel
;. Uppermost
at the centerline and the bottom at any
5t what term indicatesthe vertical distancebetweenthe botlom
givenPoint?
D. Camber c. Shoer d. Rake
a. Rise of bottom
is to:
38. The purposeof sheerin ship construction
a. Eliminate the needfor butt straps c. Eliminatethe needfor margin plates
greaterstrengthat the deckcdge
b. Allow the ship to ride waveswith drier decks d. Give

39. Thehalf-breadthPlanis:
a. Usually drawn for the port side only
D. An endwiseview of the ship'smoldedform
c. Alongitudinalsideelevation 4L^r^1,r .., ..^nrarr;
and afterbodyto the leli ot centerline
d. A plan with the forebodyo the right of centerline
somevesselsto:
40. Kort nozzlesare installedaroundthe propellersof
a. Protectthe wheel from striking sawyers
b'Preventthewheelfromstrikingbargestowedonthehip
water
c. Preventthe wheelfrom touchingbottomin low
d. Increasethe thrust of the propeller

4l.Theprojectinglugsoftherudderpostwhichfurnishsupporttotherudderarecalled:
b. Gudgeons c' Pintles d' Skegs
a. Bases

42.Aflangedplatefittedoveranairportontheship'soutsideshelltopreventwaterfromenterin
port.
b. CopperPlate c. CoverPlate d. ShadePlate
a. Brow
"innerbottom" is the:
43. The
a. Inner side of the vessel'sshell
of the vessel
b. Compartrrent betweenthe tank top and the shell
c. TanktoP
d. Spacebetweentwo transversebottom frames
one
piping networkof a tank vesselthat connecf,s
44. Thesystemof valvesand cargolines in the bottom
a:
sectionof cargo tanks to another sectionis called
D. Crossover c' Runaround d' Come-along
a. Manifold

Ship Construction 349

 45. The valves that are usedfor opening or closing a line ompletely are:
a. Swingcheckvalves D.Throttlevalves c. Gatevalves d. Floating checkvalves
46. Which characteristicis an advi ntageof a butterfly valve ascomparedto a gatevalve?
a. Quick operation c. Lessmaintenancerequired
D. No resistanceto cargo flow when open d. precise control over cargo flow
47. T\e valvesthat are usedfor oontrolling exactflov, as in loading a tanker are:
a. Tbrottle valves b. Gatevdves c. Swing checkvalves d. Floating checkvalves
48. The valvesthat are usedfor non-return flow are:
a. Gatevdves D. Conrol valves c. Swing checkvalves d. Floating cieck valves
49. The valvesthat are usedfor larger piping to preventretum flow are:,
c. Control valves D. Swingcheckvalrras c. Gatevalves d. Floating checkvalves
50. The Grand Crntral Station of an oil airker where all pipelines meet and interconnectin a relativelv
snall areais called the:
a. Manifold b. Pumproom c. Fire station d. Engine room
51. The valves tbat provide separationbetweentanks on the sane line and make it possibleto isolate a
single tank completelyare called:
a. Mastervalves b. Bypassvalves c. Manifold valves d. Crossovervalves
52. The systemdesignedto lower oxygen levels inside cargo tanks and making explosionimposible.
a. Fire fighting system c. Inert gas s)6tem
b. Ventilation system d. Crudeoil washing system
53. Inert Gas Systemusedthe Scmbberto:
a. Cool the inert gas c. Removechemical impurities
D. Removeparticulate matters d. Nl of the aborre
54. Fitted in the Inert Gas Systemto preventthe backflow ofhydrocarbon vaporsino the non-hazardous
area.
a. Demister ti. Fans c. Deck water seal d hessure control valve
55. Mounted on the outlet side of the scrubber.Its job is to remove water and leftover soot particles
from the gasbeforeit passeson to the fans.
a. Demister c. Pressurecontrol valve
b. Bypgssvalve d. Deck water seal

56. The function of a chock on a vesselwith solid bulwarks is to:

a. Allow water shippedon deck 0oflow off rapidly
b. Preventstress@ncentrationin the bulwark
c. Permit easyjettison of deck cargo in an emergerry
d. Provideopeningsthrough the bulwarks for mooring lines

57. What is the purposeof the freeing ports on a vesselwith solid bulwarks?
a. Allow water which nay be shippedon deck to flow off rapidly
b. Preventthe formarjon of aly unusualstress@ncentrationpoints
c. Lighten the above&ck v;eight causedby a solid bulwark
d. Fermit easyjecisoning d deck cargo'in an emergerrcy

350 Ship Construction

58. Onefunctionof a bulwark is to:
a. hotection against twisting forces exertedon the frame of the vessel
b. Help keep the deck dry
c. hevent stressconcentrationson the stringer plate
d. Reinforce the side stringers

59. Tlorigidly fasten Ogether the peak frames,tle stem, and the outsidefraning, a horizontal plate is
fitted acrossthe forepeakof a vessel.This plate is known as the:
a. Breast hook D. Intercostal plate c. Joiner d. Apron plate

60. Which statementconcerning solid floors is TRIJE?

a. Theymay havelightening,limber or air holescut into them.
b. Theymustbe watertight.
c. Theyare lighter than openfloors.
d. They are built of structural frarnesconnectedby angle strutsand stiffeners, with flangedplate
bracketsat eachend.

61. Archedform of a deckor beamto shedthe water.

a. Camber D. Deadrise c. Tumblehome

62. Tbeupwardandoutwardsweepof a ship'sbol'

a. camber b. Flare c. Turnblehome d. Deadrise

63. The main centerline structural member,running fore and aft along the botbm of a ship.
a. Keel b. Shell plare c. Girder d' Floor

64. The continuousfore and aft middle line memberof any ship that is built with a doublebottom'
a. Rider plate b. Garboardsfake c. Center girder d. Inner bottom
.
65. A continuousline of plating, or planking,extendingalongship'ssidefrom forwardto aft.
a. Strake D. Shore c. Floor plate d' Girder

66. Strongbeam of H sectionusedfor keelsonand other membersrequiring considerablestrength.

a. Floor plate b. Girder c. Strake d' Shore

67. The methodof joining two piecesof metal togetherby the processof heat fusion.
a. Bonding b. Rircting c. Charging d' Welding

68. Whena vesselis stationaryand in a hoggingoondition,themain deckis under:

a. CompressivestressD. Tensile stress c. Shear stress d. Racking stress

69. Weight concentrationin which of the following areaswill causea vessel'sbotbm to be subjectedto
tensile stress?
a. Amidships b. Forward c. Atbo0ends d' Aft

70. The maximum fraction of a ship's total length at any given point which canbe floodedwithout the ship
being submergedbeyondthe margin line.
a. Extremelength b. Permissiblelength c. Broadlength d. Floodablelength

Ship Construction 351

7l . In ship crnstruction,framespacingis:
Answer: Reducedat thz bow aM stern.
12. What descriptiveterm indicatesthat the dimensionis measuredftom the inner faceof the shell or
deckplatings?
Answer: Moulded.
73. The circular ste€lstructuresthat are installedaroundthe propellerof a towboatare the:
Answer: Noales.
74. Limber is a term associated
with:
Answer: Drainage.
75. The strengthof adeck will be increasedby adding:
Answer: Deck bewns
76. The beamof a vesselrefersto the:
Answer: Wdth of the vessel.
77. Tonnageopeningsmustbe closedby means of:
Ansv,er: SteeIPlates.
78. A shorcis a pieceof securingdunnagethat:
Answ,er: Runsfrom a low supportinglevel up to thc cargo at an angle.
79. Signsof rackingstressesgenerallyappearat the:
Answ,er: Juncliorto.!'theframes with the beamsandfloors.
li0. Whatis the purposgoi rrdrtking plug?
Answer: To drain the dott!'lt:br,sftoms
of a ship in drydock.
81. The shellplatein a bilgewell locateddircctlybeneaththesoundingpipeis called:
Answer: A strikingplate.

82. The ceilingboardhaswhich of thefollowingpurposes?

L T,, ahsorhshockof cargobeinglanded.
IL Ttr absordwetnessin orderto keepothercargofrom
gettingwel
Answ'er: I only.
83. What is thepurposeof a harchcoaming?
I. Strengthens thestructuralopeningin a vessel.
II. Eliminatesstressat the cornersof the openings.
Answer: I only.
84. What is the purposeof deckbeams?
l. To supportthe deckload.
II. To giveshapeto thehull.
Answer: I only.
85. What transfersthe driving force from the propellerto the hull?
Answer: Thrust bearings.

352 Ship Construction

 of weight loss due to friction per sheaveis:
l Using block and tackle, the assumedpercentage
c' 5Vo d' l07o
a. TVa b' l59o
line is:
2. Themajor advantage of braided synthetic
c. It can only be put on the gypsy head in one direction'
b. It is easier to handle.
c. lt is easierto sPlice.
d. It won't snaPback.
at
as cargo gear having a lifting capacity of 20T shall be
3. The breaking test load of wire ropes used
least:
D. 4 times the SWL c' 5 times the SWL d. 6 timesthe SWL
a. 3 times the SWL
blocks is called:
4. A block and tackle consisting of two three-fold
b' Handy billy c' Three fold d. Doubleluff
a. Gun tackle
meansthat:
5. When a purchaseis rove !o advantage'this
a. The numUerof sheaves in the purchasedoes not change'
b. The hauling part comesfrom the moving block'
c. The mechanicaladvantageis increasedby one'
d. All of the above.
line is:
6. The most dangerouscharacteristicof a nylon
a. It returnsto its original length' c' It snapsback uponpafiing'
b. It sEerches.
is known as:
7. A ropemadeof a combinationof wire andfiber d' Langlay
a. Preformed b. Springlay c' Independent

8. The srrongestof the naturalfiber ropesis: d' Sisal

b. Dacron c. Manila
a. Nylon
g,Wireropeiscomposedofthreeparts.Whichofthefollowingisnotapart?
c' Core d' Fibers
a. Wires D' Strands

10'Ga]vanizingwouldnotbsuitableforprotectingwireropeswhichareusedfor:
d' Mooring wires
D. Stap c' Cugorunners
a. ShrouG

ll.Thepurposeofintertwiningtheropeyarnsandstrandsinmakinguptheropeisto:
c. Increasethe roPestifttess'
b. Increasethe roPeela'sticitY'
c.Decreasethelengththusincreasingresistancetoruprunng.
d. Decreasethe ropetensionstrainand resistance'
hoisting
runnersfrom two cargoboomsto form a single
12. Tbearrangementof connectingtwo cargo
processis called:
c. SPottingbooms
c. Fall and outwardfalls
d Cargofall
b. Doublelift

Cargo Gears
353
 13. If youare steeringon a headwind on a freshbreeze,a boommay bepreventedfrom accidentallyjihing
by using a:
a. Outhaul D. Buntling c. Lazy gay d. Clewline

14. ttrorvis the size of a shacklemeasured?

a. By diameterof the metal at side of shackle c. By the circumferenceof the shackle
b. By the diameterof the shackle d By the diameterof the eye

15. In handling a weighl what part of the taclle has the great€ststressin hoisting?
a. The hauling part b. The standingpart c. Both a and b d. Neither a nor b

16. In handling a weight what part of the tackle has the greateststressin lowering?
a. The hauling part b. The standingpart c. Both a and b d. Neither a nor b

17. If the warrantedbrcaking strength of a rope is divided by the safetyfactor required for a particular
application, the result is known as the:
a. hoof load D. Bestworking load c. Safeworking load d. Tensilesress

18. A ropeusedto heavea haul aheavierone;suchasa momingline o a chaincableinto a requiredpoition.

a. Painter D. Mooring wire c. Spring rope d. Messenger

19. A loador weight appliedto materialwhentestingit to destruction.

a. Safeworking load D. Srain c. Sress d. Breaking sress

20. When the mechanicalpower of a purchaseis equal to the numberof sheavesplus one, it is:
a. Rigged to advantage c. Riggedto disadvantage
b. Rigged to normal d. Double rigged

21. The friction on the surfacein relation to the original load makesthe total resistqnce:
a. Tnro b. The sane c. Greater d. Irss

22. Apvrchaseconsistingof a doubleblock and a singleblock is called:

a. Lufftackle b. Guntackle c. Ilandybilly d. Singlewhip

23. Usedfor baggedcargoesin preferenceto rope sling.

a. Conveyor D. Wire sling c. Canvasssling d. Cargonet
24. In union purchase,the anglebetweenthe two runnersmust not exceed:
a. 120" b. 100' c. 160" d. 90"
25. No pulley block shall be usedin hoisting or lowering unlessclearlystrmpedwith:
a. Ship'sname b. Safeworking load c. Weight d. Manufacturer'sname
26. A sheaveis a:
a. Line to hold a lifeboat next to the embarkationdeck
b. Seaman'sknife
c. Groovedwheel in a block
d. Pfiaal load of grain
27. One of the most useful splicesas it pemtits the ropesto run through a block just the samei$ an
unsplicedrope.
a. Short splice b. tnng splice c. Back splice d. Eye splice

354 Cargo Gears

28. A generalterm for any mechanicalarrangementof tackle which increasesthe force appliedby combi-
nation of PulleYs.
c. Derrick D. Snatchblock c. Purchase d. tleavylift

29. Yanwould know that a nylon hawseris reachingits load carrying capacitybyr
a. Chafing c. SharPcrackingnoise
D. Stretchingof the hawser d. Noneof the above

30. Which of the following deterioratesnylon line?

a. Strongsunlight b. l{6;at c. Strongchemicals d. Alloftheabove

31. The heelblock is located:

Anster: At thc baseof the boorrL

32. A snatchblock is a:
Answer: Hinged block.

33. The proper method of uncoiling a new coil of Manila rope is:
Answer: To reachinto the coil and tak tltc erdfron the bottomof the coil andpull it out.

34. The proper methodof uncoiling new reel of wire rope is:
I. Mount the reel on a spindle and run the ropeoff'
II. Mount the reel on a turnable and run the rope off'
III. Roll the reel along the deck wit the bitter end madefast'
Answer: I, II and III.

35. Tacklesget their namefrom the:

I. Nrmber of sheavesin the block'
II. Useto which theyare Put.
Answer: Both I and II.

36. The weakestPartof ablock is:

Answer: CenterPin.

37. You can bestdetermineif a Manila line is deterioratingby:

Answer: opening tlu strands and took at tlte xolor of the insidc strands.

3g. When securinga wire to a bitt" a round turn shouldbe takennearestthe first to avoid:
Answer: Parbucklingthe bitt.

39. The guysshouldbe positionedfor maximum efftciencyin stayinga boomby:

Answer:As near 90" to tlrc boomaspossible.

40. A safetyshackleis identified by its:

Answer: Certificae $anP.

Cargo Gears 355

 CARGO HANDLING EQUIPMENT
IVTANILAROPE WIRE ROPE
US orBS = C212.5 BreakingStressfor:
For continuous working: 12 wires BS = 2 C,
SWL =C2 ll8 ?4wtes BS=3C2
For occasionallifi: 37 wires BS = 3.25C2
S W L = C 2l 7
Tofind circumference. BreakingStrength:
C = {J x'Load BS = 2.5C2
Tofin"dShcaveDiamcter: fo find SheaveDiamcter:
S . D I A .= 2 x C S . D I A .= 2 0 x D
Tofind block Size: SafeWorkingLoad:
B.SZE=3xC SWL= 2C216
CIIAIN
BreakingStrength= 30D2
Proofload = l2D2 HOOK
WorkingLoad = 8D2 SWL = 2l3xD2
fo fi.nd thc smnllestchain SIIACKLE
to lifi a given load: SWL = 3 xDz
DIA = r,TOI LoId. RING BOLT
8 SWL = 2xD2
SAFEWORKINGLOAD = BREAKINGSTRAIN
SAFE'TYFACTOR
MECIIANICAL ADVANTAGE
SinglePurchase I
Gun Tackle 2
LuffTackle 3 SxP =W+nw
Ilandy Billy 3 t0
Watch Tackle 3
Two Fold 4 where:
DoubleLuff 5 S is the stressor pull
'on
ThreeFold 6 the haulingpart.
P is the theoreticalpower
P =n ifusedtodisadyantage dfthepurchase.
P = n + 1 if usedto advantage W is the weight being lified.
nw is the allowancefor
10 frictionalresistance.

3s6 Cargo Gears

 FORCE = Weight( 1 + 1070Numberof Sheaves)
MechanicalAdvantage

WEIGIIT = Forcex MechanicalAdvantage

(l + l0% Numberof Sheaves)

NeglectingFriction ( Weightis Suspended

):
FORCE = Weight
M*hantcat Ad"a"tage

DERRICK
TENSION ON TFm TOPPINGLIFT = Weight^ Lengthof Towin
Lrngth of Mast
TENSIONONTT{EBOOM = Weightx Lengthof theBoom
length of Mast
TOTALTHRUST ON BOOM = Tensionon the Boom + Stresson the Haulins Part

Note: Ignorethc sheaveaI thefoot of the boom.

STRESSON TI{E HAULING PART = Yeight ( 1 + 10% No. or
MechanicalAdvantage

BRIDLE
T\vo leggedbridle
Angle berweenbridle legs:
Stress = Weight
2 Cos% 0
Anglefrom horizontal:
Stress = Weight
2Sin0
Three leggedbridle
Anglefrom horizontal:
Stress = Weight
3Sin0
( t >
Four leggedbridle
Anglefrom horizontal:
Stress = Weight

STEEL PLAIE
4Sin0 v
Each %" thicknessweighsl0 pounds
STEEL WIRE ROPE
BreakingStrengthin pounds = 55270xD'

Cargo Gears 357

 STRENGTHOF ROPES
MANILA ROPE
1. Given a 3-inch Manila rope, ostimateits ultimate strength (breaking strength) and safe working
loads.
SOLUTION:
USoTBS = C2 = 9 = 3 tons
3 3
or USoTBS = C2 = ) = 3.6tons
L5 L5

For occasionallifts:
SWL = C2 = ) = l2ltons
7 7
For continuousworking:
SWL = C2 = 9 - Vzan
18 13
2. A Manila rope that hasa 2.5 inch circumferencewill breakat:
SOLUTION:
BS = C2 = 2.5 x2.5 = 2.5 tons
L5 L5
3. Find the size of smallestManila rope suitablefor load of 3 tons.
SOLUTION:
Sizeof rope C = ,rf7 x toad = ,nE = 4.6 inch
4. Using a factorof 5, what is the SWL of a Manila rope that hasa bneakingstressof l2.l tons and a
circumferenceof 5.5 inches?
SOLUTION:
SWL = BS = 12.1tons =2.42tons
s F 5
5. Find the block sizeand the sheavedianeter to be used with a 3-inch Manila rope.
SOLUTION:
Sheavediameter= ZxC = 2x3 = 6inches
Blocksize = 3xC = 3x3 = 9inches

6. If the 3-inch Manila rope was usedfor 2000 lbs. of weighf what weight would 1ou lift with 3-inch
sisalhaving 80% of the Manila rope?
SOLUTION:
Weight = 2000ltts. x 0.80 = 16001bs.

3sE Cargo Gears

WIRE ROPES
l. What would be the breakingstressof 2-inch wire ropeshaving 12, 24, and37 wires in eachstrand?
SOLUTION:
( l 2 w i r e s B) S = 2 C 2 = 2 x 2 x 2 = 8 t o n s
( 2 4 w i r e s )B S = 3 C 2 = 3 x 2 x 2 = l 2 t o n s
(37wires) BS = 3.25C2 = 3.25x2 x2 = 13tons

Z. Find the ultimatebreakingstrengthand safeworking load of a 3-inch wire ropes.

SOLUTION:
BS = 2xC2 = 2x3xJ = l8tons
or BS = 2.5xC2 = 2.5x3x3 = 22.5tons
SWL = 2C2 = 18 = 3tons
6 6

3. A wire ropewith a breakingstrainof 13.9tonshasa diametermeasuring:

SOLUTION:
Circumference = 13.9 = 2.36 inches
2.5 2.5

Diameter = = 2.36 = 0.75inch or %"

3.1416 3.1416

4. If your cargorunner is ratedfor a safetyfactorof 5 and the SWL is 10 tons,what size of wire would
you use?
SOLUTION:
BS = SF x SWL = 5xl0 = 50 tons
c ={* = = 447"
^H ^/'=
D = C = 4 . 4 7 = 1 . 4 2 "
3.1416 3.1416
5. Tbe breakingstrainof a wire rope whosediameteris 1llzinch will be:
SOLUTION:
Circum = Dia.x 3.1416
= 1.5x 3J416
= 4.71inches
BS = 2 . 5 x C 2 = 2 . 5 x 4.71 x 4.71 = 55.5tons

CIIAIN
l. Requiredthe breakingstrength,the proof loadand the working load of a 314inch iron chain.
SOLUTION:
BS = 30xD = 30 x 0.75x 0.75 = 17 tons
PL = l2xDz = 12 x0.75x0.75 = 6.75tons
SWL = 6xD2 = 6x0.75x0.75 = 3.4 tons
or SWL = 8xD2 = 8x0.75x0.75 = 4.5 ons

Cargo Gears 359

 2. Requiredthe smallestsizeof chain for lifting a load of 5 tons.
SOLUTION:
DIA. = .fto - tggL {iffi- .E = 7/8 inch
8 8 8

BRIDLE
l. Youarelifting a weightof 1000lbs.with a twoleggedsling.What is thestresson eachleg if theangle
that the legs malcewith eachother is 60o ?
SOLUTION:
Stress = Weight = 1000 = 1000 = 577lbs.
2 cosYzQ 2 cos30o 1.732
You are lifting a weight of 6 tons with a three-leggedsling. What is the stresson eachleg if the angle
that eachleg makeswith the weight is 50" ?
SOLUTION:
Sress =Weight = 6 = 6 = 2.61tons
3 Sin 0 3 Sin 50" 2.298
3. Youare lifting a weightof 10 tonswith a four-leggedsling.What is the stresson eachleg if the angle
that eachleg makeswith the weight is 4O" ?
SOLUTION:
Stress = * * = l0 = 10 = 3.89tons
4Sin0 4 Sin 40" 2.57
PURCTIASB
1. Whena weightof 800lbs. is suspende4what is the stresson thehaulingpart whenusinga gun tackle
roveto leastadvantage?
SOLUTION:
FORCE = Weight = 800 = 400 lbs.
MA
Note: Weiglttis suspended. No friction involved.
What is the sfresson the hauling part when lifting a weight of 1000lbs.usinga luffprrchase roveto
advantage?
SOLUTION:
FORCE = W ( 1 + 1 0 % N o . S h e a v e s )= 1000(1+0.3) = 1300= 325lbs
MA
What is the stresson thehaulingpart whenlifting a weightof 1500Ibs.usinga watchtackleor handy
billy rove to lqNt advantage?
SOLUTION:
FORCE = W ( 1 + 1 0 % N o . S h e a v e s =) = 1 9 5 0= 6 5 0 l b s .
1lq0(1+0.3)
M A 3 J

36,0 Cargo Gears

4. What weightcanbo li,'Ag"N'gBl) nyo-foldpurchasewith a strainon the haulingpart of 250lbs. if the
{/pdld;&n;ga
tackle is rove to le t4* = ro-"{ tunvrf
SOLUTION:
WEIGHT = ForcexMA 250x 4 = 1000 =714.31bs.
=
| + 10VoNo. Sheaves ,.O -1.4
a-
5. a strginon the hauling
What weight canbe lifted using a three-foldpurchaserove td,irdv4ntagg4vith
Soolbs'?
Partof ffi = r\ts'df il't'tuss#
SOLUTION:
WEIGHT = Force x MA = 5 0 0 x 7 = 3500 = 2187.5lbs.
| + l0% No.Sheaves 1.6 L6

6. What is the sgq9s.anl$e{auling part when lifting a weight of 750 lbs. using a doubleluff purchase
rovetoleas(advantage?, , | / r
---- r 'n (t.oalw*httYq
sol[mo;-
FoRCE=@ ?grftt (tar*rLgr;t
MA
= 750(1+0.5) = ll25 = 225lbs.
5 5

7. A weight of 12 tons is giingliftdqlth a three-foldpirrchase.Find the total load and the pull on the
hauling part if useOtoQisaAvanta,g,
t---l
V(A " ho ..[ JIWS tl
SOLUTION:
P = 6 W = l.2tons n = 6
S x P = W + -10-
nW

Sx6 = 12 + 6xl2 = 12+72 = 1 9 . 2t o n s

10 10
s = 19.2 = 3.2 tons
6

Answer: I-oad = 19.2tons

Pull 3.2 tons

8. A weight of 30 tons is o be lifted with a three-foldpurchaseusedto advantagewith a leadblock at the

derrick end and anotherat the masthead.Find the sEess.

SOLUTION:
FORCE = Weight ( I + 10%No. of Sheaves)
MA
= l0(1+0.8) = 30x1.8 = 54 = 7.71tons
I

Cargo Gears 36r

9. A weightof 14tonsis to be lifted with a three-foldpurchaseroveto advantage. Find the tensionon the
hauling part of the fall and the sizeof Manila rope to use.Thereis a leadblock at the masthead.
Answer: Stress= 3.4 tons Circumferenceof rope = 4.gg inthes
SOLUTION:
FORCE = Weight (l + llVo No. of Sheaves)
MA
= 14 (l + 0.7) = 14 x 1.7 = 23.8 = 3.4tons
7 7 7
CIRCUMFERENCE = .f7 x had = ^n fiA = 4.E8inches

SINGLE GUN LUFF TWO FOLD DOUBLE THREEFOLD

WHIP TACKLE TACKLE PURCHASE LUFF PURCHASE

(TtrfrMMM
| ' ? ( ? * ? * Y r\
frfrddfrtr
MAI MA2 MA3 MA4 MA5 MA6

NOTB: ALL RIGGEDTO DISADVANIAGE

x2 Cargo Gears
 PRODUCTS
GRADESOF PETROLEUM
REIDVAPOR
POINT
FLASH PRESSURE EXAMPLES
GRADE
80"F or 14psior naluralgasoline,
A (Flammable) verylighlnaphthas
below above

80"F or morelhan mostcommercial

B (Flammable)
8.5psibttt gasolines
below
lessthan
14 psi

800F or 8.5psior mo$ crudeoils,

C (Flammable) aviation
below below creosote,
gas,iettuel

above80"F kerosene,
D (Combudible)
butbelow someheavycrudes,
150'F iet fuels
commercial

150"F or heavyfueloils,
E (Combustible) oils,
above lubricating
asphalt

FLAMMABLELIQUIDSarethosewhichgiveoffflammablevaporsatorbelow80"F.Thesearefurth
subdividedintogradesA,BandConthebasisoftheirReidVaporPressure.
give offflammablevaporat temperatures above80" F
COMBUSTIBLE LIQUIDS are thosewhich
a substance givesoff sufficientvaporsto flashacross
FLASII POINT is the lowesttemperatureat which
the surfacewhen a flame is aPPlied'
a substance will give off sufrrcientvapor to continueto
FIRE poINT is the lowesttemperatureat which
burn when ignited.
ar which a substance will sponraneousry ignite.
TGNITT'N TEM*ERATURE is the lowesttemperature

ExPLoSIvERANGEoRFLAMMABLELIMITS.Hydrocarbonvaporswillnotburninanatmos- percent-
the vaporsmuJtfall within a givenvolumetric
pherecontainingless ianloz"oxygen. In addition, little vapor will not burn (seethe
containingtoo much oi too
ageor no reactioncan takeplace.A mixture
tableon the next Page).

363
Cargo Handling and StowaSe
 FLAMMABLE
LIMITS
(Percent
byVolume
inAir)
PRODUCT LOWER
LIMIT UPPERLIMIT
CrudeOib (average) 1.0 10.0
Gasoline 1.3 t.6
Kerosene 0.7 6.0
Propane 2.1 9.5
Methane 5.0 15.0
Benzene 1.4 8.0
jet tuel)
JP4(military 1.4 /.o
Ethylene
oxide 2.0 100.0

When vapors are present in amounts above the
upper flammable limit, the mixture is said to be roo
rich to burn. If below the lower limit, it is too lean.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY is the densiryof liquid rela-
tive to the density of water. When the specific grav-
ity of an oil is known and also the temperature of
the oil, it is possible to work out thrweight of a
given volume or the amount of spacea weight of oil
will need. The specific gravify is of little or no use
without the temperature of ttre oil.
VAPOR PRESSURE
Petroleum products vary considerably in their
ability to give off gas or vapor, but generally those
with low flash points produce the largest amount of
gas. Their ability to give off gas depends to a very
large degree on temperatue. In a given size con-
tainer or tank, the same petroleum product will give
off more vapor at a higher temperature than a lower.
If the surfaceof the liquid petroleum is agitated, this
can help to increase the amount of vapor given off.
VISCOSI'IY is the internal resistancea liquid has
to flow. The viscosityof a liquid is not constantbut
may change considerably with an increase or a de-
creasein temperature. Thicker oils, which are heavy
and sluggish when in motion, may be quoted in thou-
sandsof seconds,and are said to have a hish viscos-
ity.
DEFINITION OF TERMS:
Bale capacity. T'he cubic capacity of a spacewhen
the breadth is taken from the inside ofthe cargo bat_
tens, the depth from the wood ceiling to the under-
side of the deck beamsand the length from the in_
side of the bulkheadstiffenersor sparring where fit-
ted.
Grain capacitl'. The cubic capacitvof a spacewhen
the lengths, breadthsand depths are taken right to
the plating, An allowance is made for the volume
occupied by frames and beams.
Stowage factor. The volume occupiedby unit weight
ofcargo. Usually expressedas cubic meters per tonne
or cubic feet per ton. It does not take into accounr
any spacewhich may be lost due to broken stowage.
Broken stowage. The spacebetweenpackageswhich
remains unfilled. The percentagethat has to be al-
lowed varies with the t1'peof cargo and with the shape
of the hold. It is greatestwhen large caseshave to be
stowedin an end hold.
Deadweight cargo. Cargo on which freight is usu-
ally chargedon its weight. Cargo stowing at lessthan
40 cu.ft. per ton is likely to be rated as deadweisht
cargo.
Measurement cargo. Cargo on which freight is usu-
ally charged on the volume occupied by the
cargo.Thiscargo is usually light, bulky ca_rgo
stow-
ing at more than 40 cu.ft. per ton.
Ullage. The vertical distance from an above deck-
datum (usually the top ofthe ullage hole) to the sur-
face of the liquid in the tank.

364 Cargo Handling and Stowage

rnnege. The soundingor measureddeptb of liquid, all of which are affectedby the humidity of the at-
25 ia 4 tank. mosphereattracting, reaining and giving of mois-
ture (water vapor). Hygroscopiccargoescauseship
Ihlefage. The lossof liquid not definitely accounted sweatby vir&e of changesin temperature,particu-
for, as by leakageor evaPoration. lady whenpassingfrom warmloadingareasto cooler
Tblevlng. The processof determining the anount onditions.
of waterpresentin a tank filled with oil cargo. Non-hygroacopic cargoes. Consist of materials of
fopptng ofi. The act of regulating the valveswhen solidnaturesuchassteelproducts,machinery earth-
loading throug[ship's lines in completing the level enware, cannedgoods and the like, which can be
to which a ta*,ot tanks are to be filled. subjectedto damagefrom cargo sweatand conden-
rusting, staining, or discolora-
Spontaneouscodusdon. C-ombustion producedin sationin the forrr of
tion. tlappens when loading has takenplace in cold
aiubsrance througfogenerationof heatby chemical climates and the cargo later subjectedto wann cli-
action of its ovn constituentsand/or by absorption matic conditions.
of oxygenin tbe'heating Prccess.
Inherent vlce. The natural tendencyof somepar-
Ad vabrcm cargo. Goodscanied at a freight ratp ticular goodso be wastedor becomedamaged,as,
accordingto their value. for instance,spontaneousheating ofoopra or hemp,
Dew polnt. The lowesttemperatureto which air can black rot in apples,diseaseof livestock, fennenta-
be cooled without condensationof its water vapor. tion of liquid and the like.
Shouldtemperaturefall belowthis point, dewor frost Talnt damage.Danage to goodsdue to other cargo
may fonn. having been wetled by seawater in heavy weather
tlygrmcoplc cargo. Mainly of vegeubleorigin such or dueto contactwith other cargoor causedby odors
as grain, flour, coson, tobacco,wood and the like, from other cargostowedin the samehold.

TIIE RULES OF IIOLD VENTILATION

1. If the dew point outsideis lower or equalto
thatof the hold dew point ... continueventilation.
2. If the dewpoint outsideis higher than the hold
dewpoint ... do not ventilatewith outsideair.
Considering the trvo basic categoriesof cargo
(hygroscopicand non-hygroscopic),then a further
extensionof thebasicrule canbe made.Any voyage
will involve one or more stagesduring which the
outsideair and the seatemperatureswill either pro-
gtessivelyriseor fall, or wherethereis little change.

Hygroscoplc Coldto wam Notcrilical.Ventihtion On openingof hatdtesat desti-

b notessential.
nation,immediatecondensation mayforma surlacebut will dry ofr
Cargo voyage
whencargo is disdtarge.

Wamto cold shouHbe as vigorousas pssible dudngthe

Highlyailical.Ventilation
eady$agesbul eventually the outsideD.P.will be to low.Thisis the
voyage
mo$ difficultvoyagesituationin whidrto anangesatidactory ventila-
lion.

Non-hygrocoplc CoHto wam cargosureatwouldocculon the surlaceof the stowif

No ventilation;
Gargo voyage warmermoislure
relatively ladenair wasadmitled.

Wamto cold ShipsweatineMtable but cargr., ddps

unaffededunlesscondensation
voyage backon to the stow.

Cargo Handling and Stowage 36s

 SWEAT
SWEA'T is condensationwhich fonr:,son all sur- 3. To provideair passages for the heated,mois
facesand on all goodsin a compartmerrtor hold due ture-ladenair to travelto the sidesandbulk
to theinability of cooledair to hold in suspension
as headsalong which it ascendstowardthe up
muchwatervapor aswarm air. takes.
1. SHIP'S SWEAT is a condensationon the 4. To protectit from contact with condensed
ship's structure.Ship's sweattakesplacewhen the moisturewhich is collectedand retainedon
dewpoint in a cargospaceexceedstie temperature sidestringers,bulkheadbrackets,etc.
of the structuralparts of the ship. It is minimized,
or eradicated,by passingadequatevolumesof out- 5. To preventchaffageaswellastochocko{f
sideair over tle cargo,moreparticularlynecessary and serure cargoby filling in brokenstow
in a vesselpassingfrom warmto colderafinospheric age, i.e. spaceswhich cannotbe filled with
conditions. cargo.
2. CARGO SWEAT is a condensation directly 6. To evenlyspreadout ttrecompression loadof
on the cargo.Cargo sweatcan arise when passing deepstowages.
from cold to wanner climatic conditionssincethe
SPAR CEILING. Battenslaid in holds and rween
causeis from the warmermoistureladen air con-
decks of shipsother than colliers,tankers,and tim-
densingon thecargo.Its preventionis by sealingoff
ber and orecarriers.Theyare fitted on the sidesfrom
the ventilating facilities, although extractionfans
the turn of thebilge upward,andare spacedabout9
will be neoessaryto offset any moistureeffectsema-
in. apart.Their thicknessis about2 in. and width 6
nating from the cargoitself, or its dunnagingmate-
to 7 in. Theli preventtbe cargo from coming into
rials.
contactwith the framesor shell plating, with the
DLII\NAGE. A tenn appliedto loosewoodor other resultingdamageby moistureor sweat.The boards
materialusedin a ship's hold for the protectionof are arrangedverticallyor horizontallyaccordingto
cargo. thesystemof framingadopted.Also calledsparring,
hold sparring,oper ceiling, opensparring.
Dunnagingservesthefollowingpurposes accord-
ing to the natureof tle cargocarried: MOISTURE IIIGRATION. A phenomenon dueto
l. To protectit from contactwith water from transferof moisturethroughthe stowedcargoasthe
the bilges, leakagefrom other cargo, from shipproceedson her voyage.The directionandrate
ship'sside or from doublebottomtank. of this dependson the vaporpressureof the air at
variouspoints in the stow.Freemoisturewill tend
2. To protectit from contactwith moistureor to evaporatein
contact with unsaturatedair at or
sweatwhich condenseson the ship's sides, nearthesame
temperatureandtie rateof evaporation
frames,bulkheads,stringers,brackets,andso
dependson the relativehumidity of the air and the
on, and falls down on thecementcaps,from speedat which it passes
over the cargosurface.
whereit finds its way into the bilges.

DANGEROUS GOODS
The InternationalConventionon the Safetyof Instrument1965No. 1067,lnown astle Merchant
Life at Seaheld in 1960maderecommendations for Shipping(Dangerous GooG) Rules1965,ro bring
the classificationand labellingof dan3erousgoods. them into force.
The new pnovisionsbecameeffecti.'con 26th May
1965,and the United Kingdom issueda Statutory The StatutoryInstrumentdealswith the descrip-

366 Cargo Handling and Stowage

tion,marking,packing,stowageandcarriageof dan- CLASS 5(b) OrganicPeroxides;
gerousgmds. It also lists the various explosives CLASS6(a) Poisonous(toxic) substances;
which are permitted to be taken aboardand carried
on passenger shiPs. CLASS6O) Infectioussubstances;
The shipperof the dangerousgoodsmust give CLASS7 Radioactivesubstances;
the owner or master a certificate in writing to the
CLASS8 Corrosives
effect tlat the shipment is properly marked. The
minter of the ship is responsiblefor the provisionof CLASS9 Miscellaneousdangeroussubstances;
thelist, manifestor slowageplan to be carriedin the that is any other substancewhich ex-
ship showingthe dangerousgoodscarriedand their periencehas shown,or may show,[o
stowage. be of sucha dangerouscharacterthat
tlte dangerousgoodsrules shouldap-
All dangerousgoodsmustbe clearlymarkedand
PIY;
the labelsare in accordanceivith the recommenda-
tions of the InternationalConvention.They corre- CLASS 10 Dangerouschemicalsin limited quan-
spondwith the following classification: tities.
CLASSI ExPlosives; COMMERCIAL EXPLOSIVESaredividedinto the
following classes:
CLASS 2 Gases:compressed,liquefied or dis-
solvedunderPressure; CLASS I GunPowder
CLASS 3 Inflammableliquids; CLASS II Nitrate mixture
CLASS4(a) Inflammablesolids; CLASSIII Nitro comPound
liable
CLASS 4O) Infiammablesolidsor substances CLASSIV Chloratemixture
combustion;
to spontaneous
CLASSV Fulminate
CLASS4(c) Inflammable solids or substances
which in contactwith water emit in- CLASSVI Ammnunition
flammablegases; CLASSVII Firework
CLASS5(a) Oxidizingsubstances;

Cargo Handling and Stowage 367

 DANGEROUS GOODS LABELS

/ , ^/ ( -\ \
,/D,\
f7
^*GLtu
y soI-n
,zz
\ r r l

RADIOACTWE

RADIOACTTVE
a
RADIOACTWE

368 Cargo Handling and Stowage

 CARGO HANDLING AND STOWAGE
1. Cargoes that have the capability of absorbing moisture are called:
o. Hygroscopic b. Contaminated c. Inherent vice d' Tainted

2. What is the flash point of liquid classified as Grade E?

a.80"Fbelow b.l50"Fabove c.l50"Fbelow d.80'Fto150"F

3. When coming from cold climate to hot climate and carrying hygroscopic cargo, you should:
a. Not ventilate.
D. Ventilate continuouslY.
c. Ventilate only to raise the dew point.
d. Ventilate only when cargo temperature is warmer than the dew point.

4. The most important factor to determine the good turnout of refrigerated cargo is:
rr. Cleanliness of space c. Temperature maintained
,. Good ventilation d. Good stowage

5. The most inherent danger in LPG is:

a. l-nw temperature causesfrostbite or freezing.
b. Reacts to sea water.
c. Strong odor is Produced.
d. When warm becomes heavier than air.

6. Which of the following best indicates how many lons of cargo a vesselcan carry?
a. Bale cubic c. l,oaded displacement
b. Deadweight d. Gross tonnage

7. Corrosive liquids would have what kind of label?

a. Yellow c' White
b. Skull and cross-bones d. Red

8. The permanent dunnage attached to the frames of the ship that aids in ventilation is/are the:
a. Hatch boards b. Tank top c. Hatch beams d. Sweat batterrs

9. Common deficiencies in laying dunnage is/are:

a. Best drainage is not provided. c. Improper spacing.
b. Insufficient tiers. d. All of the above

10. Cargo damaged due to water being present in a cargo hold, as a result of a leak in the hull plating is
said to be damaged bY:
a. Freemoisture c. Both a and b
b. Transfer of hygroscopic moisture d' Neither a nor b

11. The term used to denotea quality of changein some cargo which damagesthe commodity itself is:
a. A latent defect b. Tainting c. Deterioration d. Inherent vice

12. Cargo which has a stowage factor of 40 is termed:

a. Deadweightcargo c. Advaloremcargo
b. Measurement cargo d. Insured cargo

13. Protection of cargo against tainting damage can be best obtained by:
a. ventilating the space. c. Proper use ofpaper separation and dunnage.
b. Not ventilating the space. d. Segregationofcargoby using different hatches'

Cargo Handling and Stowage 369

 14. The ratio of the amountof watervaporactuallyin the air to the amountthat woutdbe in the air if the
air is saturatedis:
a. Relativehumidity b. Absolutehumidity c. Dew point d. Specific humidity

15. The temperaturebelowwhich the air will be unableto retain the moistureit presentlycontainsis:
a. Dry bulb temp. b. Dew point c. Wetbulb temp. d. Wetbulb depression
16. Which of the following iVare correct?
a. Ventilationhasthe singleobjectiveof preventingdamageto cargothat originatesfrom condensation
within the cargoholds.
b. The dew point temperatureis dependentonly upon the moisturecontentof the air.
c. Both a and b
d. Neithera nor b
17. A spacashouldbe ventilatedwhen:
a. The cargotemperatureis colderthan the dewpoint of the air in the space.
b. Tbe cargotemperatureis warmertlan the dewpoint of air in the space.
c. The dew point of the air in the spaceis higher than dewpoint of the outsideair.
d. All of the above
18. The dew point of the air in tle ship'shold is to:
a. Be kept below the tempenrtureof the cargoto preventcargosweat.
b. Be kept abovethe temperatureof the hull andbulkheadsto preventship's sweat.
c. BotI a and b
d. Neithera nor b
19. The properstowageof refrigeratedcargoincludesattentionto:
a. Humidity control c. Both a andb
b. Air circulation around the cargo d. Neithera nor b I

20.Which of the following is most importantin the preventionof sweatdamageto ciugo in.tn\notAt
a. Outsidetemperature c. Dewpointof the outsideair \
b. Dewpoint of the air in the cargo hold d. Temperatureof the cargo
\
21.Dry bulb temperatureis 68 "F. Wet bulb temperatureis 61.5 "F. The relativehumidity is:
a. 68Vo b. 69% c. 70Vo d. 7l9o

22. Which of the following iVare correct?

a. Frozencargois 12 "F to 20 "F c. Air cooled cargo is 42 "F to 55 "F
b. Chilled cargois 28 "F CI40 "F d. All of tle above

2 3 .Sweatdamagewill occurin a cargohold containingmachinerypartswhen:

a. The outsideair is coldertian tle cargo.
b. The air temperatureof the hold is higher than theoutsideair.
c. The dew point of the hold is higherthan the temperatureof the cargo.
d. The dew point of the outsideair is lower than the temperatureof the cargo.

24. When loadingdifferentcargoesthroughthe samepipelineyou shoulddetenninewhich cargoto load

first except:
a. Flash point b. Specific gravity c. Trim, hog and sag d. Cleanlinesofcunmodity
25. How could you compare the weight of LPG vapor with air?
a. Lighter D. Variable c. Heavier d. The same

370 Cargo Handling and Stowage

26. What is the tendencyof gasolinefumes?
a. Settle on the level of the bilgeby mixing with air.
b. Disperseto amosphere.
c. Settlenear the top of the bilge.
d. Settlenear the bottom of the bilge.
Tl . Wby doesLFG gascarrier not requiredto havegasfteeing?
a. LN content makesit non-volatile. c. Cargo tanks are inspectedlessfrequently.
D. Regulationdoesnot require. d Cargoanks are purged of water and air.

28. The necessityof ventilating the bilge is o:

c. Provide adequateair to the engine. c. 1lodry the bilge for cleaning.
D. To cool the machineU !ea" d. Re,movefuel vapor which is heavier than air.

29. Ttre mostjmportant factor to considerwhether to ventilate or not a cargospaceis:

a. Dew point b. Dry bulb temp. c. Wet bulb temp. d. Rela,tivehumidity

30. The normal percentageof oxygen in air is:

a. 2l% b. 18% c. 16% d.25%

31. A temperatureat which a liquid nust be hearedin order to give off flammablevapor is:
a. Flashpoint b. Explosiverange c. Fire point d. Noneof these

32. Long ton is equalto:

a. 10001bs. b. 20001bs. c. ?.2;0lbs. i' d. Z00lbs.

33. GradeA peroleum productis: /

a. A combustibleliquid c. Lubricatfuf oil
D. Jet tuel d. A fianntble liquid

34. Liquid cargo loadedor dischargedin volume alwaysstatesp standardtemperatureof:

a. 60 "F ,. 50 "F c. 78 "F ' d. 72"F

35. Greenlabel cargo indicates:

a. Explosives c. Non-flanfrableompressedgas
''.----
b. Corrosiveliquids d. Poison

36. A petroleumliquid witb a flash point of 83 T would be:

a. CombustiblegradeE c. FlammablegradeA
D. CombustiblegradeD d. Flamnable gradeB

37. T\e advantageof a containervesselover a conventionalfteighter is all but:

a. Flexibility c. Quick turn around
D. Savesstevedore'sfee d. Quicker to load and discharge

38. The lowesttemperaturerequiredto causeself-sustainedcombustionof a substanceindependentof any

outsidesourceofignition is:
a. Explosive range c. Ignition temperature
D. Flash point . d. Combustiontemperature

39. Which of the following is the main purposeof ventilating holds with cargo?
a. To prreventair condensation c. Both a and b
D. To prreventgasaccumulation d. Noneof these

Cargo Handling and Stowage 371

 -rr

40. Whencarryingbulk grains,what shouldyou observeto minimize cargoshifting effects?

u. Inave somecompartmentpartially full.
b. lnvelall grainsfree surface.
c. Leaveat leasthalf of cargor ompartmentpartially full.
d Pump out all ballasts.

41. Hygroscopic cargo is defined as:

a. Cargo in a liquid state. c. Capableofgivingofmoisnrein theforrr of liquid.
b. Cargoignitingwhenincontactwithwater.d. Capableofabsorbingmoistureintheformofgas.

42. Which of the following operationsmay causethe pressurein an inertedtank to fall belowprescribed
limit?
a. Crudeoil washing D. Discharging c. Steamingtanks d. l-oading

43. The main advantageof tle use of unitized cargo systemsuch as preslinging,palletization,or
contarnenzauonrs:
a. Cleaneroperation c. Costreductionin termsof cargooperation
D. Avoid shifting of cargoat sea d. Noneof these

44. A petroleumliquid is said to be a GradeD combustibleliquid when its flash point is:
a. Irss than 80 "F c. Above80 "F but below 150 "F
"F
,. 80 or below d. Above80 "F

45. Which of the following valvesoffer the leastresistanceto flow whenfully opened?
a. Butterflyvalve D. Gatevalve c. Relief valve d. Non-return/valve

46. When a tankeris partially loaded,gasformationin the cargotanksis dueto:

a. Surfacearea b. Compressed area c. Draft

47. The primary hazardsin transportingLPG and LNG is:

a. Pressure b. Toxicity c. Temperature d. Flammabili

48. Which of the following is strictly forbiddenwhen handlingbaggedcargoes?

a. Storagenets D. Strapsor slings c. Ropeslings d. Hooks

49. Oncea bulk carrierfloodhold hasbeenpumpedoutprior to commencementof loading,whatprecaution

shouldbe taken?
a. Floodholdshouldnotbe loaded.
b. No specialprecarrtionis needed.
c. Propedycoverall wells to protectboth ballastandpumpingsystem.
d. Removeflangeswhich shouldbe installedin the next discharging.

50. A flammableliquid is any liquid that givesoff flammablevaporsat or belowa temperatureof:

a. 60 "F ,. 80 "F c. 100"F d. zlZ"F

51. The tendencyof a flammableliquid to vaporizeis indicatedby its:

a. Flash point c. Convectionindex
b. Ignitiontemperature d. Flammablerange

52. Damageto cargocausedby fu.nesor vaporfrom liquid, gasesor solid is called:

c. Tainting b. Vaporization c. Oxidation d. Contamination

372 Cargo Handling and Stowage

 you do?
53. Whena pump during dischargingoperationis cavitating,what should
a. Shutdown the PumP.
b. Closedown the valve locatedon the dischargeline'
c. Openall valveslocatedin the cargoline.

54. A heterogeneous cargocan bedescribedas:

a. General cargo
b. A mixture of cargoeswith dilferentdensities
c. Either a or b
d. Neithera nor b
heavypiecesaboardship?
55. What specificconsiderationshouldbe takeninto accountwhenstowing
a. The availabilityof lashingpoints.
b. Theresistanceof the hold deck,nveendeckor deck'
c. Both i and b
d. Neithera nor b

56. By regulation.a cargotank mustbe inertedbeforeand during what operation?

a. t-oating b. Stripping c. cleaning d. Crudeoil washing

57. If the hold's air dew point is higher than the outsideair dew point:
a. Ventilationwill contaminatethe cargo'
b Holdsmaybeventilatedas thereis no risk of condensation'
c. Holdsshouldnot be ventilatedas thereis condensqtion'
d. None of these

58. Safetyis increasedif:

a. Extra line and wire are laid on deckfor emergency'
b. Powertools are kept plug for immediateuse'
c. Spareparts are kept on deck for readyaccess'
'''
d. Nl lashingsaremadeup and the deckis cleanand clear'

59. Tankersshouldcarry cargohosethat can withstanda pressureof at least:

a. 100psi b' 120Psi c' 75 Psi d' 150Psi

60. Cargoesthat are susceptibleto leak from containersare:

a. Wet cargo b. Dirty cargo c' Causticcargo d' Bulk cargo

aboardbe stowed?
61. Whereshouldcargoeswhich by their naturecould contaminateothercargoes
a. In the samehold but separatedfrom each other by dunnage'
D. In the samehold compartrnentbut separated by a drainage'
c. In a separatehold compartment not sharinga commonventilation'
d. In the iame hold comparfrientand with constant air ventilation.

62. The following productsare volatile except:

a. Benzene b. Heavyfuel oil c' Coal tar r/' Diescl lurl

point o1tite air in lhe crgo

63. When the dew point of the outsideair is lower than or equalto the dew
hol4 you should:
a. Shutdown the intakeblowers. c' Secureall ve;rtilation'
b. ventilatecargoholds. d. shut down exhausthkrwcrs.

Cargo Handling and Stovugr 373

64. What is the advantageof transportinggasunder refrigeratim?
a. [.essproductper volume. c. It increasesits volume.
b. It reducesits volume. d. Itfrgozrs while in transit.

65. Which of the following is classifiedas a combustibleliquid?

a. Ethyl alcohol c. Acetaldehyde
b. Tetraethylineglycol d. Carbontetrachloride

66. Dunnageprimary useis to protect cargo from damagedue to:

a. Hygroscopicabsorption c. T[inting
b. Inherentvice d. Ship'ssweat

67. In accidentalpollution, the mostcritical time during bunkeringis when:

a. You first start to receivethe fuel. c. Final topping off is occurring.
b. Hodesare being disconnected. d. Hces arebeingblown.
"F "F?
68. What will happenif the flash point of kerosenewhich is 100 be heatedabove110
a. Burn and explode. c. Boil off to atmosphere.
b. I-essvolatile and to
easier handle. d. Nothing.

69. An inert gassysteminstalledon tankersis designedfor:

a. L.oweroxygenlevel insidethe cargotanksmaking explosionremote,
b. Nd in sripping and cleaningof tanks.
c. Forcetoxic and explosivefumes from a cargo tank'
d. Increaserate ofdischarge.
"SPECIALIARGO"?
70. What is a
a. Cargothat givesOfiRlQxic gaswhenheated. c. It hasa high value that pilferageis tempting.
b. Periodic checkis requibd while on board. d. It mustbe stowedon deck.

71. The effectof a heatedbulkheadon a hygroscopiccommodityis: l

c. Raisevapor pressureof the commodity. I
b. Lovrervapor pressureof the commodity'
c. Causemoistureto accumulateagainstthebulkhead.
d. Lnwer the dew point.

72. ^Black powder" would be classified as:

a. ExplosiveA b. Corrosive c. ExplosiveB d. ExplosiveC

73. "Anhydrousarnmonia"would havewhat label?

a. Non-inflanmable gas c. Corrosive
D. Yellow d. Greengas

74. Nlullage holeson a tanker'scargotanksare requiredto be fitted with:

a. Approvedflane screens c. Pressurereliefvalves
b. Approvedflame arreston d. Pressure-vacuum relief valves

75. A hoseis found tobe lealdngwhile loadingliquid cargo.You stopcargooperations.Whatmust be

done frst in order to resume&e cargooperations?
a. Patchthe hose. c. Replacethe hose.
b. Notify the dock. d. Reducethe speedof the cargopumps.

374 Cargo Handling and Stowage

 the ship officer in-chargeshouldseeto
76.During loading/unloadingand stowing/breakbulk operations,
it that the cargo is being handledfollowing:
o. 1.n" orderi receivedftom the shipper. c. The ordersfrom the ca'go recerver'
D. The directions issuedby himself. d. T\e ordersfrom the stevedores'
has beencausedby the failure of the ship
77.The shipowneris subjectedto claim if the cargo damage
officer to:
lat€nt defecton cargo
a. Ensuretle fitness and safetyof cargospace c. Detect
d' None of these
b. Ensureadequatepackaging
must seethat all hatch coveringsare:
78. When work is finished for the day,the cargoofficer
D. Water tight c' Secured d' All of the above
a. In place

79. Usedto classify cargofor speedydischarge'

a. Forklift D. Portmarks c. Cargonrrtbers
grain hatch from reachingan angleof repose?
80. what equipmentusedto Fevent grain in a slack
a. Leveldunnagewith wire straps c. Ipvel dunnagewith compatiblecargo
b. Shifting boards d' Side batten

81. The processof using timbers to secrure cargoby running the timber from an upper supportdown to the
cargoeither vertically or at an angle is called:
D. Shoring c' Dunnaging d' Pracing
a. Tomming
for:
82. An inert gas systeminstalled on tankersis designed
a. Forceioxic and explosivefumes from a cargo tank'
b. Increasingrate ofdischarge
c. Aid in striPPing of tanks
free.
d. Lwtqoxygen ievel inside cargo tanks making them explosion

83. Usedfor baggedgoodsin preferenceto rope slings:

D. Wire slings c' Cargonets d. Conveyor
a. Canvassslings
productsloadedin bulk will retain their forrt or
84. The maximum angle at which grain, oal o'r other
remain in a heaP.
o. Angle of inclination c' Angle of list
b. Angb of trim d' Angle of repose

85. A gasor mixture of gasesincapableof supportingcombustion'

b. GasvaPor c' Fumes d. Oxygen
a. Inert gas
from ship to shore'
86. The connectionof metal plates to ensureelecrical continuity
D. Bonding c' Charging d' Alloftheabove
a. Welding
g7. The processof replacing foul air in any of the ship's conpartnent with pure air'
b. Ventilating c' Refrigerating d' Purtffing
a. hrrging
explosivesare classifiedas:
88. Under International Maritirre DangerousGoodscode,
a. ClassI b. Class2 c' Class3

89. One barrel is equivalenl to: "F

"F c. 43 US gallons at 65
a. 42lJS gallons at 60 "F
"F d. 45 US gallons at 75
a. nOUS gallonsat50

CargoHandling and Stowage 375

 90. Which of the following is a wet cargo?
a. A cannedor bottled liquid suchasbeer
b. A cargothat containshygroscopicmoisture
c. A cargo particularly susceptibleto danage by moisture
d. A liquid cargo in the deeptanks

91. If you are bunkering and pu closeoff one rqnk in the line of tanksbeing filled, the rate of flow to the
otheropentankson the sameline will:
a. Decrease D. Stop c. Increase d. Remainconstant

92. Ullages on tankersare measuredfron the:

a. Bushing D. Abovedeckdatum c. Thievagemark d. Tankceiling
"thieving" a petroleumcargo?
93. What is meantby
a. Reducingthe grosscargocalculationsto net amounts.
b. Siphoningoff a few barrelsof petroleumcargofm shipboarduse.
c. Adjustingthe cargofiguresto coincidewith the draft.
d. Deterrrining the amountof water (if any) in eachcargotank.

94. Oil productsamplesshouldbe takenfrom the:

'
a. Dock riser c. Shoretank discharee
D. Ship's cargotanks d. All of these

95. The flammablelimits for motor gasolineare:

a. 1.4%to 7.6%mixturein air c. 2.5Voto 9.87omixturein air
b. 5.09oto 7.0% mixture in air d. 0.9Voto 5.9Vomixture in air

96. BunkerC and fuel oils areknown as:

a. Solubleoils b. Slopoils ( Cutting oils d. Viscousoils
97. The water which accumulatesat the tank bottonrciir the form of leftoverballast,tank washingsand
condensationis measuredby the processof:
a. Thieving b. Sounding r'. Lllaging d. Dipping

98. The standardtemperaturefrom which to calculat.:tho net amountof oil in a tank is at:
a.45"F c.60"F c.32"F d.15"F

99. Spills are causedby:

c. Brokenhose D. Improperline-up c. Gravitation d. A-lloftheabove

100. The vertical distancemeasuredfrom the tank bottomto the liquid surfaceis called:
a. Innage b. Ullage c. Thiefage d. Thievage

101. A centrifugalpumpmustbe primedto:

a. Overcomepressureof water in the dischargeline
b. Lubricatethe shaftseals
c. Ltftwater level to impellers
d. Make the pressureequalto dischargepressure

102. Whenballastingthroughthe cargosystem,the main objectiveis to preventoil in the line from

escaping.The frst thing to do is to:
a. Start the pump c. Openthe tank valves
b. Open the seavalves d. Artyof the above

376 Cargo Handling and Stowage

103. Beginswhen the tank is about60% empty.
a. Bottom wash D' Middle wash c. Top wash d. Deck wash

i04. negins when the tank is almost completelyempty'

a. Top wash b. Bottgmwash c. Middle wash d. Deckwash

105. when seawateris pumped into cargo tanks, it inevitably washesoil from the tank surfaces.The
resultantoil-watermixture is called:
a. Dirty ballast D. Ballastwater c. Oily ballast d. Oil-water ballast

106. which statementis correctregardingsegregatedBallastTanls?

a. Oil cargo are separatedfrom ballast by using different pumps'
b. Ballast and oil are loadedinto different tanks.
c. Ballast tanks incorporatea complet€lyseparatesystemof pumpsand pipelines for clean ballast
d. Nonenf tbese

107. It is condensationwhich fonns on all surfacesand on all goodsin comparEnentor hold due to the
inability of cml air to hold in suspensionas much water vapor as wann air.
a. Sweat b. EddY c. Dew d' HumiditY

l0g. During discharging,it is very importantto preventc:rgo from falling directlyinto the waterby using:
a. Ropesling b. Wire sling c' Cargonet d' Pallets

109. Brokenstowagemeans:
a. loss of cargo b. Irst in sPaoe c; Damageto cargo d . All of the above
dunnage,occupies
ll0 . The numberof cubic feetwhich one ton (22,+0lbs.) of goods,with the necessary
in the shiP'scargospace.
a. Stowagefactor D. Broken stowage c. Cubic capaqity d. Deadweightcapacity

111. Which of the following is/arethe source/sof moisturein the air of a cargohold?
"sweat" c. Spontaneousheating of certain goods
a. Condensationor
D. Presence ofwetcargo d. All of the above

Ll2. Thevolumeof bulk grain which fills cargospacein question,expressedin cubicfeet'

a. Measurementton D. Bale cubic c. Grain cubic d. DeadweightcaPacitY

113. A volumeunit of 40 cu. ft. usedin computingfreight charges'

a. Measurementton b. Deadweightton c' Registeredton d. Net ton

114. The volume of a full load of balesor casesin a given comparonent'as measuredinside the sPar
ceiling.
a. Grain cubic b. Measurementton c. Balecubic d. Deadweightton

115. The tenn in marking shippingoontainerswhich meansweightof containeronly'

a. Tarc b. Gross c' Net d' None of these

116. The term usedin marking shippingcontainerswhich meanstotal weight of containerand contents.
a. Grossweight b. Net weight c. Tareweight d. Deadweight

I I 7. The tenn usedin marking shippingcontainerswhich meansweight of oontentsonly.

a. Gross D. Net c. Tare d' Any of the above

Cargo Handling and Stowage 377

U8. What s3owagemust be providedfor fibers of animal or vegetableorigin that havebeeninvolved in a
ftre or that havebeenwet?
a lnvter hold stowage c' Engine room stowage
D. Theen deck stowage d Deck s0os'age

119. All of the following are the usesof dunnagsEXCEPT:

a. To protect cargo from contact with leakagefrout other gmds.
b. To preventchaffing by chocking offfrom stanchions,web franes, etc.
c. Gives additional freight to the shipowner.
d. To provide air coursesin the necessaryventilation ofcargo'
120. The act of regulating Oe valves when loading througb the ship's lines in completing the level to
which a tank or tanks are to be filled'
a. Stripping b. Topping off c' Thieving d. Dipping

l2l. ln connectingcargo hose,what is the minimrrm numberof bolts pemritted at a flangedjoint?

a. Three b. Tlvo c. Four d' Five

lZ2. In rigging a wind sail to ventilate qil tanks after cleaning operation,wherewould you placethe lower
end of the canvassduct?
a. At the top of the tank c. At the middle of the tank
D. At the bottom of the tank d. On deck

123. T\e loss of liquid not definitely accountedfor, asby leakageor evaporation.
a. Thiefage D. Thievage c. Ullqge d. Innage

124. FWt should Oe ullage hole in an oil tank be protectedwhen the tank is open and not gasfree?
d. With flane screen c. With canvasscover
b. By overing with plywood d. With plastic cover

125. Goodshaving a stowagefactor of 40 or less.

a. Advaloremcargo c. Measurementcargo
b. Weight cargo d. Sowage cargo

126. Goodsstowingat more than 40 cu. ft. per long ton.

a. Weight cargo c. Measurementcargo
D. Ad valorem cargo d. Sowage cargo

127. Cioodscarried at a freight rate accordingto their value.

a. Ad valoremcargo c. Stowagecargo
b. Weight cargo d. Measurementcargo

128. All of the following are necessaryconditions that must be maintainedin a refrigeratedcomparErent
in order to have a good cargotulllout EXCEPT:
a. Cleanlinessof cargosprce c. Properstowage
b. I,,clutrelative hrmridity d. Constantrefrigeration

129. T\eterm usedto describeoils suchasalmond, attar of roses,clove, wintergreen,liavande4etc., which

are usedin perfumery and cooking.
a. Petroleumoils D. Essentialoils c. Vegetableoil d. Cmking oil

130. A skull and crossboneslabel indicateswhat type of dangerouscargo?

a. Poisonorpoisonousgas c' Flarunableliquid
D. Corrosives d. Oxidizing agents

37t Cargo Handling and Stowage

 FORMULAS
StowageFactor CubicCapacitY
Weight in I-ong Tons

96Broken Sowage v -v x roo V = Total Volume

V v = Volumcoccupiedby
cargo loaded

WT. of Large SF Cu. Capacity- (CargoWt. x Small SF)

Difference in StowageFactor

Board Feet L ' x W ' x H ' x 1 2

Volume of Lumber Board feet

l2

Maximumlleight DeckLoad x StowageFactor

2240
Deck load in lbs'/fi'
StowageFactor in ff/ton

Net Barrels @ 60" F = Gross t I Gross x Coef. x (Diff in Temp' fiom 60" F)]

Coefficient = Coefficient of Expansion or Contraction

Net Barrels @ 60" F = GrossBarrels x m factor

m Factor is multiplier from API Table6A or 68

Total permissible to Load = Coef' atHigh TemP. x Max' Volume

Coef. at Inw TemP.

CargoAssessments 379
 SAMPI,E PROBLEI\I.S:

1. A cargohold measures65' long, 28' wide and 17' 09" high. A cargoonsisting of 600
cases,each
measuring5' x 4' x 2'06" is tc be loaded.Allowing a brokenstowageof 5%,how much space,
if any,
will therebe remainingin the _'-old?
SOLUTION :
Vol.ofHold = 65'x 28'x 17.75, = 32,305cu.ft
Vol. of Cases = 5' x 4' x 2.5' x 600 = 30,000cu. ft.
Vol.of Hold = 32,305cu.ft.
30,000/0.95 = - 31.579cu.ft.
Remaining space = 72,6 clu.fL

2. You load 20 T of pastein a hold. It takesup 900 cu.ft. The stowagefactorof the pasteis 40.5.
What
is the broken stowagefor this cargo?
SOLUTION:
VolumeofCargo = 20T x 40.5 = g10cu.ft.
BrokenStowage = V - v xl00
V
= 900 - 810 x 100
900
= l0%
3. tlow nrany tons of boxesmeasuring3' x 2' 06" x 5' and weighing 560 lbs. can be stowedin
a space
having a cubic capacityof 28,500cu. ft. usinga brokenstowageof l5%?
SOLUTION:
Stow4geFactor = Cu. Capacity
I t,ong Ton
= 3'x2.5'x5'=150
(s60t2u0)
Weighr = Cu. Capacity = 2g,500 x 0.g5 = 161.5Tons
--SFa;ror
150
4. Your vessel'sdeadweightis 12,000T. Fuel, water, & storesare 2,500T. The grain cubic capacity
is
500,000cu.ft. The stowagefactorof grain is 56. one bushelof grain occgpies1.zuscu.ft. Which
of
the following iVare correct?
a. You canload 9,500Tof grain. c. Both a andb
b. Youwill have 401,767.8bushels. d. Neithera nor b
SOLUTION:
500,@cu. ft = 8928.57T = Maximumyoucan load
56
--
500,0(X)cu. ft.
rw-
= 191,767.79bushels

Answer: (b)

3E0 CargoAssessmcnts
 parts occupies15 cu.ft. and
A tween deck measures25' wide by 14' deep.one caseof machinery
you are going to load 25 T of cases the
against fwd bulkhead. Assumingthat theyare
weighs175lbs.
the height of the tween deck, how far aft will the casesextendfrom
sb;ed the width of the hatch and
the forward bulkhead?
SOLUTION:
sF = cu. ft = 1.5 = 192
l LT (r75122N)
192 x 25 = 4800cu.ft. ofcargo
25' x 14' = 350 sq. ft. for the tudbulkhead
4900 cu. ft. = l3.7tft.
350 sq.ft.

you are to load cannedgoodsthat havethe stowagefactor of 50 and rags that havea stowagefactor of
160.The hold capacityis520,000cu.ft. The cargo weight capacity is 4,200T. Itrowmuchof each
"full and down"?
cargocould you load to bring tie vessel
SOLUTION:
wLF.=Weightofthecargohavingthelargestowagefactor
WLF = Cu.ft. - (CargoWt x Small Stowagefactor)

WLF = 520,000-(4,200x50) = 2818'18T Rags

ffi
4,200.00T - 2,818'18T = 1,381'82T
Weight of cannedgoods =

j. your vesselhasa deadweighttonnageof 9,000T. Bunkersare 1,500T and storesare45T. You wish
112lbs. The
to loadboxesoftea and steelrods.Eachbox oftea measures2.5' x I' x 2' and weighs
slowagefactorof steelrodsis 14.Your vessel hasa hold capacityof 450,000cu.ft. How much of each
"full anddown"?
cargoshould you load to bring the vessel

SOLUTION:
9000 T Deadweight
- 1545T Bunkers & stores SF for steelrods = 14
7455T Cargoallowed

SF Cu. ft. = 2.5' x l' x 2' = 100 SF for tea

r Lr (rr2l22n)
x+y = 74557

14x + 100y = 450,000 T

7455.00
-l4x - l4y = - Q455xl4) T of tea
4018.95
86v =-]lf',$o- = 3436.05T of steelrods
v = 4018.95 T tea

CargoAssessmznts 3E1
8' A hold hasa deckareaof 1500 sq.ft.Youaregoingto load 150Tofcases.Eachcaseoccupies1gcu.ft.
and weighs320 lbs. The hold hasa depthof 35 ft. How manyfeetabove the cargowill remainafter
this cargois loaded?
SOLUTION:
StowageFactor = Cu. Capacity
I Long Ton
= 18 =126
= (320 t2U0)
Cu. Capacity = SF x Weight = 126 x 150
= 18,900cu. ft.
18,900 cu. ft. = 12.6' Ht. of cargo
1,500 sq.ft.
35.0'- 12.6' = 22.4' remainingspaceabovethe cargo
9. Youareto load a consignmentof lumber.Eachpiecemeasures
4" thick, 9" wide & 15'long. Thereare
20,0m piecesin the shipment.How manyboardfeetwould be listed on the Bill of Lading?
SOLUTION:
B o a r d F e e t= UxW'xH'x12
= 15'x 0.75' x 0.33' x 12 = 45.0
45.0BoardFeetx 20,000 = 900.000 Board feet
10. A vesselis ballastingher doublebottomtank which hasa tank top areaof 500 sq.ft.you fill thetank
throughthe soundingpipe, which is 20 ft. high abovethe tank top, to within 5 ft. from the top of the
pipe. If waterweight is 64 lbycu.ft., what total pressureis on the tank top?
SOLUTION:
500x15x64 = 214.297
2240
11. A tank measures3' x32'x 40'. How long will it take to emptythe tank if the dischargepunp can
pump 120gallonsper minute?
SOLUTION:
Volume = 3' x 32' x 40'= 3940cu.ft.
7.48gallons = 1cu. ft.
3840cu.ft. x 7.48gallons = 239.4mins.
120 or 3h 59m 21s
72. After loadinga cargoof casingheadgasolineon a tanker,yourullagesshowa total of 110,205bblsat
atemp.of76"F. If theAPlgravity at60"Fis64.7 andthecoefficientof expansionof thecargois
0.0007,how many barrelsshouldbe listedon the Bill of Lading?
SOLUTION:
LoadingTemp. 76"F l\{ = 1.0 - Reduction
StandardTemp. -60" F = 1.0 - 0.0112
Diff.inTemp. = l5"F M = 0.9888
Coef.of Exp.
--Reduadon x 0.0007
--TT-m
=

3E2 CargoAssessments
 Net Barrels = GrossBarrelsx M
= 110.205
bbs.x 0.9888
Net Barrels = 108,970.7trbls.

13. Your cargovesselhas a doublebottomtank with a capacityof 10,000cu.ft. You will to load liquid
cargotiat has an API gravity at 60 "F of 25.9. The cargohas 1.124bbls/longton and occupies40
cu.ft./longton. You want to load 1770bblsat 60 "F and expectto heatthe cargoduring the voyageto
not more than 80 "F. Which of the following is/arecorrect?
a. The tank hasa capacityof 1781barrels.
b. The cargowhenexpandedto 80 "F will overflowthe tank.
c. Both a and b
d. Neithera nor b
Answer: (c)
solurroN:
Tank Capacity
10,000cu.ft. = 250LT capacity
40 cu.ft./LT
Tankcapacity- 250LT x 1.l24bbls/LT = 1781bbls.
1770bbls at 60 "F. Apl 25.9 = multiplier of 0.9921
Net Barrelsat 60 "F = m x GrossBarrels
Net Barrelsat 60 "F = 0.9921x?
? = 177010.9921 = 1784.09bbls.
Thetank will overflow if heatedto 80 "F.

14. A tank hasa capacityof 90,000barrels. You load 88,200bbls.at 60 "F of a conunodityhaving an
API at 60 "F of 58.3. To what temperaturecould this commoditybe heatedbeforethe tank overflows?
a. 85 "F b. 93 "F c. 98 "F d. 99 "F
Answer: (b)
SOLUTION:
Net Barrels @ 60 "F = m x GrossBarrels
88,200 = mx90,000
m = 88.200=0.9800
90,'000
API 58.3 = Group 3 = kmp. of a little lessthan 93 "F

15. What is the volumeat 60 'F of 8000U.S. gallonsof oil measuredat 90 "F whenthe gravity of the oil
is 61.1API at 60 "F and them factoris 0.9818?
SOLUTION:
Net Volume@ 60 "F = GrossVolumex m factor

=;r:;'J:::,,"*
CargoAssessments 383
EXERCISES:

1. You are in the processof loading 465,000 barrels of cargo oil. At 1030H, on 5th November,you
gauged the vesseland found out that you haveloaded203,000barrels.At 1200H,you found out that
you have loaded218,000 barrels. If you continue loading at the sarnerate, your completion time
will be on:
a. 1242H 6th November c. 0735H 7th November
b. 1510H 5th November d. 1104H 6th November
2. A vessel'stropical loadlineis 6" above her summerloadline.Her TPI is 127tons.Shewill arrive
in the summer mne 8 daysafter deparnre. Shewill burn off about47 tonV day of fuel oil and will
consurne 12tonsofwater lday.IIow manytonsmaysheloadabovehersummerloadlineif sheloads
in the tropictlznne?
a. 472T b. 762T c. 376T d. 10167
3. What is the volumeat 60oFof 6000 barrels of oil measuredat 45"F when the gravity of oil is 57.8
API at 60"F and the M factoris 1.00917?
a. 6055 barrels b. 5833 barrels c. 5946 barrels d. 61M barrels
4. Gasoline having a coefficient of 0.0006 per deg. F is loaded at 60 "R The voyageanticipated
temperatureis up o 74 "F. Allowing for expansion, how many barrels should be loadedin a tank
capableof taking 10,000barrels?
a. 9916 barrels b. 9958 barrels c. 10000 barrels d. 10084 barrels

5. An oil cargohasa coefficientof expansionof 0.0005per deg.F. If this cargois loadai at 70"F and a
cargotemperatureof 90"F is expectedat the dischargeport" how many barrels would 1ou expect to
unload if you loaded 10,000barrels?
a. 10,100 barrels b. 10,010 barrels c. 9,990 barrels d. 9,900 barrels
6. A cargoweighing 100tonswith a stowagefactorof 50 is to be loaded.Allowing brokenstowageof
5Vo,how much volumewill the cargooccupy?
a. 5 ,2 63 cu.ft. b. 7,000cu.ft c. 6,150cu.ft.. d. 6,750cu.ft.

7. A cargoweighing 100 tons with a stowagefactor of 40 is loadedin a spacehaving a capacityof 6,000

cu.ft. What will be the remainingspipeallowing 57obrokenstowage?
a. 1,789 cu.ft. b. 2,000 cu.ft. c. 1,900cu.ft. d. 1,700cu.ft.
8. How many tons of marble with a stowagefactor of 20 can be loadedin a hold having a capacityof
40,000cu.ft. Allow 5Vofor brokenstowage?
a.1,900 tons b. 2,000 tons c. 2,100 tons d. 2,050 tons

9. A vesselis fifted with deeptanks with a capacityof of 1,000 tons of fresh water. What quantity of
peanutoil with a specific gravity of 0.93 could be transportedin such tanks?
a. 930 tons b. 960 tons c. 1000 tous d. 10E0 tons

10. How many board feet of dunnagewould you estimateto be in a stackwhoseoutsidedimensionsare 6

fL high, 4 ft. wide,and 14 ft.long?
a. 4032 brlaldterut b. 40t23boardfeet c. 4000 boardfeet d. 4050 boardfeet

11. If the rateofloadingata given port is about 30 tonsperganghourforbaggedflour, how long

it would take to load 600 tons,usingnro gangs?
a. 10 hours b. 11 hours c. 12 hours d. 13 hours

384 CargoAssessments
12. If 2,000tons of iron ore with stowagefactor of 15 is stowedin a cargo hold of rectangular
shapewhose bottom is 50 ft. long and 45 ft. wide,what is the height of the centerof gravityof
the ore abovethebottomof the hold?
a. 6.67ft. b. 6.00ft. c. 13.33 ft. d. 15.00 fr.

13. You.are going to load 8,500 grossbarrelsof IraniancrudewithanAPlof32.6at100"F. How

mueh will you load in net barrelsif the M factoris 0.98214?
a. 8348.2 bbls. b. 8600.9bbls. c. 8590.8 bbls. d. 8230.5 bbls.

14. Youare going to load 5,000 grossbarrelsof Bintulucrudewith an APIof29.4 at95"F. How
much will you load in net barrelsif the M factoris 0.98490?
a. 4924.5 bbls. b. 5200.6bbls. c. 4900.8 bbls. d. 4806.6 bbls.

PACKAGE PICTORIAL INSTRUCTIONS

zI
^.

FRAGILE
HANDLE THIS WAYUP USE NO HOOKS
WITHCARE

O4
HEAVYWEIGHTS
THISEND il
SLINGHERE
%
KEEPCOOLSTOWAWAY
FROMBOILERS

Cargo Assessments 38s

 OIL TRANSFEROPERATION

Before any Oil T[ansfer Operation commenceq Duty Oflicer to inspect the following :

1. Emergencytowing wires correctlypositioned.

2. All scuppersclosedand oil tight.
3. All applicablewarning signsposted.
4. Vessel'ssafetyplan (kept at emergencyheadquarter)postedat gangway'
5. Hosescorrectlyconnected.
6. Drain valveson drip traysclosed.
7. Drain valveson manifold closed.
8. All unusedcargoandbunker connectionsclosedand blankedoff.
9. room doorssupposedto be closedare really closed.
Accomodation/eugine
10. Gangwaysafelyrigged.

During Transfer Operation :

1. Frequently,at leasteveryhour to checkullageson tanksbeing worked.

2. Everyhour during discharging,notepumpingpressureand dischargingpressure.
3. Flaveemergencytowing wires adjustedasnecessary.
4. Ilave mooring lines adjustedasnecessary.
5. Flavegangwayadjustedasnecessary.
6. F{aveany abnormalstrainson hosesadjusted.
7. Tiakeproperaction in casewaterbuilds up on deckand/orat scuppers.
8. Ensurethat oneman is alwayspresentcloseto the manifolds.

ULLAGE INNAGE THIEVAGE

386
 DEFINITION OF TERMS
Added Weight Method. A method of solving for opening.This angleis themaximumangleat which
damagestability where the water which entersthe the intact stability curvesarevalid.
vesselis consideredan addedweight. Draft. The linear distancefrom the bottom of the
Block Coeffii:ient A coefficient of finenesswhich keel to the watedine.
expressesthe relationship between the volume of Dynamical Stability. The energywhich a vessel
displacementand a block having the length,breadth, possesses to right herselfdueto the work performed
and draft of the vessel. in inclining her.
Center of Buoyancy. That point at which all the Equillbrlum. Vesselin a statewherethereis no move-
vertically upward forcesofbuoyancyare considered menl G mustbein the sameverticallinewith B.
to be concenEated;the oenterof volume of the im-
mersedportion of the vessel. Factor of Subdivision.A numberless than 1 ob-
tained from crrves of factor of suMivision which
Center of Flotation. The center of gravity of the
whenmultiplied by floodablelength,producesper-
waterplane;the point aroundwhich a vesseltrims.
missiblelengthof compartment.It is the reciprocal
Center of Gravity. That point at which all the ver' of the compartmentstandard.
tically downwardforcesof weight are consideredto
FloodableLength. At anypoint of a ship,the length
be concentrated;the centerof the massof tle vessel.
of the spacehaving its centerat that point, which
Changeof Tbim. The algebraicsum of the initial canbe floodedwithout causingthe ship to sink.
trim and the trim after weight has been shifted,
loaded,or discharged. Founder.To sink due !o lossof reservebuoyancy.

CompartmentStandard. The numberof compart- Freeboard.The distancefrom the waterlineto the

ments in any location which can be flooded up to upperdeck.
the margin line without causingthe vesselto sink. Free Surface. Conditionexistrngwhen a liquid is
Basedon a certain perrreability, usually 637o for free to movein the tank or compartmentof a vessel.
cargospacesmd 80Vofor machineryspace. Causesa virtual rise of the ship'scenterof gravity.
Couple Mornent. Createdby fwo equal forces ex- GM. Metacentricheigh[ distancefrom the center
ertedin oppositedirections and along parallel lines. of gravity to the transversemetacenter.
In stability, the forcesthrough G and B.
Heel. The transverseansle of inclination of a ves-
Crank Ship or Tender Ship. A vesselwith small sel.
rietacentricheight; top-heavy.
Heeling Moment. The momenttendingto heelthe
Density.The weightperunit volumeof a substance. vessel.Opposedby the righting moment.
Displacement.The weight of water displacedby a Ilydrostatic Curves. Cunresbasedon the form of
floating object. Equal to the weight of the object. the immersedportions of a vessel.They include:
DownfloodingAngle. The angleof heelwherewa- coefficients TPI, displacementin saltand
of fr^reness,
ter will first enter the hull of a vesselthrough an fresh water, MTI, height of B andM abovethekeel,

Stabili* andTrim 387

increaseof displacementfor onq foot trim by the
stern.
Initlal Stabillty. Stability of a vesself,orsmall an-
glesof inclination(up to l5 deg.).
Intact Buoyancy.Intact spacebelowthe surfaceof
a floodedarea.
Inclining Experiment. Experiment which, by in-
clining a vessela few degrees,produceswim trre aia
of a formula the meracenrric heighr rcr*rl a"J tr,e
position of the center of gravity of a vessel.
KB. Linear distance from the keel to the center of
(whenvesselis upright.)
buoyancy.
KG. Height of center of gravity above keel.
KM. Height of metacenter above keel.
Light Displacement. Weight in long tons of vessel
in a light condition.
List. Transverse angle of inclination of a vessel.
Load Displacement. Weight of vessel in long tons
when fully loaded.
Longitudinal Stability. The tendency of a vesselto
return to its original longitudinal position.
Mean Draft. That draft midway between the draft
forward and draft aft.
Metacenter. The highest point to which G may rise
and still permit the vesselto have positive stability.
Found at the intersection of the line of action of B
when the ship is erect with the line of action of B
when the ship is given a small inclination.
Metacentric Radius. Distance between B and M.
Moment. Created by a force or weight moved
through a distance.
Negative Stability. Exists when G mincides with
M. The vesseldoes not tend to return to an upright
position if inclined, nor to continue its inclination if
thc inclining force is removed.
Parallel Sinkage. Vessel increasesher draft so that
the drafts forward and aft are increasedby the sane
amount; increaseof draft without change of trim.
Permeability. The percentageof the '.olume of a
compartment which can be occupiee by water if
fltxlded.
388 Stability and Trim
Permeabilltyof Surface.Thepercentage of thesur-
faceof a floodedcompartmentwhich is occupiedI
water.
Permissiblelength. The maximum length permit-
ted betweenmain transvenebulkheads.Found by
multiplyingfactorof suMivisionby floodablelength.
stability' The end range of stabilitv is
i:f:,:l
at an angle of inclination when righting arm
fTTq
Practically' tlle range of stability is
it-T:"li: iro'
ended shortly after deck edge immersion in most
vessels.
volumeorall intactspace
m;ff""#,::,H]:tn"
Rfghting Ann The distance between the line of force
through B and the line of force through G, when
there is positive stability.
Righting Moment. The product of the weight of the
vessel (displacement) and the righting arm (GZ).
Rolling Period. The time it takes a vesselto make a
completeroll, that is, from port to starboardand back
to port again.
Stability. The tendency of a vessel to return to an
erect position after being inclined by an exterior
force.
Stabilogauge. A devicewhich automatically calcu-
lates GM when actuators indicating weights loaded
or discharged are turned.
Statical Stability Curves. Curves for various
displacementsup to and past load displacement.The
ordinates are angles of inclination. Intersection of
ordinates with curves produces the abscissae(right-
ing arms).
Stable Equilibrium. Exists when M is aboveG. A
vessel will tend to return to an erect position if in-
clined to a small angle.
Stiff Ship. Vesselwith low center of gravity and Iarge
rnetacentric height.
Synchronous Rolling. Occurs when the rolling pe-
riod of the vessel is the same as the wave period; a
+
condition to be avoided.
TCG. Transverse position of center of gravity.
TPI. NuniBer of tons necessaryto change the mean
draft of a vessel by one inch; varies with draft.
'frim.
The dil'terencebetweenthe drafs tbrward and
alt.
Urstable llquilibrium- Exists when G is above M'
Ve,sseldoes not tend to return to an erect position
altcr being inclined but, for small angles, tends to
continuc inclination'
Vertical Center of Gravity (VCG)' The vertical
hcight of the center of gravity of a compartment
abtxe its bottom, or of the center of gravity of a ves-
sel above its keel.
"swinging" mo-
Virtual Rise of G- Causedby the
ti0n o[ water in a slack tank.
Volume of Diqplacement. The volume of water dis-
placed by a floating object; weight of this volume of
water is equal to the-,weightof the ot{ect'
Volumetric Heeting Monrent. A moment produccd
by a volume acting through a distance.Units of volu-
metric heeling moment are in feet4, or metersa'If a
volumetric heeling moment is divided by a stowagc
factor, a weight moment will be produced, as done
in the practice of stability calculation tbr bulk grain'
Water Plane. The plane defined by the intersectittn
of the water in which a vessel is floating with the
vesselsides.
Water Plane Coefficient. A coefficient of finencss
which expressesthe relationship between the area
of tlle water plane and a rectangle having thc lengtlt
and breadth of tlle vessel at that water planc.

STABILITY NOMENCLATURE

GZ - Righting Arm
G Centerof GravitY
KB - Heightof Centcro[ BuoYancY
B Centerof BuoyancY
KM - Heightof Metacenter
M Metacenter
B1 Shifted
Centerof BuoYancY RightingMoment = AxGZ

MetacentricRadius KM = KG+GM
BM
MetacentricHeight KM = KB+ BM
GM

Stabilin and Trim 38e

 STABILITY AT LARGE ANGLES
OF INCLINATION
MetacentricHeight (GM) is valid only for initial
stability.The coupleor righting mJment (in foor
tons) is usedto indicatestability at'arge anglesof
inclination.
Momentof Statical Stability is tlre momentwhich
will try to retum a ship to the upright when sheis
heeled.It is "Positive" if it tendsto right the ship
and "Negative"if it tries to causeher to heel still
furtherover.
Momentof StaticalStability = Disp. x GZ
Thelengthanddirecrionof Righting I_ever(GZ)
aloneis an indication of ship's staticalstability at
anyangleofheel.
Sin0=GZIGM
G Z = G M x S i n0
For anglesof heelof lessthan 10" or l5o we can
use GM as the indication of statical stability.For
largeanglesof inclination,we useGZ because M is l) Unequaldistributionof weight on eithersideof
not consideredto exist for largerangles.
Initial Stabilir) is sraticalstabilityof a shipar a very 2) Shift of weighttransversely.
smallangleof heel,and indicatedby GM.
Rangeof Stabilily is the angularrangeoverwhich a
ship will have positive statical stability. It is
important becauseit indicatesthe angle to which Ifow to recognize :
the ship could be heeledbeforeshewould capsize.
A ship may developa LOLL or LIST for one of 2)
two reasons:
1. G is out of the centerlineof the ship
2. NegativeGM
LIST CAUSED BY NEGATIVE GM
Causes:
l) Removalof lowweighn
2) Additionof high weights.
3) Moving weightsupward.
4) Free surface
How to recognize:
1) Vesselwill not remainupright andwill assumea
list either to port or stbd.
3 90 Stability and Trim
2) Vessel"flops" to port or stbd.
3) A very long slow rolling periodaboutthe angle
of permanentlist.
4) If a small GM is known plus any of theabove.
Corrective measures:
1) Add low weightsymmetricallyaboutcenterline.
2) Removehigh weightsymmetrically.
3) Moveweight down symmerically.
4 ) Eliminateany free surface.
Purpose:
To move tle Centerof Gravity down to a posi_
tion below the metacenter.
LIST CAUSEDBY G BEING OFF
THE CENTERLII{E
Causes:
centerlinedue to loading.
3) Addition or removalof weightunsymmetrically
aboutcenterline.
l) Vesselassumes a permanentlist to onesideonly.
Vesselhas an averagerolling period aboutthis
permanentlist.
3) If }nown weight is excesson one side.
4) If positiveGM is known to exist.
Corrective measures:
1) Shiftweighttransversely to high side.
2) Add weighr to high side or removeweightfrom
low side.
Purpose:
To move the center of Gravity back to the
centerline.Neverattemptto correcta list by theabove
methodsunlessyou are certain that G is off the
centerline.
 LIST CAUSED BY COMBINATION OF
NBGATIVE GM AND G OFF THE
CI]NTERLINE
Cause:
l) A combination of the previouscausesof list.
How to recognize :
1) Vesselwill assumea pcrrnanentlist either to port
or stbd (she will not floP).
2) Very slow rolling period about this perrnanent
list.
3) If the known ofl--centerweight is out of propor-
tion to list.
Corrective measures :
1) Move down, add low, or removehigh weight (this
may be done in such a manner to compensatefor
the weight ofi the centerline at tho time).
2) Move, add, or remove weight to compensatefor
the known off-center weight.
3) Eliminate any tree surfhce.
Purpose :
To move the Center of Gravity across to the
centerline and down to a position below the
metacenter.
FACTORS AT.I. ECTIN(; S'TATICAI,
STABII,ITY
L The position of ship's Center ol'Gravity. It de-
pendson the loading ol-cargoand otltcr wcights
in the ship. It determinesthe lengtlt ol'tlte rigltt-
ing lever (GZ).
2. The tbrm of the ship. It decidestle sltapcsol'ther
emergedand immersedwedges whcn thc vessel
heels.These in tunt will determine the shili of
Centerof Buoyancy and lhe length of GZ; or al-
ternatively the position of M and GM.
Srubility nnd Trim
EFFECTS OFBEAM. FREEBOARD AND
CENTER OF GRAVITY
1. Increaseof BEAM increasesinitial stability
(GM), BM, righting levers at all angles of hgel,
and very little effect on range.
2. Increaseof FREEBOARD doesnot affect initial
stability but increasesrange of stability.
3. Raising the CENTER OF GRAVITY decreases
both initial stability and range.
ANGLE OI.'LOLL
The angleto which a ship with ncgativcGM will
lie at rest in still water. If a ship is inclined to an
angle greater than the angle of bll. thc GZ will tr
positive, giving a moment to return tlte ship to thc
angleof loll.
ANGLE OF MAXIMUM I,IS'[
l. If the forceinclining the ship is equalto the rigltt.-
ing moment,the ship is in equilibrium.
2. If the inclining moment exceedsthe righting mo-
ment which the ship possesses, thc ship will list
over to the angle at which the 2 momenLsiuc
again equal.
3. If the inclining moment is greaterthan the maxt-
mum righting moment which the ship possesscs.
the ship will capsizc.The maximum righting
grwer ol' a ship crccursnear the anglc ol'dcck
edge immersiott.
DAN(;EROUS AN(;I,F]S
OF LIST AND ROI,I,S
A ship at searolls aroundits anglc tll'list. and is
theretbrein danger of capsizing belirre thc statical
limit occurs. Some authorities advisc using li2 tltc
angle of maximum list as an arbitrary standa-rdli)r
the angle of dangerouslist.
391
 TRIM AND STABTLITY
1. Freeboardis a measureof :
a. T\e amountof reservebuoyancy. c. Both a andb
D. The initial stability of the vessel. d. Neithera nor b

What factor has the greatesteffect on the value of free surfacecorrection?

a. Length of the tank b. Width of the tank c. Draft of vessel d. S.G.of liquid

A vesselgoing from salt water to fresh waterwould:

a. Decreaseherdraft c. Remainsthe same
b. Decreaseherfreeboard d. Noneof these

4. All of the following characteristicsconcerninga large GM are correct except:

a. T\eie is a greatertendencyto synchronize. c. Afast periodof roll.
D. There is a lesssafetyin caseof flooding. d. Racking stressis increased.

5 . The most effectiveway to limit free surfaceeffectswould be to increasethe number of:

a. Bulkheads c. Either a or b
b. Longitudinal bulkheads d. Neithera nor b

6. Free communicationeffect is in direct proportion to:

a. Width of spaceonly c. Both a andb
b. I-ength of spaceonly d. Neithera nor b
7. When a weight is shifteddown, which of the following takesplaoe?
a. The heightof CB decreases c. Metacentricheight increases
b. The heightof CG increases d. The heightof metacenterincreases
8. The arnountof freeboardaffectsthe:
a. Amount of reservebuoyancyof the vessel c. Both a andb
b. Rangeof sability of a vessel d. Neithera nor b
9 . Freecommunicationeffectsin flooding can be removedto most advantageif:
a. Completelyflood off centerdeeptanks c. If forepeakis flooded completely
,. Bdlast wing doublebonomtanks d. If high centertank is flooded
10.Changeof trim canbe calculatedby:
a. Dividing the rimming momentbyTPI c. Either a or b
D. Dividing the trimming momentbyMTI d. Neitier a nor b
11. The situationexpectedof a vesselwith largeGM will:
a. Ilave less tendencyto synchronizerolling c. llave more resistance!o listing
D. Ride more comfortably d. Lrss likely to havecargoshift
12. lf the trim and KG of the ship will remain but free surfacecorrectionfor the fuel oil is reduced,what
happensto the GM?
a. Unchanged b. Increases c. Decreases d. Either b or c
13. How can you improvethe initial stabilityof your vessel?
a. By filling double boEom tanks c. By removingloosewater
D. By adding weight below d.Myoftheabove

392 Stability and Trim

1 4 .How would you m rke the rolling of a stiff vessel comfortable?
a. Add weight in the center line of the lower hold
b. Ballast peak tanks
c. Concentrate weight on upper wing tween deck
d. Move weights lower

1 5 .Under which circumstancesmay ametacentric heightbe consideredan indication of a vessel'sstability?

c. For large angle of inclination c. For all angle of inclination
b. For small angle of inclination d In nocase

16. GM is the measureol

a. The amount of reservebuoYancY. c. Both a and b
b. Tbe initial stability of the vessel. d. Neither a nor b

1 1 .At any g1en draft, the TPI of a vessel can be found by dividing the area of waterplane by:
a. 420 b. 460 c' 120 d' M0

1 8 .If additional weight is added above tlle center of gravity, the vesselwill:
a. Reduce righting moments c. Increase GM
b. ReducereservebuoYancY d. All ofthe above

1 9 .How much volume of sea water will increase the vessel's displacement by 1 ton?
a. 500 ltrs. b. 35 cu. ft. c' 64 cu. ft. d' 100 gals'

20.Which does not affect the correcuon for free surface?

c. Tank width D. Tank length c. S.G. of the liquid d. Registered tonnage

21. The volume of all watertight enclosed spacesabove water line is called:
a. Reservebuoyancy b. Freeboard c. Free surface d. Marginal stability

22. Your vessel wishes to maintain her draft from salt water to fresh water, you should:
c. Dischargeballast b. Takein ballast c. Do nothing d. Noneoftheabove

23. Transversestabilifymay be increasedby:

a. BallastingdeePtanks c. Both a and b
b. Cradling the booms d. Neither a nor b

give her an easierride?

24. your vesselis very stiff. Which of the following would you consider in order to
a. Deballastdeepand doublebottom tanks c. Both a and b
b. Craddletle booms d. Neither a nor b

25. In regards to the center of buoyancy, which of the following statementsis correct?
a. It moves toward the low side of an inclined vessel.
b. It moves toward the high side of an inclined vessel.
c. It is located in the same position regardlessof displacement'
d. It is the measure of metacentric heigltt.

26. Which of the following is the reason that GM is a valid measure of only initial stability?
a. Thti metacenter does not remain in the same position for large angles of inclination.
b. The center of gravity shifts due to inclination'
c. The center of gravity shifts above the metacenter as the vessel is inclined'

Stability and Trim 393

 27. Which of tie following will increasethe height of centerof buoyancyof your vessel?
a. Discharging weight from lower decks
b. L,oading weight in upper decks
c. Shifting weight from lower to upper decks
d. Shifting weight from upper to lower decks

28. Which of the following will increase the positive stability of your vessel?
a. Loading weights on deck c. Shifting weights from upper to lower decks
b. Discharging weights from lower decks d. Shifting weights from lower to upper decks

29. The center of gravity of a vessel will shift away from a cargo that is being handled in which of the
following cases?
a. When loading weight into the vessel c. When shifting weight fore and aft
b. When discharging weight from a vessel d. When shifting weight vertically

30. All of ihe following are true concerning a stiff ship except:
a. There is a large concentration of weight down.
D. There is a risk that cargo could go adrift.
c. There is a large GM.
d. There is a small GM.

31. The value of KM at any draft may be taken from tle:

a. Building plans of the ship c. Trim tables
b. Hydrostatic Properties Table d. Stability letter

?2. The KM for a vesselmay be determined by:

a. Adding the KB and BM c. Subtracting the KB from BM
b. Adding the GM and KB d Subtracting GM from KB

33. The normal tendency for a loaded tanker is to:

c. Be stiff b. Hog c. Sag d. Have a permanent list

34. Which of the following describesa STIFFvessel?

a. Small GM c. IIas an unusually high center of gravity
b. Pitches heavily d. Short rolling period

35. Which of the following describesa TENDERvessel?

a. Large GM c. llas a very low center of gravity
b. l-ong rolling period d. I{as a good transversestability

36. The point to which the G may rise and still permits the vesselto have a positive stability is the:
a. Metacentcr b. Metacentric point c. Metacentric radius d. Tipping center

37. The distancebetweenthe waterline and the maindeck of a vesselis the:

a. Freeboard b. Draft c. Plimsol mark
"Deadweight"
38. The terrn is:
a. The weight of the vesselin light condition
b. The total internal volume of the vessel
c. Cargo carrying capacity of a vessel including water, bunkers and stores
d. Amount of water the vessel displaces

394 Stability anC Trim

 "Deadweight"refersto the cargocarryingcapacity,fuel, waterand storesmeasuredin:
39. The term
a. I-ongtons and limited by the deckline
b. Shorttons and limited by govemingloadline
c. Shorttons and limited by the freeboard
d. I,olC tons and limited by tle govemingloadline

40. A changein trim may be simply definedas:

a. The changgin differencebet. fird and aft draft
b. The sum of free communicationand free surface
c. The momentof inertia of the ship'swaterplane
d Rolling and listing

41. If a weight is shiftedfrom the deckto the hold, which of the following will takeplace?
a. GM increases ,. KB increases c. KG increases d. KM increases

42. Which of the following describesthe TPI?

a. Tonsneededto changethe meandraft oneinch at a certaindraft
b. Tonsneededto trim the vesselby onefoot at a cercaindraft
c. Tonsneededto trim the vesselby one inch at a certaindraft

43. The sthbilogauge canbe usedto indicate:

a. Initial stabilify c. Height of centerof buoyancy
b. Heightof metacenter d' The draftsfwd and aft

in a ship that resultsin seriouslossof reservebuoyancywill always:

44. Floodingof any compa.rfinent
a. Increasethe trim c. Causeseriouslist
D. Increaseship stability d' Decrease heelingmoment

45 The vertical shift of weightto a positionabovethevesselcenterof gravity will:

a. Increasereservebuoyancy c. DecreaseKG
b. Decreasethe righting moments d. IncreaseKM

46. A tank which carriesliquid is dangerousto the stabilityof a vesselwhen it is:

a. l-ow in the vessei b. Completelyempty c. Completelyfull d. Slack

41. Themost importantfigue in the calculationof freesurfacefor a tank carryingliquid is:

a. Depth b. Length c. Displacement d. Breadth

48. For a tanker,the most importantconsiderationis the:

a. GM ,. VCG c. LCG d. Stresson the hull

49. The amountof freeboardthe vesselhaswill affectits:

a. Initial stability c. Stabilityat largeangleof inclination
b. Freesurface d. PermeabilitY

50. If a vesselhasa list but maintaina regularrolling period,tlle vesselhas:

a. Centerof gravity is o1Tthe centerline c. Unsymmetricalweight distribution
b. NegativeGM d. List that canbe correctedby reducingKM

51. What will be the resultif containersstowedon deckare removed?

a. KB will increase c. Reservebuol'ancywill decrease
,. GM will increase d. KG will increase

Stabiliryand Trim 395

 with:
52. A vessel'smaximumstabilityis closelyassociated
a. The angleof deck-edgeimmersion c. Both a and b
b. The anount of freeboard d. Neithera nor b

53. Whencargois shiftedfrom the lower hold to the main deck,what may possiblyhappen?
a. CB will movedown c. CG will moveupward
,. GM will increase d. No changein the stability

54. Whendoessaghappenwhen a ship hasbeenaground?

a. When the ship'sbow and sternare both aground
D. When the seabedis muddy
c. When only midship is aground
d. When the ship runs agroundon a rock shelf

55. A vesselwith smallGM will:

a. Ilave a large amplitudeof roll c. hovide a comfortableride for crewandpassenger
D. Likely to have cargoshift in heavyweather d. llave drier decksin heavyweatler

56. Your vessel has taken a hole in #2 hold. Water has entered the vesselbut flooding and free
communicationwith the seahas beenchecked.Which of the following could you useto determine
your stability?
a. Addedweight method c. Either a or b
D. I-ostbuoyancymethod d. Neithera nor b

57. When a vesselis inclined due to someexternalforce,the:

c. Vessel'sCB shifts to the centerof the low side
b. The vessel'sCG shifts to the centerof the low side
c. Vessel'smeandraft increases

58. Thestaticstabilitycurvefo'ra givenvesselpeaksat 34", For this ship,thedangeranglefor a permanent

list would be about:
a. 51" b. lT' c. 34" d. 8.5"

59. If a vesselwill list with equalreadinesson eitherside,it's likely causedby:

a. Pocketingof free surface c. NegativeGM
D. Excessivefreeboard d. Offcenterweight

60. Freecommunicationwill adverselyaffecttransversestability only when the floodedspaceis:

a. Completelyflooded c. On the centerline
D. Opento seaaboveandbelowwaterline d. Offcenter

61. you are fighting fre in the hold using water.What is the most importantconcerningthe stabilityof
the vessel?
a. Draining fre fighting waterand pumpingoverboard
b. Shuttingof damagedelectricalwiring
c. Maneuveringthe vesselto put the fire on tle left side
d. Removingfne debris from hold

62. Atankorcompar0nentaboardyuurshipislocatedbelowthevessel'swaterline.Ifthespaceinquestio
is floodedcompletely,you would expectthe value of tie free surfacefor that spaceto:
a. Increase D. De,crease c. Vanish oompletely d. Noneof these

396 Stability and Trim

 in the end hatches'The vesselis:
63.Yourvesselhasthe engineamidshipand the cargois concentrated
a. Hoggingwith tensilesEesson the main deck
D. Saggingwith tensilestresson the main deck
c. Saggingwith compressive stresson the main deck
d. Hoggingwith compressive sress on the main deck

g . In general,on what doesthe position of centerof buoyancydepends?

b. Draft' c' Freeboard d' Depth
a. Irngth

65. The centeraroundwhich a vesselis trimmedis called:

a. Tipping center c. Centerof gravitY
b. CentsofbuoYancY d. Turning center

66. A vesselwhosedraft is more on the sternthan tJtebow hasa:

D. List c. Set d. Shear
a. Drag
that the vessel:
67. If a vesselrolls slowly and sluggisttly'this conditionindicates
a. IIas off centerweight c. Is trimmedaft
D. Is taking in water d. I{as Poor stability

68. Which action will affectthe trim of the vessel?

c. Ilwering of weight c' Moving weight forward
b. Adding weight at the tipping center d' Anyof ttreabove

69. What is MTI?

a. The foot-tonneededto trim the vesselby 1 inch
b. Thefoot-tonneededto trim the vesselby 1 foot
c. The momentto trim the vesselby 1 foot
of the ship arethe:
70. Thoseship's tanksthat are particuladyimportantfor trimming
b. Settlingtanks c' Deeptanks d' Peaktanks
a. Domestictanks
loading/unloadingoperationsand weight
71. The 4 factorsafi-ectingthe ship'snew final situationduring
following factorsis missing?
Eansferare final draft, listing and metacentricheight.which of the
a. Diltaon tank capacityand cargo spaceCG
b. Summerwaterline
c. Stabilitycurves(final)
d. CaryosPacevolumes

T2.Whichwouldnotprovideextrabuoyancyforavesselwithnosheer?
a. Higherbulwarks c' Raisedpoopdeck
b. Raisedforecastlehead d' Lighter draft

73. Alarge angleof list canbe createdby:

a. Negativeinitial stability c. Either a or b
b. Off-centerweight d. Neither a nor b

74. A vessel'sKG is foundbY:

a. Dividing the total longitudinalmomentby displacement
D. SubtractingLCF from LCB
c. Dividing total vertical momentby displacement

Stability and Trim 397

 75. A vesselthat hasbeenholedbelow the waterlinewill sink until:
a. The buoyancylost is equalto the buoyancygainedby deeperimmersion.
b. The weight of the vesselactingdownwardequalto the pressureof the wateracting upward.
c. Eithera or b
d. Neithera nor b

76. The principal dangerfrom the liquid in a half filled tank is:
a. Rupturingof bulkheaddueto shifting
D. Corrosionin shifting
c. Damagingtank bottomdue to shifting of liquid
d l,ossof stabilitydue to free surfaceeffect

77. The displacementon the deadweightscaleis computedfor:

c. The vesselat differentdrafts c. Both a and b
D. The vesselin an evenkeel condition d. Neithera nor b

78. The centerof volumeof the irnmersedportion of the hull is called:

c. Tipping center b. Centerof gravity c. Centerof buoyancy d. Centerof flotation

79. A damagedvesselis listing to port, and the rolling periodis long. The vesseltakesan oppositelist
occasionally.What action will you take?
a. Fill up an empty doublebottomtank on stbdside
D. Pressup slackcenterlinedoublebottomtank
c. Pumpout ballastfrom port to stM doublebottomtanks
' d. Transferall movableweightsfrom port to stbd

80. which of the following is not usuallya concernwhen loadingon a tanker?

a. Draft c. Initial stabilirv
b. Bendingmoments' d. Trim

81. When using a stabilogauge, unlessthe densitycorrectionis applied,the centerof gravity of a loaded
compartmentis assumedto be :
a. At lB of the heightof the compartrnent c. At the geometriccenterof the comparfinent.
b. Atll2oftheheightoftlecompartment d. ondeckofthecompartment

82. Usedwhen the entire length has beendivided into a numberof equal parts by an odd numberof
ordinates:
a. Simpson'slst rule c. Simpsor's3rd rule
b. Simpson's2nd rule d. Nl of tle above

83. Stabilogauge
cannotdeterminethe:
a. Deadweight t. GM c. MTI d. Mean draft
84. A vesselis referredto as TENDERwhen theweight of cargois:
a. Evenlydistributedvertically
b. Concentratedlow and doublebottomsareempfy
c. Concentratedhigh and doublebottomsarefull
d. Concentratedhigh and doublebottomsare empty

85. As the displacementof a vess:l increases,the detrimentaleffectsof free surface:

a. Increases b. Decreases c. Unchanged d. Noneofthese

398 Stabilimand Trim

86. A fresh wat€r correction is usually listed on tle ship's capacity plan. This correction gives the:
a. Mean draft at light displacement when in FW
b. Difference between the SW and FW capacity
c. Additional draft tlat a ship may add to her Plimsol mark when loading in FW

87. An intactbuoyancy means:

a. The volume of all intact spacesabove the waterline
b. An intact spacebelow the surface of the flooded area
c. An intact spacewhen flooded will not causethe vesselto sink
d. The space where all the vertical upward forces of buoyancy ilre considered to be concentrated

88. To increase the extent of flooding your vessel can suffer witlout foundering, you could:
c. Increase the reserve buoyancy
D. Raise the center of gravity
c. l,ower the centcr of gravity
d. Ballast the vessel

89. The purposeof inclining cxperiment is to determine the:

a. KM b. KG c. KB d. Noneof rhese

90. Where could a considcrahlcamount of weight be placedon the ship without causinga changein trim?
a. OverLCF l. OvcrLCG c. OverLCB d. Over midships

91. Curves basedin the form ol' l.heimmersed portions of a vessel.They include Coeffrcientof fineness,
TPI, displaccmentin SW lud FW MTI, KM, KB and increasedof displacementfor one foot trim by
the stern.
a. Hydrostatic curves c. Cross curves of stability
D. Curves of statical stability d. All of the above

92. Your vesselis damagedand partially flooded. It is listing 12 deg to port and trimmed 8 ft down by the
head. It has a long, sbw, sluggish rcil. What action will you take first?
a. Jettisondeck cargo frorn the portside
D. Press up an aftcr, slack, centerline double bottom tank
c. Jettison the anchors and anchor cables ?t
d. Pump out forepeak tank

93. The ratio of volume of displacementto a hlock having length, breadth,and draft of the vesselis known
:IS:
a. Beam-draft ratio c. Block ctrlllcient
b. Area of waterplane d. Block ratio

94. The most detrimental effect on initial stability is a result of lcx'neliquid:

a. Flowing from fore and aft within the vessel
b. Docking in a slack tank as a vesselrolls
c. Flowing in and out of the holed wing tanks
d. Flowing from side to side within the vessel

95. The percentageof the total surface area or volume of a flooded compartment that can be crcupied by
water causedby damage is called:
a. Form gain c. Permeability
b. One compartment standard d. Centcr of lloirhtion

Stohility and Trim 399

 96. Freesurfacecorrectionshouldbe:
a. Added to the GM to obtain the correctedGM
b. Subtractedto the GM to obtain the conectedGM
c. Obtainedby dividing the total free surfaceby the total verticalmoment

97. The amountof tonsrequiredto be loadedor dischargedon the tipping centerof an evenkeel ship to
increaseor decreaseher draft by 1 inch is:
a. lmmersion b. Registertons c. Headtons d. Tonsperinchimmersion

98. The point whereall the verticaldownwardforcesof weight are consideredto act is known as:
a. Metzcentpr b. CenterofGravity c. CenterofBuoyancy

99. The algebraicsumof initial and final trim is:

a. Trim b. TPI c. Mean draft d. Changeof trim

100. Theresidualtonnageafter variousallowancesfor machinerycrew'squarterandnavigationspacesare

deductedfrom grosstonnageis:
a. Displacementtonnage c. Net tonnage
D. Deadweighttonnage d. Underdecktonnage

101. A vesselsubjectedto SAGGING has:

a. Bottomplating undertensilestress c. Main deck undertensilestress
D. Transversebending

102. The practiceof filling in doublebottomtanksto enhancestability is:

a. Inclining b. Weighing c. Ballasting d. Trimming

103. The conditionbroughtaboutwhen the hull of the vesselis supportedby nvo wavesat both endsis:
a. Sagging D. Hogging c. Canting d. Bending

104. The momentof any point in a ship's structurethat tendsto producesaggingor hogging is:
a. Torsion b. Sheer c. Racking d. Bending

105. The total time in secondsfor a vesselto roll from starboardto port to starboard,or vice-versais:
a. Rolling period D. Interval of roll c. Inclining period d. Averageroll

106. The Archimedesprinciplestatesthat whena bodyis wholly or partially immersedin a fluid it appcars
to sufferlossin massequalto:
a. The areaof underwatersurface c. Weight of the immersedportion
b. The force of buoyancyacting on it d. Tbe massof the fluid it displaces

107. A tankerfully loadedwith oil pumpedout from the sternmosttank across.What will be the effecton
the draft?
a. The fwd draft will increase c. The fwd draft will decrease
b. The aft draft will increase d. No effect on the draft

108. A vesselis said to be in stableequilibriumwhen:

a. The centerof gravity is abovethe metacenter
b. The metacentricheight is positive
c. The metacentricheight is negative
d. Alloftheabove

400 Stabilin and Trim

CALCT]LATION OF KG

KG or VCG = Total Vertical Moments Note: Include

TotalWeights lightship weight
and momcnts,

= Momentdueto shift = WxD

VerticalShift of G or GG'
Displacement Disp.

Note:
or discharged
D = Distanceaboveor belowthe Centerof Gravity if the weightis loaded
D = Distanceweightis shifiedwhenweightis alreadyon board'
Moment = Weightx VCG VCG of a Hold
VCG of aHold = Total Moments + Ht. of the D. Bottom
Tot"t Weights KG of aHold

CALCI.JLATION OF GM
GM = KM-KG

Rolling Period or T = 0.44 x Beam or cM = g?9'

./ cM
Note :
IJse0.44 for feet and 0.797for nzters.
CALCI.]LATION OF KM
KM = KB+BM
For rectangularwater
KB = 0.53xDraft planesuchas barge:

B M = I I=Lx93l12
V For ship wlure k is a
constantdePending
uponthe value ctfthe
V=Displacementx35 walerplanecofficient:
I=Lx83xk

INCLINING EXPERIMENT
CM = WeightxDistance
_
x TangentAngle of Heel
Oisptacement
DIST. = GM x Displacementx Tan Angle of Heel
Weight

Stabilin and Trim Calculations 401

 wT. = GM x Displacementx Tan Angle of Heel
F
MOMENT TO HEEL 1" = Displacementx GM Note:
s7.3 Weight = Wt. shifted
Dist. = Dist thal thz
cargo is shifted
FREESURFACE
For salt water : For liquids othcr than SaltWater:
FreeSurfaceConstant = ld FreeSurfaceConstant = rlb3
420 420
FreeSurfaceCorrectionor GG' = F.S.Constant
nrspTAmenr
Note:
GG' = Risein G or Reductiontn CU or F.S.Correction
1 - lzngth of the ta*
b - Breadthofthc tank
r = S.G.of Liquid in the Tartk
S.G.of Waterin which vesselfloats
TRIM
Displacement = LxBxDxb *35
for Salt Water
35* 36for FreshWater
Displacemen[ = Draft in inchesx TPI
Block Coefficientor b - Vol. of Displacement
LxBxD
Changein Trim = Weightx Distance Note: Changein
Trim is the TOTAL
changein draft for
MTI = k (TPr)2/ B boththe bowand
sternin inches.
k = a constantdependinguponthe
valueof the block cofficient.
For example:
Block Coefficient k
0.65 28
0.75 30
0.8s 32
MTI GM.- x Displacement
12xL
Changein Mean Draft =
!&lgt t Loadedor Discharged
TPI
= L x B x p = Waterplane Area
12x35 420
Waterplane Coef. or p

402 Stability and Trim Calculation,s

TRIM USING LCG
rcG = Total Longitudinal Moment
Total Weight
GabaftB =*Aft -Forward
BabaftG =-Aft +Forward

STABILITY FOR SMALLANGLES OF INCLINATION

CrZ = GMxSin0

STABILITY FOR LARGEANGLES OF INCLINATION

Wall- sided Formula:
CrZ = (GM + uZBMTan2 0) Sin 0
TransverseShifr of G:
Lossof GZ for OffcenterG = GG' x Cos 0

VerticalShifi of G:
[.ossor Gain of GZ = GG' x Sin 0
fughting Moment = Displacementx CtZ

CTIAITGEIN DRAFT DUE TO DENSITY

FreshWater SpecificGravity 1.000
Density 1000ozlcu.ft, or 62.5lbs/ft3
Volume 22101bs = 36 cu. ft.
SaltWater SpecificGravity 1.025
Density 1025ozlcu.ft. or 64.0 lbs/ft3
Volume 2%0lbs = 35 cu. ft.

SeaDraft = Dock Densiw

D<xk Draft SeaDensity
Note: Tkeformukt assumesthe vesselis shapedlike a box
arulis sttfficientlvconect for mostcommonuse.
Changein Draft = Displacementx Changein Density
TPI x 1000
Changein Density = 1025- Brackishor FreshWater
F.WA. in inches = Displacement
40. TPI
TPI = Alea of Waterplane = Lengthx Breadthx p
420 l2x 35
Use35 in SeaWater p = WaterplaneCofficient
Use36 in Fresh Water
AllowableIncrease = F.W.A. x Changein Density
25

Stabilityand Trim Calculations 403

ROLLING PERIOD
l. Your vesselwith abearn of 72fent has an averagerolling period of 18 seconds.What would her
metacentricheight be?
SOLUTION
GM
= ii;T^ii::l,,secs)2
= 1.762
cM = 3.10ft.
2. hasa beamof 110f'e,:tand a GM of 4.8. What will be her rolling period?
Your ve.ssel
SOLUTION:
r
./ture€r
= i;T,ii'Jl-:",
= 48.4 12.19
T = 22.1 seconds

3. Your vesselhasa bean of 87 feet and a GM of 6.7 fentuponleavingNew York. After beingat seafor
3 days,you find that your rolling periodis 18 seconds.What hastakenplace?
SOLUTION:
NGM ',i,X:lrli,','
= )2
,rsecs
= 2.',272
N. GIU = 4.52feet

O. GM = 6.70feet
Answer: Vessel'sGM hasdecreased.

VERTICAL SIIIFT OF CENTER OF GRAVITY (G)

4. Your vessel'slight displacement is 7,675T.Her light KG is 31.5'.You load 1,400T10 ft. abovethe
keel,and 600T 10 ft. abovethe original centerof gravity.What will your vessel'sfinal positionof the
centerof gravity be?
SOI,UTION:
Weights VCG Moments
.16-t5T x U1,7625
31.5,=
1400T x 10.0' = 14,000.0
600T x 41.5' V4,900.0
96151 280,662.5

KG = Total mome;its = 28A,62.5 = 29 ft.

Totalweights 9,675

4{t4 Stabiliryand Trim Calculations

I
5. Yourvesseldisplaces28,500T andhasa KG of 30 ft. 1,550T weredischargedwith a centerof gravity
of 12 feetabovethe keel. What is the new height of centerof gravity?
SOLUTION:
Weighs VCG Moments
28.500T 30 ft. 855,000ft.-tons
1.550T lzft. 18,600ft.-tons
26.950T 836,400ft.-tons

New KG = Total Moments = 836,400ft.-tons

Tdfu,eights 26,9-50tons
New KG = 31.03ft.

6. Yourvesselis displacing32,W0 T with a KG of 32 ft. 1,000T are shifted from the main deckto the
holddistanceof 45 ft. What is thenew heightof centerof gravity?
SOLUTION:
GG' = WxD= 1,000Tx45=1'4ft.
DISP. -'.OOO T
Initial KG = 32.0 ft.
Shift of G - I.4 ft. (Downward)
Final KG = 30.6 ft.

7. upwardsa distanceof 40 ft. Whtrt

On a20,000T vesselwith a KG of 30 ft., 500T areshiftcdve:rtically
is thenew heightofcenterof gravity?
SOLUTION
GG' = WxD = 500Tx40'= 1fL
Drsp. 20^000T
Initial KG = 30 ft
Shift of KG = + I ft (Upward)
Final KG = 31 ft

8. Your vessel'sdisplacement in SW is 30,490T.Shehasa GM of 4 ft, The KM valuewas38 ft. lt is

estilnatedthat 1,700T of fuel oil and water will be cortsumedfrom the doublebottom during the
voyage(VCG 3 f t.). What will betheGM uponarrival in port at theendof the voyage?Theestimated
KM upon arrival is 37.7 ft,

SOLUTION:

Weights VCG Moments Note : Y*l 38 ft

30,490T x 34' = 1,036,660 GM - 4ft
- 1,700T x 3' = - 5,100 KG 34 ft
28'790'r lo-ffi60

KG = 1,031,560= 35.8ft KM = 31.7ft

28,790 ltC____----31.9ft-
GM = 1.9ft Uponarrival

Stability and Trim Calculations 40s

9. Your vesseldisplaces21,000T and hasa KG of 27 ft. You discharge1,000T from 48 ft. aboverhe
keel; 1,400T from 25 ft. abovethe keel and4,500T from 15 ft. abovethe keel. The vessel'sKM was
. 35.1ft. What is her final GM?
SOLUTION:
Weight VCG Momenrs KG = 416,500
1,000T x 48' = 48,000 14100
1,400T x 25' = 35,000 = 29.5ft
4,500T x 15' = 67.500
6,900T 150,s00
Original 21,000T x 27' = 567,000 KM = 35.1ft
Discharged-6,900 L -150,500 KG - 29.5tt
14.100T lGSm- GM = 5.6 ft

10. A vesseldisplaces640 T. A deckcargoweighingl8 T hasproducedan existingcenterof gravity ot2.3

feetabovethe deck.If a loadof 12 T of groundtacklewith an estimatedcenterof gravitvof 21 inches
abovethe deckis placednearthe deckcargo,what is the final centerof gravity of the deckcargo?
SOLUTION:
Weight VCG Moments
18T x 2.3' = 4l.4ft.-:f
l2T x 1.75' = 21.0tt.-T
307 62A ft.-:l = 2.08ft. C. G.
307

INCLINING EXPERIMENT
11. A vesselhas3 containersplacedon deck45 feetfrom the centerlinewith a combinedweightof 42T.
The displacementat the time was 18,000T and the vesselwas inclined to 7" by the weight.What is
the vessel'sGM in the presentcondition?
SOLUTION:
GM = Weightx Distance / Displacementx Thn 0
= 42T x45fent / 18,000T x Thn7"
GM = 0'855 feet

12. To checkyour stabifty, a weightof 35T is lifted with your heavyderrick whoseheadis 35 feet from
the centerline.The clinometershoweda list of 7o wbenthe weighthasbeensuspended l0 feetabove
the ground.The displacementincluding the weight is 14,000T. Find the GM in this condition.

SOLUTION:

GM = Weight x Distance / Displacementx Thn 0

= 35 T x 35 feet | 14,000T x Thn 7"
GM = 0.71feet
Note: Whenany cargo is lifrcd, the weightis effectively
transferred,
to the derrick head,evenif it is suspended.

,106 Stabilin und Trim Calculations

 acrossthe
13. How muchof a list will a vesselof 12,000T take after a weightof 200 T is shifted40 feet
deck? GM is 2 feet.
SOLUTION :
Tan 0 = Weight x Distance/GM x Displacement

= 0.333
List = 18 .43" or 18" 26.1'
vesselby
14. A vessel'sdisplacementis 14,000T. The GM is estimatedas4.0 feet.Youwish to incline the
3". The maximumdistancethat a weightcanbemovedoff the centedineis 45 feet. How much weight
is requiredto perforrr this inclining experiment?

SOLUTION:

Weight = GM xDisplacementxTan 0/ Distance

= 4.0 feet x 14,000T x Thn 3" | 45 fent
Weight = 65.22tons

from a vessel?
15. What distancewill a weight of 150 T haveto be movedin order to removea 2" list
Displacementis 9,000T and GM is 3.4 feet.

SOLUTION:
Distance = GM xDisplacementx Tan 0 / Weight
= 3.4 ft. x 9,000T x Tan2" / 150T
Distance = 7.l2feet

thecenterline.
16. Ashipisinclinedbymovingaweightof40T(VCGof46ft.)adistanceof34ft.from
'Ihe
20 inches. is
displacement
vessel's 7,715T. The KM is
A 50it. pendulumihows a deflectionof
calculatedasbeing31.5ft. What is theKG of the lightship?

SOLUTION:

Tan0 = 20in. = 0.033

50 x 12 in
ft.

GM = WxD KM 31.50ft
Disp. x Thn 0 GM -5.34tt
= 5.34ft KG = 26.16ft

Nowcorrect thc KG for 40 T weight :

GG' = WxD = 40x19'84 VCG = 46'00
'1,675 KG -26'16
Disp.
= 0.10ft D = lg.U

KG (with 40 T) = 26j6 ft Disp. = 7,715

GG' 0.10ft wT 40
Light KG = 26.06fl = 7,675

Stabilin and Trim Calculations 407

TRANSVERSE SHIFT OF CENIER OF GRAVTTY
l7 . A weight of 500 T haveshifted20 fettransversely.What is the shift in the centerof gravity if your
vesselis displacing16,000T?
SOLUTION:
GG' = Weight x Distance/ Displacement
= 500T x 2Of*t / 16,000T
C'G' = 0.625feet

CALCULATION OF IIEIGITT OF METACET{TER (KnO

18. Givena metacentricradius(BM) of 7.5 feet,areaof waterplaneis 21,420sq. ft. and a distanceof the
centerof bOuyancyfrom keel (KB) of 5.0 feet.Find the heightof the metacenter.
SOLUTION:
KM = KB+BM
= 5.0+ 7.5
KM = 12.5 feet

CALCTJLATION OF RIGITTING ARM AI\D R.IGIITING MOMENT

19. Your vesselis displacing21,500T with KM of 31.4fert. The KG is 25 feet.What would herrighring
arm be at an angleof inclinationof 10" ?
SOLUTION:
GM L_ KM _KG
31.4tr.- 25.0ft
GM 6.4feet
CtZ GM x Sin0
6.4ft. x Sin 100
GZ 1.11feet

20. Yourvesselis displacing14,000T with a KG of 20.0ft. andaGZof 4.2 ft. Youshift weightsotharrhe
new KG is 225 ft. What would be the righting ann at an angleof inclination of 30"?

SOLUTION:

KG 20.0tt
NKG 22.5ft
GG' 2.5 tt (rise)
[,ossor Gain of GZ GG' x Sin 0
2.5x Sin 30"
1.25ft Loss
C'Z 4.20 tt (-)
New GZ = 2.95ft

40E Stability and Trim Calculations

2|'l,shipof4,000TdisplacementhasaKG18ft.andKMlg.Tft.calculatethemomentofstatica
stabilitYwhen heeled5".
SOLUTION:
For smallangteof inclination( lessthan tt" )
= KM -KG MSS = Disp. x GM x Sin 0
GM
= 19.7- 18.0 = 4'000T x 1'7' x Sin 5"
= 1.7ft = 592.6ft-tons

KM 20 ft' and KG 18 ft' Find the momentof statical

22. Aship of 6,000T displacementhasKB 10 ft.,
stability at 25" heel.
SOLUTION:
For large angteof inclination ( morethan 10")
* BM:
: ffo-ifo ffitfr'
=3Y;6::iifffi:
= ig.ostz)0.4226
1.305ft
MSS = Disp.xGZ
6,000Tx1'305ft
= 7828.3 ft-tons

FREE SURFACE
23.Determinetbefteesurfaceconstantforatankthatis?0feetlong'35feetwideand25feetdeep'T
floating in seawaterhavinga densityof l'026'
S.G.of the liquid in the tank is 0.78 and the ship is
SOLUTION:
r = S.G.liquid in the tank
S.G.liquid where vesselfloats
= 0.78| 1.026
r = 0'7602
F.S.K. = 116 1420
= 0.7ffi2 x 70 x 3531420
F.S.K. = 5432.3

u.Avesselisdisplacing12,000T.Whatisthereductioninmetacentricheightduetoffeesurfacewh
filled with seawater?
a rank 60 reet tong "io oo feet wide is partially
SOLUTION:
For seawater
orGG,
con.
F.S.
= Xi*rt- ?iio;,r,o* ,
GG' = 12,960,000/5,040'000
GG' = 2.57feet

409
Stabitinand Trim Calculations
 25. What will be the free surfaceoorrectionfm a fuel oil tank 30 feet wide and 15 feet
deepwith a free
surfaceconstantof 3,794? The vesseldisplaces2,000T in seawarcr.
SOLUTION:

F.S.Corr. = F.S.Constant/ Displacement

= 3,794| 7,000T
F.S.Corr. = O.542feel

26. A liquid mud tank measures30 feet long, 15 feet wide, 6 feet deep.The vesseldisplaces
96g T. The
S.G.of the mud is 1.8.What is the reductionin GM if two of thesetanksare slack?
SOLUTION:
t = 1.8| 1.025
r = 1.7561
Red.in GM or GG' rlb3l420xDisp.
1.7561x30 x 153t 420x 9687
0.437feetx2tanks
GG' 0.87feet

21. A tank measuring30 feetlong and 15 feetwide is partiallyfilted wirh fuel oil of S.G
of 0.95.If the
ship displaces1,000T, calculatethe apparentrise in G. The tank is divided equallyby an
oil r ighr
longtudinalbulkhead.
SOLUTION:
r = 0.95| 1.025
r = 0.9268
GG' = rx1xb3 l42OxDisp.
= 0.9268x 30 x 153/ 420x 1.000T
= 0.223feetx 0.25
GG' = 0.056feet
Note: when a ro!!
It divided by a tongitudinatbulkhead,the amountof free surfaceeffect is re-
ducedby 75Vo.

28. Your initial GM is 2.5 feet.After a day'ssteamingat sea youhavefreesurfacein a tank measuring
50
feetlong and 40 feetwide.The vesseldisplaces 20,000T. The S.G.of the liquid in the tank is 0.gg.
What is thc availableGM?
SOI-UTION:
r = 0.88/ 1.025
r = 0.8585
GG' rxlxb3l4Z0xDisp.
0.8585x 50 x 403/ 420x 20,000T
GG' 0.33feet
GM 2.50feet
GG' - 0.33feet
CGM = 2.17feet

410 Stability and Trim Calculations

CALCULATION OF TRIM
29.Aweightof250Tisloadedg5feetforwardthetippingcenEr.Tbevessel'sMTIis1000ft..tons.Wha
will be her changeof trim?
SOLUTION:
Changein Trim = Weight x Disance / MTI
= 250 T x 95 feet / 1000 ft-tons per inch
Changein Trim = 23'75 inches
keel) 'The MTI is 1000ft-tons' How many tons of cargo
30. A vesselis floating at a draft of.24 feet(even
tipping centerin order to havea trim of 2 feet?
must be loadedin hold no.4 which is 100 feet abaft the
SOLUTION:
Weight = Changein Trim x MTI / Distance
= 24 inchesx 1000 ft-tons per inch / 100feet
Weight = 240 tons
she loads 1,470T 40 feet aft of the tipping center'If
31. Your vessel'sdraft is 14-11fwd and 14-07aft'
your new draft after loading?
TPl is 60 T anclthe MTI is 1,335ft.-tons,what is
SOLUTION'
= = Z'5 inches
Parallelsinkage = Weight ry
TPT 60

Changeintrim = WxD = 1470x40 = 44inches

MTI 1335
Forward Aft
Initial draft = 14-1r.0 14-07'O
Parallelsinkage + 2-00'5 i-lgl
to-tt.s 16-07,5
Changeof trim - l-10'0 + 1-10'0
(t/zeachend)
Final draft = 15-01.5 18-05'5

MTI of 1,700ft-tons' 250 T of waterwerepumped

32. A vesselhas a fore and aft draft of 28-00 and an
fromthero,epeatintotheafterpeakadistanceof574fect.Whatwillbehernewdraftafterpumpi
is comPleted?
SOLUTION:
Tippingcenteris assumedto be at vessel'smid-length'

Changeoftrim = WxD = 250x574 = 84'4inches

MTI 1700
Forward Aft
28-00.0 28-00.0
rl2ct -3-M'2 +3-M'2
Final Draft = 24-05'8 3l-06'2

411
Stabilityand Trim Calculations
 33. You are requiredto fill out the cargodischargeform. At 0800H,your meandraft was 34-10and at
1700H'yorn draft was28-10fivd & 28-08aft. What quantityof cargohasthe vesseldischargedif &e
TPI is 70?
SOLUTION:
Forward Aft Mean
0800 Draft 34-r0
1700Drafi Z8-t0 28-08 2g_09
6-01or 73 inches
Parallelrise = Weight/ TpI
Weight = parallelrisex TpI = 73 x70 = 5ll0 T
34. A vesselhasa TPI of 40 T andan MTI of 820ft-tons/inch.Thevesselfloatsat a draft of 21-00fwd
and
22-m fit. What will be the new draft aftermoving a weight of 50 T a distanceof 9g.4ft. from
aft to
forward?
SOLUTTON:
Trimming moment = 50 T x 99.4 ft = 4,920ft_tons
Changeof Trim = Trimming moment = 4,920ft_tons
MTI 120 ft-tonyinch
= 6 inchesor 3 inchesat eachend
Fomard Mean Aft
Original 2t-40 2147 ZZ42
Changeof Trim (+) 03
-2'l-4p C) 03
-2@ -ZlT
New Drafts
35. The light drafts of a certainmerchantship are 7-01 forwardand 12-08 aft. The lightship
weight is
4'543T. From the ship'sstability& trin booklet,the ff. hydrostaticdarawasobtained:
MTI = g20 ft-
tonVinch and LCB = 224.1 ft from AP. Find the lightship's LCG measuredfrom the vessel,s
after
perpendicular(AP-G).
SOLUTION:
Trimming Moment = Trim in inchesx MTI
= 67 inchesx 820 ft-ons/inch = 54940tt_I
Trim arm = Trimming moment/ Disp = 54940ft_T| 4543T
= l2.l ft Aft.
LCG from Ap = LCB from Ap _ Trim arm
= 2A.l tt - lz.l ft att = 212.0ft
36. A vesselis floating in salt waterat a meandraft of 14 fu"l. The length of the vesselis 450 feet,
beam
of 50 feet and TPI of 45 T. The BM is 16.34 feet and block oefficienr is 0.84. Find rhe
vessel,s
displacementin tons.
SOLUTION:
D i s p l a c e m e=n t LxB xDxb/35
= 4 5 0 f t x 5 0 f t x t 4 f t x 0 . 9 4 1 3 5 f tn3
= 7,560tons
or Displacement = MeanDraft in inchesx TpI
= 14 ftx 12 inchesx 45 tonsper inch
= 7.560tons

412 Stabilityand Trim Calculations

CTIANGE IN DRAFT DUE TO DENSITY
37. Your vesselis at a dock wherethe densityis 1012.To what draft will shebe loadedso as to draw
23-06 whenshegetsto seawherethe densityis 102.6?
SOLUTION:
Dock Draft = SeaDraft x SeaDensity / Dock Density
= 23.5 ft x 1026| 1012
Dock Draft = 23.825feetor 23 tt l0 inches

38. A vesselis at a dock wherethe waterdensityis 1000.Shedraws36-04.What would shedraw in salt

waterhaving a densityof lO26?
SOLUTION:
SeaDraft = Dock Densityx Dock Draft / SeaDensity
= 1000x 36.333ft | 1026
SeaDraft = 35.412feetor 35 ft 05 inches
39. If your FWA is 8.25 inches,what is the increaseof draft allowedin waterof 1010densitvif vou are
going to seawherethe densityis 1025?
SOLUTION:
Allow. Increase = F\il'A x (Changein Density) / 25
= 8.25inchesx (1025-1010)/ 25
Allow. Increase = 4.95 inches

40. A vesseldisplaces32,W T. FIerTPI is 72. How muchwill her draft increasewhendockinswherethe

densityis 1002?Usesaltwaterdensityof 1025.
SOLUTION:
Changein Draft = Disp.x (Changein Density)/ TPI x 1000
= 32,000x (1025- 1002) | 72 x 1ffi0
Changein Draft = 10.22inches

41. A vesseldisplaces45,000T in freshwater(density1000). Shehasa TPI of 85. How muchwill her

draft changeupon enteringseawater(density1025)7
SOLUTION:
Changein Draft = Disp.x (Changein Density)/ TPI x 1000
= 45,000x (1025- 1000)/ 85 x 1000
Changein Draft = 13.23inches
or F.W.A. = Displacement/ TPI x 40
= 45,000/85 x 40
F.W.A. = 13.23inches

42. A vesseldisplaces16,000T. Approximateher FWA if her TPI were54.

SOLUTION:
F.W.A. = Displacement/TPIx 40
= 16.000T154x40
F.W.A. = 7.41inches

Stability and Trim Calculations 4t3

43. Your vesselhasa FWA of 12 inches.How muchmay )ou submergeyour loadlineif you areloadingat
a dockwherethe densityis 1015if you are going to sea(density1025\?
SOLUTION:
Allory. Increase = F.w.A. x Changein Density / 25
= 12 rnchesx (1025-1015\ | 25
Allorv. Increase = 4.8 inches

DRAFT AND FREEBOARD

M.Thedepthof thevesselis42-W.If themidshipdraftisl4-ll,whatisthefreeboard?
SOLUTION:
Depthof the vessel = 12 tt 09 inches
{t{idshipDraft - 14 ft 11 inches
Freeboard = 27 ft10 inches

45. The forwarddraft of your ship is 36-04and the afterdraft is 40-02.The draft midshipis 38-08. Your
vessel is:
Answer: Sagged
SOLUTION:
Draft Fwd = 36 ft 04 inches
Draft Aft = 40 ft 02 inches
Mean DfL = 38 ft 03 inches
Mid. Dfr. = 38 ft 08 inches
5 inchesSagged

46. The forwarddraft of your ship is 27-ll andthe afterdraft is 29-03.The draft midship is 28-05.Your
vesselis:
Answer: Hogged
SOLUTION:

DraftFwd = 27 ft ll inches
Draft Aft = 29 ft 03 inches
MeanDft. = 28 tt 07 incnes
Mid. Dft. = 28 ft05 inches
-z
in"n"r Hogg"d

47. Youare loadingin a port su[ect to summerloadlinemark and boundfor a port to the winter loadline
mark. You will enterthe winter mne after steaningfour days.You will consume35 T of fuel, water
and storesper day.The hydrometerreadingat the loadingpier is 1.0083and the averageTPI is 65.
The following data was extractedfrom the Loadline Cenificate:
Freeboardfrom Deck line Loadline
Tropical 68 inches G) above (S)
Summer 74 inches (S) :'
Winter 80 inches (W) 6' below (S)
Allowance for fresh vzaterall freeberds 6"
* Upper edgeof line at level of the disc} ccilcr

1t4 Stability and Trit?tCahulations

 SOLUTION:
( in Density ) I 25
Dock Water Allowance = FWA x Change
= 6"x(1025- 1 0 08'3)|25
= 4 "
/ TPI
Zone Allowance = Consurnption x No' of Days
= 35tons x 4daYs / 65tonsPerinch
= 2.15"
- ( DWA + ZA)
Minimum Freeboard= WinterFB'
= 80.0" - ( 4.0" + 2'1" )
= 73.9inches

load line,mark and bound for a port subjectto the

48. You are loading in a port subjectto the tropical
sunmerloadlineo,urt.You*ill"ot"rthesummerzoneaflerstearningfourdays'Youwillconsum
readingat the loadingpier is 1'025' and the
40 tonsof fuel, waterand sbres p€r day.The hydrometer
averageTPlis53.ThefollowingdatawasextractedfromtheLoadlineCertificate:
[nadline
Freeboardfrom Deck line
67 inches (T) 5 inchesabove (S)
Tropical *
Summer 72 inches (S)
77 inches W) 5 inchesUelow(S)
Winter
4 inches
Allowance for ftesh water all freeboards
* Upper edgeof line at level of centerring'

Whatistbeminimumfreeboardrequiredatthestartofthevoyage?
SOLUTION:
Zone Allowance = Consumption x No' of Days / TPI
= 4Otonsx 4daYs / 53tonsPerinch
= 3.0"
- ZoneAllowance
MinimumFreeboard = Summer FB'
= 72.0 inches - 3'0 inches
= 69.0 inches

ll0 ft. from aft. The draft at thebow is 11' 00" and
49. A vessel1g0fr. tong hasthe cenrerof flotationat
the draft aft is 13' 00". What is the true meandraft?

SOLUTION:
flotation is located20 ft' forward of midship'
Midship is located90 ft. from aft (180 frll). center of
Trim Diff. of Fwd. and Aft Drafts
2f*tby the stern
Trim C. Trim x Distancefrom Midship / Length
ZfeptxzDfeet / 180feet
0.22feet
M. Dft 12.00feet
Trim C. + 0.22 f.ent
T. M. Dft = l2.22f.eet

4t5
Stability and Trim Calculati'ons
 Nole: Trimcorrectionwasaddedtothe nuandraft becauseLCF isforwardof midshipandrhe
trirn
is by the stern.

TONS PER INCH IMMERSION

50. A breakbulk vesselis 680 ft. long, 60 ft. wide,with a waterplaneooefficientof 0.84 is floating
in salt
waterat a draft of 2l fet.. How manytonswould it taketo increasethe meandraftby 1 inch?
SOLUTION:
rPr /'2x35
: trl1iiT;i:lixrffi:coef
51. A bulk freighter 580 ft. long,60 ft. wide, witl a waterplanecoeffrcientof 0.84 is floating
in fresh
water at a draft of 2l ft. How many long tons would it take to increasetie meandraft by I
inch?
SOLUTION:
rPI coer
| 12x36
: $lr',Jri,T*}}iXifgrane
LONGITUDINAL CENTER OF GRAVITY
52. A semi-submersibte
displacing18,000LI has an LCG of 2 ft. forward of midships.A bulk cargo
weighing400 LT wasdischargedfrom P-tankslocated50.8ft. aftof midships.Wnafis thenew
LCG?
SOLUTION:
Weight LCG L,ongitudinalMoments
18,000 -2 _ 36,000
_ 400 s0.8 _ 20,320
17,6W
LCG = 3.20ft. (fwd of midships)

53. A vesseldisplaces14,500tons, with a longitudinal centerof gravity (LCC; of U7.5 feet

aft of the
forepeak. ff you pump 80 tons ballast from forward to aft through a distanceof 480 feet, what
will be
yournew LCG?
SOLUTION:
TRIM ARM or GG' = (weight x Distance)/ Displacement
= (80 tons x 480 tent) | 14,500tons
= 2.65 feet
LCG = UT.s0feetaftof forepeak
GG' + 2.65 feet aft
NEW LCG = Z50.lS feet aft of forepeak

416 Stability and Trim Calculations

 LONGNMINAT
STRFSS
IIog. Conditionof a vesselwhereinthe buoyancyis morethan the weightoverapproximatelythe midship
half-length with lessbuoyancythan the weight at both ends,so that the tendencyof the vesselis to arch up
or "hog" amidships.Sucha conditionresultsin a bendingmoment,which stressesthe top membersof the
vesselin tensionand the bottommembersin compression. The stresses are termedhoggingstresses.

r-l
EXCESSOF BUOYANCY
COMPRESSIVE
STRESS

HOGGING CONDITION

COMPRESSIVE
EXCESS OF WEIGHT
STRESS

TENSILE
STRESS

SAGGING CONDITION

Sag. That form of longitudinaldeforrrationunderstressin which themiddlepart of a ship'sstructuresinks

belowthe extremities.In this condition,the weight exceedsthe buoyancyover approximat€lythe midship
half-length,with more buoyancythan weight at both ends,thereforethe tendencyof the vesselis to arch
"sag" at aboutmidlength. Sucha conditionresultsin a bendingmomentwhich stressesthe top
down <lr
membersof the vesselin compressionandthe bonommembersin tension.The stresses are termedsagging
sresses.

Stabilin and Trim Calculations 4t7

 106. In all but the rnostseverecases,bleedingfrom a woundshouldbecontrolledby:
Ansvter: Applying directpressureto thc wound.

107. The cannistertype gasmaskwill protectthe weareragainstcarbonmonoxidefumesfor about:

Answer: 120 minutes.

108. In order to benefit from the useof storm oil in heavyseas,the storrr oil should be:
Answer : Tb windwardof tlw vessel.

109. The term "discharge",ts it appliesto the pollution regulation,means:

Answer: Spilting,Dunping, lzaking (All of the above).

110. For a cargovesselon an internationalvoyage,theminimum Pitot tubepressurefor a numberof outlets

when two fire pumpsare operatingsimultaneouslyis approximately:
Answer: 50 psi.

111. Oneadvantageof the "all-purposenozzle" is that it:

Answer : Convertsa streamof water into afog.

112. If the metacentricheight is large,a floating vesselwill:

Answer: Be stffi

1I 3. The most effectiveway to apply a foam strean if the fire is on deckor is a running fire is to direct the
strealn:
Ans:wer: Ahcad of the burning liquid and bounceit on thefire.

114. when should you take any food or water after boarding a lifeboat or liferaft?
Answer : Afier 24 hours.

115. Which toxic gas is a productof incompletecombustionand is often presentwhen a fire burns in a
closedcompartment?
Answer : Carbon monoxide.

116. As definedby the regulation,thebulkheaddeckis:

Answer : The uppennostdeck up to which tIrc transversewatertight bulkhcadsare carried.

117. The angularmovementof a vesselabouta horizontalline drawnfrom its bow to its stern.
Answer: Rolling.

118. The angularmotionaboutthe longitudinalaxis of a vesselis known as:

Answer: Roll.

119. Yawingis the angularmotion of the vesselaboutits:

Answer: Verticalaxis.

120. The horizontalfore-and-aftmovementof a vesselis called:

Answer: Surge.

121. To warp a vesselmeansto:

Answer: Move the vesselby haulingon lines.

48 Addendum
 after abandoninga vessel,Iookoutsshould be postedaboardliferafts to look for:
lZ2. IaTp11gdliately
Answer: Survivorsin tlu water.

123. T\e most aocurateaccountof cargoon boardwill be found on the:

Answer : Cargo manifest.

124. Damageto cargocausedby fumesor vaporsfrom liquids, gases,or solids is known as:
Answer: Tainting.

125. your ship is steamingat night with the gyro-pilotengagedwhenyounoticethat the vessel'scourseis
slowly changing to the starboard.What action shouldyou take FIRST?
Answer: Switchto telemotorsteering.

126. ln a Williamson turn, the rudderis put over to full until the:
Answer:' Vesselhas turned60"fiom its original course.

127. When the height of the metacenteris lessthan the height of the centerof gravity,a vesselhaswhat
type of stability?
Answer: Negative.
"quarte/' is that sectionwhich is:
128. Avessel's
Answer: On either side of the stern.

129. Which canbe preventedonly by segregatingtwo lots of cargointo separateholds?

Ans,ver: Contaminationof afood cargoby an odorouscargo.

130. Which is an exampleof cargodamagecausedby inherentvice?

Answer: Heating of grain.

131. Servingis a:
Answer: Marlinc tightty woundon the ropeby rwans of a board or mallet.

132. Theinternalvolumeof a cargohold measuredto the insideof cargobattens,to tank top ceiling, andto
undersideof beams.
Answer: Bale cubic.

133. Paintsand solventson a vesselshouldbe:

Answer: Returnedto thepaint locker afier eachuse.

134. The maximum numberof personsthat canberth in one roomof a cargovessel.

Ansper: Four.

135. Horyshouldcargotank hatchesbe protectedwhenullageopeningis openand the tank is not gas-free?

Answer: Wthflamc screens.

136. Shellplatingis:
Answer: Theouterplating of a vessel'
"strake" is usedin referenceto:
137. The ternt
Answer: HulI Plating.

Addendum 449
13t. The horizontaltransversemotionof a vesselis known as:
Answer : Sway.
"F
139. If the dry bulb temperaturein a hold is 70 and the relativehumidity is 90%.At what temperature
of the outsideair would you expectcondensationto form on overheaddecksand exposedshell?
Answer: 67 "F.

140. Generatly,which of the following is usedto inflate liferafts?

Answer: Carbondioxide.

141.CO, cylindersforming a part of a fixed fre extinguishirtgsystemmustbe testedat leastevery:

Answer: Year.

142.Enclosedspacescontaininggasoline,machineryor fuel tanksshall havewhich of the following types

of ventilation?
Answer: Mechanicalsupplyand natural exlaust.

143.What is the purposeof cant framesin steelvessels?

Answer : Providestrengthto shell plating at the stern.

144. Tbe point that is halfwaybetweenthe forwardandthe after perpendicularand is a referencepoint for
vessel'sconstructionis the:
Answer: Amidships.

145. The componentof a windlasswhich physicallyengagesthe chainduring hauling in andpayingout is

the:
Answer: Wildcat.
in:
146. Canberin a sbip is usuallymeasured
Answer: Inchesperfoot of vessel'sbreadth.

147. The weldsusedto attachstiffenersto a plate areknown as :

Answer: Fillet welds.

148. With a following sea,a vesselwill tendto:

Answer : Yaut.
149. In the first 24 hoursafter abandoninga vessel,water shouldbe given only to personswho are:
Awwer; Sic&or iniured.

150. The TonnageCertificateindicates:

Answer: Measuremcnttons.

151. The holding capabilityof an anchoris detenninedby the:

Answer: Scopeof anclnr cable.

152. Whenthe stabilityof the vesselis in neutralequilibrium,the valueof GM is:

Anc$,er: 7zro.

153. As the propeller turns, voids are formed on the trailing and leadingedgesof the propellerblades
causinga low propulsiveefficiency,pitting of the blades,and vibrations.Thesevoidsare known as:
Ansvter: Cavitation

450 Addendum
154. The disunce a vesselmoves at right angles to the original coursewhen a turn of 180" has been
completed.
Answer: Tacticaldiamcter.

155. Which of the following is an indicationof initial stability?

Ansvver: GM,

156. The changein weight (measuredin tons)which causesa changein draft of one inch.
Answer: TPI.

157. Whenbunkeringoperationsarecompleted,the hosesshouldbe :

: Drained, blankedoff an"dstoredsecurely.
Ansvver

158. The bean of a vesselrefersto the:

Answer : Width of the vessel.
159. Flamescreensare usedto:
Answer: Preventflamcsfrom enteringtanks.

L60. Odorouscargoesare thoseOat:

Answer: Give offfumes th4t may damageothcr carSoes'
over a singlescrewshipbecauseI
161.While noving ahead,a twin-screwship hasan advanrage
Answer: Sideforces will be eliminated.

flooding may be indicatedby:

162. Progressive
Answer: A continual worseningof list or trim.

163. The unusedvolumebetweenthe surfaceof the liquid and the tank top in a cargotank is known as:
Answer: Ullage or Outage'

164. A vesselspottedat 45" relativecanbe reportedas:

Answer: Broad on the starboardbow.

165. The purposeof inclining experimentis to:

Answer: Determinethe lightshipKG.

166. What is the maximumoxygencontentbelow which flaming combustionwill no longeroccur?

Answer: I5Vo.
filled'
167. lfyou iue bunkeringandyou closeoff one tank which is in the sameline asof the tanksbeing
the rate of florp to other open tanks on the sameline will:
Answer: Inc.rease.

168, The pitch of a propelleris a measureof the:

Ansier : Numbir of feet per revolutionthepropelleris designedto movein still waterwithout slip'
"strongback" refersto a:
169. A
Answer: Bar securinga cargoPort.
chainto be
170. which of the following wouldbe thebestguidefor detenniningtheproperscopeof anchor
usedfor anchoringin normal conditions?
Answer: Oneshot of chainfor everyfifieen feet of water'

Addendum 451
l7l. A continualworseningof the list or trim indicates:
Answer: Progressive flooding.

172. Which practiceshouldbe follo ved while loadingon a tanker?

Answer; ll/hen closing valves,close themdovn, then oryn one or two turns, then reclose.

173. What is the differencebetweenthe net tonnageand grosstonnage?

Answer: Net tonnageis the grosstonnagelzsscertaindeductionsfor machineryand othcr areas.

174. Which of the following refersto the depthof petroleumproductsin a tank?

Answer: Innage.

175. Stability is determinedprincipaily by the locationof the point of applicationof two forces, tlte up-
ward-actingbuoyantforce and the:
Ansvver.: Downward-actingweightforce.

176. Mouldeddepthis measuredfrom the to the top of the upperdeckbeamat gunwale.

Answer: Topof the keel.

177. With an increasein temperature,the volumeof flammableandcombustibleliquids:

Answer: Expands.

178. Freeboardis measuredfrom the upperedgeof the:

Answer: Deckline.

179. ln preparationfor receivingchilledreefercargo,thereeferspacehasbeenprecooledfor over24 hours.

L,oadingmay begin when the spacehas beencooledto a temperaturebetween:
"F.
Answer: 28 "F to 40

180. The garboardstrakeis the:

Answer: Row of plating next to the keel.

181. The momentcreatedby a forceof 12,000T and a momentarm of 0.25 ft' is:
Answer: 3,000fi.- tons.

182. The two courseof actionsif the underwaterhull is severelydanagedareto plug theopeningsor to:
Answer: Establishand maintainflooding boundaries.

183. What term indicatesthe immersedpart of the hull aft of the parallelbody?
Answer: Run.

184. One gallon of low expansionfoam solutionwill produceabout:

Answer: l0 gallonsof foan.

185. You haveapproximately16 T of fish on deck.What will be the shift in tbe centerof gravityafter you
shift the fish into the hold a verticaldistanceof 8 ft. Total displacementis 640 T.
Answer: 0.2 fi,

6O) your vesselhasa deadweightcrpacity of 5000T and a cu. capacityof 300,000cu. ft. You are to load
v "full anddown", how muchco&onshouldyou load?
lead(SF 18) and cotton(SF t0). If you load to
Answer: 3387tons.

452 Addendam
187.A vesselhasa deadweight carryingcapacityof 10,500T. Fuel,waterandstoresrequire1,500T. The
will put her full anddown?
cu. capacityis 500,000cu. ft. Which of the followingcargoes
Answer: Rollsof barbedwirewith SF of 55.5.

188.Youareloadingacargoof cannedgoodswithastowagefactorof 65. If puallowl5%oforbroken

stowage,how many tonscan be loadedin a spaceof 55,000cu. ft.?
Answer: 719.2 tons.

189. A carlingis usedaboardship:

Answer: To stffin areasunderpoint of greatstressbetweenbeams.

190. Youaregoingto loadbalesof wool(SF 100)in no.3lowerhold whichhasa balecubicof 62,000cu ft.
How many tonsof wool canbe stowedin tlte compartmentallowing l09o for brokenstowage?
Answer: 558tons.

{gP. I vesselis displacing740 T and measures141 ft. long and 34 ft. wide. What will be the reductionin
GM dueto freesurfaceif theholdbelowmeasuring41ft. long,30 ft. wideand9 ft. deepis filled with
2.5 feetof water?Eachton of wateroccupies35.1cu. ft.
Answer: 3.18 feet.

1fr..)Vour vesseldisplaces968 T and measures158ft. long,40 ft. wide. A largewaveshippedon the after
l-/ dect<. What is the reductionto GM due to free surfacebeforethe waterdrains overboardif the after
deckmeasures65 ft. long and 40 ft. wide?The weightof the watershippedis 80 T.
Answer: 9.45fi.

193. A vessel'slight displacement is 28,000T. Whenfully loaded,it

is 12,000T. Its heavydisplacement
carries200 tonsof fuel and 100tonsof waterand stores.What the vessel'scargocarryingcapacity
is
in tons?
Answer: 15,700tons.
a
lS+). lsemi-submersiblefloating in seawaterdisplaces20,000LT. Shehasa verticalmomentof 1,ffi0,000
\-/ foot LT. What is the new KG if 300 LI is z.ddedat a VCG of -50ft.?
Answer:' 50feet.

ta). Usinga safetyfactor of 6, determinethe safeworking loadof a line with a breakingstrainof 30,000
lbs.
Answer: 5,C00 lbs.

the summerzonesix daysal'tcr

Qgl n hnker loadsat a terminal within the tropicalzone.Shewill enter
departingthe loadingport. Shewill burn 45 tons of fuel per dayandconsume8 tonsof waterperday.
How many tonsmay sheload over that allowedby her summerloadline'l
Answer: 318tons.

197. Thecollisionbulkheadis:
Answer: 5Voto I5% of thc waterlengthabafi the stemat the load waterline.

198. The distancebetweenrivets in a nrw is known as the:

Answer: Pitch.

199. Anothername for the garboardstrakeis:

-Astrake
Answer:

Addendum 453
200. Panting framesare locatedin the:
Answer: Fore and afierpeaks.

201. The openingin the deckunderneaththe anchorwindlassthat leadsto the chain locker is the:
Answer: Spill pipe.

202. \\e moment of a force is a moasnp of the:

Answer : Turning cfrect of thc force abow a polnt.

203. Lrte pres€rvershall be sto\yedso that they will be:

Answer : In various parts of the vesseleasily accessiblefor usc.

204. An unstableequilibrium of a ve.sel meiansthat the metacenteris:

Answer : lower tlan tlu center of gravity.

205. Whicd part of the bomr has the gr€at€stdiameter?

Answer: Middlc.

206. The best information on the location of the blocks when drydocking a vesselis oontainedin the:
Answer : Shipdrcking plot od trim and stability buldetfu the vessel.

207. Yan have your rudder right 20" and your engine running aheadslorrly. After making nnlocomplete
circles, which of the following could you measure?
Answer: Final dianwter.

20E. The main function of a sripping systemis to:

Answer : Discharge liquid left in tlw cargo tat*s afier the nuin pump havedisclwrged tlu bulk.

209. Tonnageopeningsmust be closedby meansof:

Answer : Steel plues.

210. When pogsibleand sorretimesnecessaryto strengthenthe deck of a vesselfor the carriage of deck
cargoby:
Answer: Erectingvertical pillars undcrthe deckto supportthe cargo.

211. Which of the following stepsis not generallytalcenwhen gas.freeinga tank?

Answer : Removalof sludge and conosion products.

212. A vesselbehavesas if all its weight is acting downward through the oenter of gravity and all its
supportis acting upward through the:
Answer: CenterofBuoyancy.

213. Certarnciugo must be segregatedbecauseof their:

Answer: Inherentclnracteristic

214. When loading in a containervessel,the operationis basicallythat of verticalloading.The important

factors to be consideredwhen loading containersare port of discharge:
Answer : Weiglttand refrigeraion.

215. On thecargomanifest,the tcal weightof a box containingcargois the:

Answer: Grossweight.

454 Addendum
216. What is the main purposeof dunnage?
Answer: Toprovide uentilation and drabwgefor cargo.

217. Tbe t1ryeof joint formed when an edgeof one plate is laid over tle edgeof tb plate to which it is
riveted.
Answer: Lapjoint.

218. In calculating free surfacecorrection, it is necessaryto divide the ftee surfacenoments by the
Anster : Total displacenunt.

219. Aplimsoll marh on a vesselis usedto:

Answer: Determine tlu vesscl'slreeboard

220. Tuo-courparment vesselis descriH aswhen she:

lnswer : . Wiil float if any two adjacet cowarfrncrrrs ue flooded

221. l(rlpng the draft at 6 below tbe load line mart will insure that tbe vesselhas:
Attswer: Resentcbrcyarcy,

222. fun crudeoil: huJroqn

,4nswer: Containshighqwntities of<ilfgni sulfidc-
"aromatic amine". This
223. Yanare on a multiple product tanker ard scheduledb lod a cargoclassedas
cargob incompatibbwith cargcs classedas:
Answer: Orguric Attlrydrides.

224. lnusing the load-on-topmethod of controlling pollution, whU action shouldbe taken after all dirty
ballast hasbeentrarlsferredto the slop tank!
Answer: Theshps shouldbe albwedtime to settle.

225. What method of stowing bagswill result in the smallestperaentageof broken stowage?
Answer: Half'bag.

226. Whrletesting a cargo tank, your oxygen indicaor rt*dls25% oxygen.You would then:
Answer: Suspecttlu accuracy of tlrc teading.

227. Akort nozzlercfersto a:

Answer: Holbw tube sunounding the propeller usedto imprcve thrust.

228. Beamsarecanberedto:
Answer: Providedrainagefrcmttu deck.

long is the standardcontainer us€dto measureOns of equivalentunits?

22g. l14;1n
Answer: 20 feet.

230. The purposeof a bilge well is to:

Answer: Collect water to be pumpedout.

23l. [Iow much forcewould be requiredto lift a weightof 200 lbs. using a gun tacklerigged|o disadvan-
tage disregardingftiction?
Annter : 100lbs.

Addendum 455
232. 'Nhen the wave period and the apparentrolling period of the vesselare the same:
Answer: Synchronousrolling will occur.

233. A hook that will releasequickly is a:

Answer: Pel.icanhook.

"spottingtieboom"?
234. Whatis meantby
Answer: Placing it in a desiredposition.

235. If youwant to lift severalsmall articles,which of tbefollowing would you use?

a. Pallet b. Cargohook c. Cargonet d. Sling

236. An upright vesselhas negativeGM. GM becomespositiveat the angleof loll becausethe:

Answer: Effectivebeamis increasedcausingBM to increase.

237. rilhen a vesselis floating upright, the distancefrom the keel to the metacenteris calledthe:
Answer: Height of the metacenter.

238. When patchingholesin the hull, pillows, beddingsand othersoft materialscanbe usedas:
Answer : Gaskets

239. The propersequenceto follow when connectinga bondingcableto a tankeris to:

Answer: Opensvitch. Connectbottdingcable. Closeswirch.Connectcargohose.

240. Wbich vesselis most likely to be loadedfull but not down?

Answer: A break bulk vesselloadedwith palletizedcargo.

Ml. Yol are loading baggedcoffeebeans. To keep cargo leakagefrom being contaminatedby ship's
structure,you should:
Answer: Useseparationclothsbeweenthe deck and cargo.

A2. On a crane,the load chart relatesthe allowableload to the combinationof the boomlength and:
Answer: Load radius.

243. What is the meaningof the tenn " two-blocks"?

Answer: Thebottomblock touchesthe top block.

244. If two runnersattachedto eachotherare 0olift one-toncargo,at what anglebetweenthe runnerswill

resultin the stresson eachrunnerbeing equalto the load beinglifted?
Answer: 120 degrees.

245. Reducingfree surfacOhasthe effectof loweringthe:

Answer: Virtual heightof tlw centerof gravity.

246. In the absenceof external force, tbe centerof gravity of a floating vesselis locateddirectly abovetle:
Answer: Geometriccenterof the displacedvolume.

247. Whenconsideringthe stabilityof a vessel,which spacesin a generalcargovesselarethe bestlocation

for the carriageofbulk grain?
Answer: Deeptanks

456 Addendum
248. your vesselhasbeendamagedand is partially flooded.The fint stepto be takenin attemptingto save
the vesselis to:
An$ser: Establishfloodingboundaries andpreventfurtherspreadoffloodwater.

249. Treeor weedkilling compound(solid) is classifiedas:

Answer: OxidEer
250. Which of the following will not increasefriction of a liquid flowing in a pipe and will not causeloss
of suction?
Answer: Slowingthe PumPingrate.

251. The thicknessof a 30lbs. plateis:

Answer: 3/4 inch.
252. Whenloading containerin the cell guidein the hold of a conlainership, which statementis true?
Answer: ' No further securingis usually required.

253. Block stowagemeans:

Anstver: Storing all tlu cargofor a port in tlu samearea.

254. Y6nthavebeencarryinga liquid with flammablelimits of l% A 7Vomixwre with air. If your instruc-
tions saythat men shall not enterthe tank if the vaporconcentrationis over l'Vo of the LEL, what is
the maximum allowable percentiageof vaporsfor men to enter?
Answer: 0.157o

255. you areon a 30,000DWT tankshipengagedin tradeto anothercountrysignatoryto MARPOL 73178.

Which of the following is true?
Answer: The IOPP Certificateis valid for 4 years.

256. Which statementis true of a gasolinespill?

Answer: It is visiblefor a slnrter tinu than afueI oil'spill.

257. The OBA (cannistertype) shouldnot be worn in:

Answer: Petroleumcargo tanks.

258. Combustiblegasindicatorsoperateby drawingan air sampleinto the instrument:

Answer: Over an electrically heaed platinumfilarrcnt.

259. Before welding can be done in a tank that has carried petroleumproducts,a certificate must be ob-
tained from:
Answer: A certified marinechcmist.

260. The offtcerresponsiblefor the sanitaryconditionof the engineeringdeparunentis the:

Answer: Chief Engineen

261. yogr vesselis on a voyageof threemonthsduration.The numberof sanitaryinspectionsrequiredis:

'btvter : One.

262. Whenoil is accidentallydischargedinto the water,what shouldyou do after reportingthe discharge?

: Preventspreadingand removeas rutch oil aspossiblefrom the water.
Ans:wer
"tend€f,vessel"when carryinga cargoof lumber,you should:
?,63. lnorddr to minimize the effectsoia
Answer: Place thc luaviestwoodsin tlv lower lnlds.

Addendum 457
 2U. lt you sendoutmessageby flashinglight on 12 March 1990,the datewouldbe indicatedby:
Answer: D 120390

265. Which of the following signalsshould be usedto sendtbe group "TRIJE BEARING M5 degrees"by
flashing light?
.4ttsyter: A M5

266. If a vesselshowsyou the hoist BJ 1, it will meao:

,rn*rlrter: An aircraS is circling over the area of an accident,

?.67. lt yanwantedto ask a nearbyvesselif he had a doctor on board, you would hoist the flag signal:
Answer: AM

258. What is the minimrrm number of fire purnpsrequircd on a cargo vesselof 2,000 grosstons?
Answer.: Thto.

269. Which fire detectionsystemis actuatedby sensinga heat rise in a comparurent?

Answer : Automaticfire detection system

270. You have determinedthat a cargo sp:rceon a freight vesselis 45 ft. by 3O rt. Uy 62 ft. How many
poundsof carbon dioxide is required for this spae?
Anrrltter: 3348hbs.

271. Nonnal cargoloading and fueling resultsin the collectionof wasteoil in drip pansand containers.
Which procedureis an approvedmethodof disposingof the wasteoil?
Awwer : Placing it in proper disposalfacilities ashoreor on barges

272. To lubricatetbe swivelor removecorrosionfrom a fire hosecoupling,you shoulduse:

Answer: Freshwaterand soap,

273. If an emergencypump control is usedas the emergencyshutdownon a tank vessel,it must stopthe
flow of oil at:
Answer : TIU pump.

274. On the all-purposenozzle,the positionof the valvewhen the handleis all the way forward is:
Awwer: Shut.

275. Fuel for useon vesselmay be carriedin independe4ttanksforwardof a collision bulkheadif the:
Answer: Tanksweredesignated,installed,or constuctedforfuel oil carrying beforeJuIy t, 1974.

276. When the handleis in the verticalpositionand without an applicator,the all purposenozzlewill:
Answer: Producehigh-velocityfog.

277. Wben the handleof an all purposenozzf,eis pulled all the way back,it will:
Answer ; Produce a staight stream.

278. which of the following knots is suitablefor hoisting an unconscious

person?
Answer: Frenchbowline.
'I\e
279. minimum burstingpressurefor eachcargohoseassemblymust be at least:
Anster : 600 psi.

4s8 Addendum
280. In settingthe valveson a steamsmotheringsystemon a tank vessel,thc mastercontrolvalveto ciugo
tanksshouldbe:
Answer: Closedand thc individual tar* valvesopen.

281. Which of the following is thechief problemencountered

wbensurgingsyntheticmooringlines on the
gypsyheadduring mooring operations?
Answer: Thz heatgenerakd mrrycausethe lines to temporarilyfuse to the gypsyhead.

282. Which of the following can producestaticelectricity?

I. The flow of petroleumthroughpipes.
II. The splashingor agitationof peroleum.
Answer: Both I and II.

283. Deckbearrsperform which of the following functionsin the hull structureof the vessel?
I. They transferdeckloadsto the funes.
II. They help to maintain the shapeof the hull.
Answer: Both I and IL

284. Maximum cargogearstressesfor a setrig will nonnally be determinedby:

Answer: Cargo winch strength and characteristics.

285. Partof the cargoof an LNG carrierboils off during eachvoyage.This cargoboil off is normally:
Answer: Burnedin thc boilers.

286. When a winch breaksdown, or somesimilar occurrencemakesonly onewinch availableat a hatch,

which of someof the following alternaterigs would providea tempoftry solutionwhile repairsare
made? Cotton is beinghauled.
Answer: Yardand stayjury rig.

287. An eyesplicemadein any wire ropeusedas cargogearwithout a thimble shalll haveat least:
Answer: Threetuckswithwhole strands.

288. An insulatingflangewould be usedin a cargohoseconnectioninsteadof a bondingwire:

Answer: Whenthe rcrminal is equippedwith a cathodicprotectionsystem.

289. Whenviewedfrom above, thebestpositonfor the guy in relationto the boomis:

Answer At right angles.

290. The hazardsassociated with the handlingof petroleumproductsinclude:

I. Explosionor fire.
II. Asyphyxiation.
Answer. Both I and II.

291. Whenbacking down with sternway,the pivot point of a vesselis about:

Answer: One-thirdof the vesselbtengthfom thestern.

292. A sparkarrestor:
Answer: Preventssparkfrom getting out of an engineexhaus!system.

Addendum 459
293. Containersof flammablesolid shouldbe conspicuously
labeledby the shipperwith a:
Answer: Red and while label.

294. Ot the generalmethodof stoning baggedcargo,which allowsmaximumventilation?

Answer: FulI bag.

295. Litmuspaperis usedto determine:

Answer: Thievage.

296. Hygroscopiccargoshouldbe ventilatedin caseswhen:

An,rwer: Goingfrom a waftn to cold climate.

297. A vesselloadsedibleoil in deeptank througha manholeat the midlengthof the tank. In orderto fill
the tank to maximumcapacity,what trim shouldthe vesselhave?
Answer: Evenkeel

298. The bestinformationon the natureandextentof damageon a vesselis obtainedfrom the:

Answer: Personin-chargeof the affectedarea.

flooding is controlledby securingwatertightboundariesand:

299. Progressive
Answer: Pumpingoutjlooded compartment.

300. Which typeof hull damageshouldbe repairedfrst?

Answer Damageat or just abwe the waterline.

"God bless you."

460 Addendum
 TIDES AND CURRENTS
d 51. c 76. a 101. b 126. c
1 . a 26.
L 52. d 77. z 702. b 127. c
2 . c 27.
^ 53. b 78. d 103. b r28. d
3 . d 28.
L 54. b 79. a lM. d t29. d
4 . c 29.
c 55. c 80. b 105. d 130. ^
5 . b 30.
d 56. c 81. c 106. d 131. d
6 . a 3r.
57. a 82. b 107. d t3z. a
7. a 32. b
^ 58. d 83. b 108. a r33. a
8 . c 33.
59. c 84. c 109. c 134. a
9 . a 34. b
c 60. a 95. a 110. b 135. b
10. c 35.
d 61. d 86. a 111. a 136. c
11. c 36.
c 62. a 87. b ll7. c 137. c
12. b 37.
c 63. c 88. b 113. b 138. a
13. ^ 38.
a i l . c 89. b tl4. b 139. a
14. ^ 39.
d 65. c 90. c 115. b 140. b
15. c 40.
d 66. d 91. a 116. ^ 141. a
16. ^ 41.
a 67. h 92. L 7L7. b 142. a
17. b 42.
c 68. a 93. a 118. d 143. a
18. c 43.
69. d 94. d 119. d lM. ^
L9. b M . b

20. b 45. L 70. b 95. c r20. d r45. d

7r. c 96. b l2l. a t46.

2r. d 46. b
72. d 97. c 122. a t47. a
22. d 47. a
c d 73. c 98. a 123. a 148. a
23. 48.
74. ^ 99. b 124. b t49. d
u . b 49. d
75. d 100. ^ 125. b 150. b
25. a 50. d

Answers 46r
 WEATHER ELEMENTS
1 . b 29. c 57. d 85. b 113. ^ l4l. c
2 . d 30. b 58. c 86. ^ ll4. a r42. b
3 . c 31. b 59. a 87. L 115. b 143. b
4 . d 32. c 60. b 88. a 116. d 144. z
5 . c 33. a 61. a 89. b tt7. d 145. c
6 . a 34. 62. d 90. b 118. d 146. b
7. b 35. a 63. b 91. d ll9. c 147. c
8 . d 36. d g . c 92. a 120. L 148. a
9 . d 37. ^ 65. d 93. a l2l. c r49. b
10. c 38. a 6 . d 94. a 122. a 150. a
11. b 39. b 67. ^ 95. d 123. b 151. b
12. b N , b 68. c 96. ^ 124. c 152. a
13. b 4t. d 69. a 97. a 125. c 153. c
14. a 42. c 70. b 98. c 126. a 154. b
15. a 43. ^ 71. a 99. a 127. c 155. a
16. b 4 . a 72. b 100. d r28. d 156. c
t7. d 45. a 73. c 101. d 129. d 157. a
18. a 6 . b 74. b 102. c 130. d 158. d
t9. b 47. c 75. a 103. d l3l. a 159. ^
20. b 4E. a 76. d lM. c 132. a 160. a
21. a 49. c 77. d 105. c 133. c 161. c
22. b 50. c 78. b 106. c 134. c t62. b
23. b 51. a 79. c 107. d 135. b 163. d
u . b 52. b 80. a 108. a 136. a lU. a
25. c 53. a 81. a 109. a 137. a 165. c
26. c 54. b 32. d 110. b 138. c 166. b
27. a 55. c 83. c 111. c 139. a 167. b
29. a 56. d 84. d ttz. d I40. a 168. a

462 Answers
 WEATHER ELEMENTS (Continued)

169. d 186. b 203. b 220. b 237. ^ 254. b

r70. b 187. b 204. a 221. a 238. r 255. a

t7t. d 188. b 205. d 222. a 239. a 256. c

172. b 189. a 206. d 223. ^ u0. b 257. a

173. a 190. d 207. d 224. c 241. a 258. a

r74. d 191. a 208. d 225. L U2. L 259. a

175. a 192. b 209. b 226. a 43. b 260. b

176. L 193. c 2r0. b 227. b u4. b 261. a

177. c 194. c 2ll. c 228. b U5. c 262. a

178. a 195. a 2t2. d 229. d 246. c 263. c

179. c 196. b 213. b 230. b 717. b 264. b

180. a 197. d 214. a 23t. d u8. d 265. ^

181. b 198. d 215. c 232. a u9. d 266. d

182. c 199. a 216. a 233. a 250. a 267. c

183. b 200. c 217. d 234. a 251. c 268. b

184. d 20r. b 218. c 235. a 252. a 269. b

185. c 202. a 219. d 236. a 253. b 2'10. L

BLECTRONIC NAVIGATION

l. c 9 . d 17. a 25. d 33. c 41.. b

2 . d 10. d 18. c 26. c 34. d 42. a

3 . c 11. c 19. b 27. b 35. d 43. c

4 . c 12. d 20. a 28. b 36. a 44. d

5 . a 13. b 21. a 29. c 37. d 45. d

6 . c 14. b 22. b 30. c 38. b 46. b

7. b 15. b 23. b 31. a 39. b 47. b

8 . a 16. b V4. a 32. b 40. ^ 48. c

Answers 463
 ELECTRONIC NAVIGATION (Continued)

49. d 70. b 91. a LT2. b 133. b 154. a

50. d 71. c 92. b 113. a r34. d 155. a
51. b 72. b 93. c r1,4. d 135. b 156. a
52. d 73. b 94. b 115. a 136. a t57. b
53. a 74. b 95. ^ 116. c r37. b 158. a
54. d 75. c 96. a ll7. ^ 138. c 159. a
55. b 76. a 97. c 118. d 139. d 160. a
56. b 77. a 98. b 119. c 140. b 161. a
57. c 78. a, 99. ^ 120. a l4l. c 162, b
58. a 79. d 100. c l2l. a 142. a 163. c
59. b 80. c 101. d t22. a 143. d 164. a
60. a 81. c 102. a r23. d lM. a 165. a
61. b 82. d 103. b 124. b 145. b 166. b
62. a 83. a 104. b 125. a 146. a 167. c

63. d 84. b 105. c 126. b 147. a 168. a

& . b 85. c 106. d 127. c r48. b 169. a

65. c 86. c 107. b 128. c 149. a 170. c

6 . b 87. c 108. a 129. d 150. a

67. a 88. a 109. b 130. c 151. c
68. b 89. b 110. a l3I. c 152. a
69. c 90. a 111. c 132. c 153. a

Solution for #26.

BeamWidth shouldbe dividedby 2.

To be subtractedto the RadarBearing if right Tangent.
Radar Bearing 316"
1/2B. Width 1"
315"
GIE + 1"8
True Bearing 316"

464 Answers
Solution for #29.
Beam width shouldbe divided bY 2.
To be addedto the Radar Bearing if Left Tangent'
RadarBearing 056"
+ 1 "
057"
G/E + 2"E
True Bearing 059"

Solution for #31.

Vessel'sspeed 10 kts.
1800H Dist. 10 miles Dead Ahead
1812H Dist. 8 miles Dead Ahead
lzlt'{ 2 miles
Rel. Spd. 10 kts. - Ship's Spd. 10 kts' = 0 kts'

Solution for #37.

Vessel'sSPeed 5 kts.
TargetDist. l0 miles DeadAstern
After 12M 8 miles DeadAstern
ffits. Rel.Spd.
TargetSpd. = Ship's Spd. + Rel' Spd'
= 5kts+10kts
= 15 kts

Solution for #43.

Speedof Radarwaves = 1000ft / micro-second
Distance = -180
- ms x 1000ft / ms
2-
' 90,000 ft. or 30,000 yards

Solution for #68.

Speedof soundwavesin the water = 4800 ft / second
Distance = 1 sec. x 4800 ft isec.
2
= 2;00 ft or 400 fathoms

Solution for fl1.

Speedof soundwavesin the water = 4800 ft / second
Distance = 1.5sec. x 4800ft/sec.
2
= 3600feet

Solutionfor #148.
Speedof soundwavesin the air = ll20 ft / second
Distance = 4secs. x1120ft/sec.
2
= 2240ft or 746.7yards

Answer 465
 I\,IARII\[E LAWS AI\D SHIPBUSINESS
1 . c 23. b 45. d 67. c 89. d 111. a
2 . b u . d 6 . b 68. a 90. c ll2. a
3 . c 25. a 47. b 69. b 91. a ll3. a
4 . c 26. c 48. c 70. b 92. c ll4. a
5 . b 27. b 49. b 71. c 93. b 115. a
6 . d 28. c 50. b 72. b 94. a 116. a
7. d 29. b 51. b 73. a 95. b ll7. a
8 . a 30. d 52. b 74. b 96. a 118. b
9 . a 31. d 53. b 75. b 97. b lt9. d
10. b 32. c 54, c 76. a 98. b 120. a
11. d 33. a 55. c 77. a 99. a r2l. b
12. a 34. c 56. c 78. b 100. d 122. c
13. ^ 35. a 57. a 79. a 101. a 123. d
14. b 36. c 58. b E0. d 102. a 124. a
15. d 37. b 59. a 81. c 103. c 125. a
16. c 38. a 60. c 82. d 104. a 126. b
r7. b 39. a 6t. c 83. a 105. d 12'1. c
18. c 40. b 62. b 84. c 106. a 128. a
t9. d 41. d 63. b 85. b 107. a r29. a
20. a 42. c U . c 86. a 108. a 130. a
21. d 43. a 65. c 87. b 109. a
22. a 4 . d 66. b 88. a 110. a

MARINB INSURANCE
l . b 7. b 13. c 19. b 2s. b 31. a
2 . c 8 . a 14. d 20. d 26. d 32. c
3 . a 9 . c 15. a 21. b 27. d 33. a
4 . b 10. a 16. d 22. c 28. b 34. c
5 . d 11. a 17. c 23. b 29. d 35. b
6 . c 12. c 18. d u . b 30. c 36. b

166 Answers
 MARINE INSURANCE (Continued)

37. c 41. c 45. a 49. d 53. c 57. a

3t. a 42. a 6 . ^ 50. d 54. d 5t. c

39. c 43. a 41. ^ 51. c 55. c 59. a

N . c 4 . a 4d. L 52. a 56. b 60. c

SIGNALING AND COMMT]MCATIONS

l. c 9 , c 17. a 25. ^ 33. c 41. d

2 . b 10. d 18. ^ 26. b 34. ^ 42. a

3 . b 11. d 19. ^ 27. d 35. b 43. b

4 . b 12. d 20. c 28. c 36. b 4 . b

5 . c 13. a 2r. d 29. a 37. ^ 45. a

6 . d 14. b 22. a 30. a 38. d 6 . L

7. a 15. d 23. a 31. b 39. c

8 c 16. b u . b 32. a N . a

COLLISION REGULATIONS
1 . b 11. a 21. d 11. a 4t. a 51. ^

2 . b 12. c 22. a 32. d 42. d 52. a

3 . a 13. d 23. c 33.. b 43. a 53. a

4 . b t4. d U . c 34. c 4 . d 54. b

5 . b 15. b 25. c 3s. b 45. a 55. L

6 . b 16. a 26. a 36. c 6 . d 56. a

7. b 17. c 2't. b 37. d 47. a 57. c

8 . ^ 18. b 28. c 3t. c 4E. a 58. d

9 . d t9. d 29. d 39. d 49. b 59. c

10. ^ 20. d 30. c n." L 50. a 60. d

Answers 467
 COLLNION REGULATIONS (continued)
61. a 70. a 79. d 88. b 97. b 106. b
62. a 71. a 80. a 89. a 98. b 107. c

63. b 72. a 81. d 90. c 99. d 108. a.

i l . a 73. L E2. a 9r . b 100. b 109. ^

65. b 74. a 83. b 92. d 101. a 110. d
6 . a 75. c W . a 93. b 102. b ll1. c
67. d 76. a 85. d 94. b 103. b ll2. c
68. b 77. c 86. c 95. a 104. a
69. a 7E. d 87. b 96. a 105. ^

CHAf,(TS AND PT]BLICATIONS

1 . b t2. b 23. c 34. c 45. b 56. a

2 . a t3. d U . c 35. b M , A 57. b

3 . a 14. a 25. b 36. d 47. a 58. c

4 . d 15. c 26. d 5t. a 48. a 59. c

5 . b 16. a 27. b 3E. c 49. b 60. a

6 . b 17. c 28. d 39. b 50. c 61. a

7. a 18. d 29. b 40. a 51. a 62. a

8 . a 19. b 30. c 41. c 52. a 63. a

9 . d 20. d 31. b 42. b 53. b & . c

10. c 21. a 32. d 43. d 54. c 65. d

11. a 22. c 33. a 4 . ^ 55. a

COMPASS AND IVIAGNETISM

1. d 4 . d 7. b 10. c 13. c 16. a

2 . a 5 . a 8 . a 11. d 14. a t7. a

3 . d 6 . c 9 . a t2. b 15. d 18. c

468 Awwer
 COMPASS AND MAGNETISM (continued)
31. c 37. c 43. a 49. d
19. ^ 25. c
32. b 38. b 4 . a 50. b
20. b 26. ^
33. c 39. c 45. ^ 51. a
21. c 27. c
34. L 40. b 6 . c 52. a
22. d 28. b
35. d 41. c 47. b 53. c
23. ^ 29. b
36. d 42. c 48. a 54. b
24. a 30. d

PILOTING AND SAILINGS

'17. 96. a
20. c 39. c 58. b b
1 . a
N . c 59. b 78. a 97. a
2 . c 21. a
4r. b 60. ^ 79. a 98. b
3 . d 22. b
42. a 61. b 80. c 99. a
4 . ^ 23. b
62. c 81. a 100. d
5 . b u . d 43. b

4 . d 63. b 82. ^ l0l. b

6 . b 25. a
45. d i l . d 83. c t02. a
7. a 26. t

M . c 65. b E4. b 103. . a

8 . b 27. c
47. c 6 . a 85. a 104. c
9 . a 28. c
48. a 67. c 86. L 105. a
10. d 29. a
49. d 68. b 87. c 106. d
11. d 30. b
50. b 69. d 88. a to7. c
12. ^ 31. d
51. a 70. a E9. d 108. a
13. a 32. d
52. c 71. b 90. a 109. c
14. a 33. b
53. c 72. a 91. a 110. c
15. b 34. b

c 54. b 73. a 92. a

16. d 35.
c 55. b 74. a 93. a
17. c 36.

c 56. b 75. a 94. d

18. a 37.
c 57. c 76. a 95. d
19. ^ 3E.

Answers 469
 I{AUTICAL ASTRONOMY

1 . a 26. c 51. c 76. c 101. a 126. c

2 . a 27. b 52. b 77. c 102. a r27. d
3 . b ?a. a 53. b 78. a 103. a 128. a
4 . d 29. ^ 54. d 79. c 104. a 129. a
5 . c 30. b 55. a E0. a 105. a 130. c
6 . a 31. b 56. c 81. b 106. a 131. d
7. c 32. a 57. c 82. b 107. a 132. d
8 . c 33. b .-s8. b 83. c 108. a 133. b
9 ' r c 34. d -i9. c 84. a 109. a 134. b
10. ^ 35. a ri0. c 85. a 110. a 135. a
11. b 36. a 01. a 86. a 111. a 136. a
12. d 37. h 62. b 87. a ll2. a 137. c
13. d 38. c 63. a 88. c 113. a 138. c
14. a 39. b (4. d 89. b ll4. a 139. a
15. b 40. (: 65. c 90. b 115. a t40. d
16. b 41. a 66. d 9r. b 116. a l4l. c
17. a 42. a 67. d 92. a ll7. a 142. b
18. a 43. d 68. b 93. c 118. a 143. c
19. ^ u . d 69. d 94. c ll9. a 144. d
20. c 45. c 70. ^ 95. c 120. a r45. d
21. c " 6 . b 71. d 96. d l2l. a 146. c

22. c 47. a 72. c 97. c 122. a 147. d

23. d 48. a 73. c 98. a I23. a 148. a

24. a 49. a 74. d 99. a 124. c 149. b

25. c s0. b 75. b 100. a 125. b 150. a

470 Answers
 CELESTIAL NAVIGATION
1 . d 14. c 27. c & . c 53. a 6 . d

2 . e 15. c 28. b 41. ^ v . b 67. a

3 . b 16. c 29. b 42. a 55. ^ 68. ^

4 . b 17. b 30. c 43. a 56. a 69. d

5 . c 18. a 31. d 4 . a 57. a 70. d

6 . b 19. a 32. c 45. d 58. a 71. a

7. a 20. a 33. d 46. a 59. a 72. c

8 . d 2r. d 34. b 47. a 60. a 73. c

9 . b 22. b 35. c 48. ^ 61. c 74. a

10. b 23. a 36. d 49. d 62. b 75. c

11. b V4. c 37. b 50. a 63. d 76. b

12. c 25. c 38. a 51. a & . b 77. a

13. L 26. b 39. c 52. a 65. d 78. d

NAVIGATION PROBLEMS
VISIBILITY 3 . L 14. a BBARING 11. a 5 . b
OFLIGHTS PROBLEMS
4 . c 12. d
1. c RIGIIT 1. c
13. b PARALLEL
5 . c PLANE
2 . a 2 . d SAILING
TRIANGLE 14. a
6 . d l. c
3 . b 1 . b 3 . a
15. d
7. b 4 . b 2 . b
4 . a 2 . a
8 . d 5 . c 3 . d
5 . L 3 . c
MBRCATOR.
6 . a 9 . a 6 . b SAILING 4 . c

10. t OBLIQUE 7. d 1. c 5 . b
COMPASS PLANE
11. d TRIANGLE 8 . d 2 . b 6 . a
DEVIATION
1. c t2. b 1 . d 9 . d 3 . a 7. b

2 . c 13. L 2 . c 10. b 4. I 8 . a

Answer 471
 NAYIGATION PROBLEMS (continued)

9 . a 15. c TIME E. a 4 . d 6 . a
DIAGRAM
10. b 9 . a 5 . c
COMPOSITE I. ^
ll. c 10. a 6 . b SPEEDBY
SAILING .
2. a. REVOLUTIONS
12. d 2 . a 1 1 . a 7. a AND FUEL
3 . a coNsERvanoNs
13. b 3 . c l 2 . a
4 . c l . b
14. c 13. a MERIDIAN
TIME ALIITUDE 2 . a
PROBLEMS EQUATION 14. a
OF TIME 1 . b
3 . c
GREAT l . d 1 5 . c
1. a 2 . d
CIRCLE 4 . c
SAILING 2 . d 1 6 . b
2 . b 3 . c
5 . a
l. c 3. c 17. b
4 . b
6 . d
2 . d 4. b oXtttOCRApflrc 18. a
5 . c
- PROJECTION 7, c
) . 4
3 . a 1 . d 8 . a
6 . a OBLIQUE TRTJEAND
4 . d 2 . c SPIIERICAL APPARENT 9 . c
7. a TRIANGLE WIND
5 . a 3 . d 10. d
8 . a l . c 1 . b
6 . a 11. c
9. a RIGHT 2. d 2 . a
7. d SPIIERICAL t2. b
10. a TR.HNGLE 3. a 3 . a
8 . b 13. b
1 1 . a 1 . b 4 . a
9 . d OTIIER 14. b
1 2 . a 2 . a 5 . a PROBLEMS
10. b 15. b
1 3 . a 3 . c < l t R c x \ o i l . t g l m 1. c
11. c 16. b
I 4 . c 4 . d E R R O R 2 . c
17. c
12. c 1 5 . d 5 . a 1 . d 3 . b
13. c 1 6 . d 6 . d 2 . d 4 . b

14. c 17. b 7. a 3. d 5 . b

472 Answers
 SAFETY OF LIFE, AT SEA
1 . d 32. c 63. c 94. b 125. d 156. b
2 . c 33. d g . d 95. c 126. c 157. c
3 . c 34. b 65. d 96. b 127. b 158. c
4 . d 35. d 6 . a 97. a 128. c 159. c
5 . d 36. b 67. c 98. a 129. a 160. b
6 . b 37. b 68. a. 99. d 130. d 161. a
7. b 38. c 69. d 100. d 131. b t62. d
8 . a 39. L 70. b 101. b 132. a 163. c
9 . a 40. c 71. c lo2. b 133. b 164. b
10. c 41. b 72. d 101i. d 134. a 165. a
11. c 42. a 73. b 104. i 135. c 166. c
12. a 43. b 74. b 105. a 136. a 167. c
13. b 4 . c 75. d 106. d r37. b 168. d
14. d 45. a 76. d ro7. b 138. b 169. b
15. a 46. d 77. d 108. c 139. c 170. a
16. b 47. b 78. a 109. d r40. b t1l. b
17. ^ 48. d 79. d 110. c t4l. b 172. a
18. b 49. a 80. a 111. d 142. b r73. c
19. L 50. d 81. d tlz. b 143. c t74. c
20. d 51. a 82. b 113. c 144. a 175. b
21. a 52. b 83. c ll4. c 145. b 176. a
22. b 53. c 84. a 115. a 146. a t77. b
23. c 54. d 85. a 116. d 147. b 178. d
24. d 55. b 86. d ll7. a 148. c 179. a
2s. d 56. a 81. c 118. d r49. a 180. d
26. a 57. c 88. d tt9. d 150. b 181. d
27. a 58. b 89. b 120. c 151. b I82. c
28. c 59. d 90. d l2l. ^ t52. d 183. b
29. d 60. c 91. c 122. c 153. a 184. c
30. b 61. d 92. c 123. a 154. a 185. b
31. b 62. b 93. b 124. a 155. a 186. b

Answers 473
 SHIP IIAI\DLING
l. c ll. b 2t. d 31. c 4t. d 51. d
2 . c 12. c 22. b 32. c 42. d 52. a
3 . c 13, d 23. a 33. a 43. c 53. a
4 . c 14. a u . b 34. b 4 . d 54. a
5 . a 15. c 25. b 35. b 45. c 55. d
6 . a 16. c 26. d 36. c 6 . a 56. b
7 . a 17. b n. c 37. t 47. b
t . c 16. d 2E. b 3t. ^ 48. c
9 . d t9. d 29. d 39. a 49. ^
10. b 20. a 30. d n . a 50. b

SHIP CONSTRUCTION
1 . b 13. c 25. c 37. a 49. d 61. a
2 . b 14. d 26. b 38. b 50. b 62. b
3 . a 15. b 27. a 39. a 51. a 63. a
4 . c 16. ^ 28. a 40. d 52. c @ . c
5 . d 17. c 29. a 4t. b 53. d 65. a
6 . d 18. d 30. a 42. n 54. c 66. b
7. b 19. a 31. b 43. c 55. a 67. d
8 . c 20. a 32. a 4 . b 56. d 68. b
9 . c 2t. b 33. a 45. c 57. a 69. a
10. c 22. a 34. a 6 . ^ 58. b 70. d
11. a 23. b 35. a 47. ^ 59. a
t2. d u . b 36. c 4t. c 60. a

474 Answers
 CARGO GEARS
1 . d 6 . c ll. a 16. b 21. c 26. c

2 . d 1. b 12. b 17. c 22. a 21. b

3 . b 8 . c 13. c 18. d 23. c 28. c

4 . c 9 . d 14. a t9. d 24. a 29. b

5 . d 10. c 15. a 20. ^ 25. b 30. d

CARGO TIANDLING AND STOWAGB

1. a 23. c 45. b 6'1. c 89. a ll1. d

2 . b 24. b 46. a 68. a 90. ^ ll2. c

J . a 25. c 47. d 69. a 91. c 113. a

4 . c 26. d 48. d 70. c 92. b ll4. c

-5. a 27. d 49. c 11. ^ 93. d ll5. a

6 . b 28. d 50. b 72. a 94. d 116. a

7. c 29. a 51. a 73. d 95. a 117. b

8 . d 30. a 52. a 74. a 96. d 118. d

9 . d 31. a 53. a 75. c 97. a 119. c

10. a 32. c 54. c 76. a 98. b 120. b

11. d 33. d 55. c 77. a 99. d tzt. a

12. a 34. a 56. d 78. d 100. a 122. b

13. d 35. c 57. b 79. b 101. d 123. a

14. a 36. b 58. d 80. b 102. a 124. a

15. b 37. a 59. d 81. a 103. c 125. b

16. c 38. c 60. a 82. d 104. b 126. c

17. a 39. a 61. c 83. a 105. a r27. a

18. a 40. b 62. b 84. d 106. c t28. b

19. c 4t. d 63. b 85. a 107. a 129. b

20. b 42. b & . h 86. b 108. c 130. a

21. b 43. c 65. d 87. a 109. b

22. d M . c 66. d 8E. a 110. a

Answers 475
 CARGO ASSESSMENT
1. a 4 . a 7. a 9 . a 11. a 13. a

2 . L 5 . a 8 . a 10. a 12. a 14. a

3 . a 6 . a

STABILITY AND TRIM

1 . a 19. b 37. ^ 55. c 73. c 91. a

2 . b 20. d 38. c 56. c 74. c s2. b

3 . b 21. a 39. d 57. a 75. c 93. c

4 . b 22. a 40. a 58. b 76. d 94. c

5 . b 23. c 41. a 59. c 77. c 95. c

6 . c 24. a 42. a 60. d 78. c 96. b

l. c 25. a 43. a 61. a 79. b 97. d

8 . c 26. a 44. d 62. c 80. c 98. b

9 . a 27. b 45. b 63. a 81. c 99.

10. b 28. c 46. d & . b 82. b 100. c

11. c 29. b 41. d 65. a 83. c 101. a

12. b 30. d 48. d 66. a 84. d 102. c

13. d 31. b 49. c 67. d 85. b 103. a

14. c ?2. a 50. a 68. c 86. c 104. d

15. b 33. c 51. b 69. a 87. b 105. a

16. b 34. d 52. c 70. d 88. a 106. d

11. a 35. b 53. c 71. c 89. b 107. a

18. t) 36. a 54. a 72. a 90. a 108. b

NIENSURATION
l i r 3 . a 4 . a 5 . a 6 . a 7. a
' i l

47 {'t Answer
 COMMONCONVERSIONFACTORS
I

Multlply By To Obtaln

Barrels(tual oil) 42 Gallons(tuel oil)

Centimeters 0.3937 lnches
C€ntim€terof merarry 0.1934 Pounds per square inc{t
Cubict€et 1728 Cubicinches
Cubic feet (FW) 7.44 Gallons

Cubit feet (FW) 62.5 Poundsof FW

Cubit feet (SW) u Pounds of SW

Fathoms 6 Feet

Feet 30.48 Centimeters

Feet 0.3048 Meters
Feet of wat€r o.434 Poundsper square inch

Gallons 231 Cubiclnches

Gallonsof water 8.33 Poundsof water

Grams 15.432 Grains

Grams o.035274 Ounces

lnches 2.54 Centimeters

Inchesof mercury 0.491 Poundsper square inch

Inchesof mercury 2.540 C€ntimeters

Kilograms 35.274 Ounces

Kilograms 2.2f,46 Pounds

Kilometers 3281 Feet
Kilometers 1093.633 Yards
Liters 35.2 Fluidounces(lmperial)
Liters o.%42 Gallons

Liters 1.760 Pints

Meters 3.281 Feet
Meters 1.@36 Yards

Miles 1.609 Kilometers

Miles (Land) 5280 Feet
Miles (Nautical) 6080 Feet
Pints 0.56793 Liters
Pounds 453.6 Grams

Pounds 0.4536 Kilograms

Rods 16.5 Feet

Square miles 640 Acres

Square miles 259.O2 Hectares

Tons(Long) 2240 Pounds

Tons (Short) 2000 Pounds

Tons (long) FW 35.84 Cubic teet of FW

Tons (long) SW 35 Cubic feet of SW

Yards 0 9144 Meters

477
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478
 REFERENCES
1. PracticalAmericanNavigatorYol. | &2
2. The Principleand Practiceof Navigationby A. Frost
3. Nicholl'sConciseGuideVol. I & 2
4. Blue Book of Questionsand Answers
5. NauticalCalculationsExplainedby J. Klinkert
6. PracticalNavigationfor SecondMatesby A. Frost
7. Mariner's CelestialNavigationby W. Crawford
8. CompassWork byKemp and Young
9. Mariner's flandbook
10. ManueveringBoardManualPub.No. 217
11. Symbolsand Abbreviations Usedon AdmiraltyCharts,5011
12. IALA MaritimeBuoyageSyst€m'A", NP 735
f 3. Norie's NauticalTableby A. Blance
14. The Theoryand Practiceof Seamanship by G. Danton
15. Nicholl'sSeamanship andNauticalKnowledgebyC. Brown
16. The Boatswain's Manualby A. Miller
17. MerchantShip Stabilityby H. Pursey
18. Ship's Stabilityfor Masterand Matesby D. Derrett
19. Stability and Trim for the Ship'sOfficersby J. La Dage
20. CargoWork by L. Thylor
21. MerchantShip Constructionby D. A. Taylor
22. ShipboardOperationsby H. Llavery
23. MarineInsurance by R. Brown
24. The Ship'sMedicineChestandMedicalAid at Sea
25. Safetyof Life at Sea
26. Manual on Marine Pollutionfor Filipino Seafarers by
Capt.P.Bautistaand Cdr. J. Casillan
27. MerchantShipSearchandRescueManual
28. Collision AvoidanceRulesby A.N. Cockroft
29. Meteorologyfor Seamenby C. Burgess
30. Meteorologyfor Mariners
3L. Marine ElectronicNavigationby S.F.Appleyard
32. Businessand Law for the Shipmasterby F. Hopkins
33. PhilippineAdmiralty and Maritime Law by E. Hernandez
34. PhilippineMerchantMarine Rulesand Regulations
35. Multiple-Choice Examinations for Chief MateandMasterby
R. Jamesand R. Plant
36. InternationalMaritime Dictionaryby R. de Kerchove
3'7. Dictionaryof NauticalWordsand Termsby C. Layton

479
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481
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