Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Physico-Chemical Classification of Nigerian Cement: Muibat Diekola Yahaya
Physico-Chemical Classification of Nigerian Cement: Muibat Diekola Yahaya
2009)
Abstract
The characterization and classification of cement is based on the determination of
its chemical composition and physico-mechanical properties. The set of standards used
for this project included the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) and
British Standards Institution (BSI) standards. Titrimetric/gravimetric methods of
analysis were used. Four major cement samples using various physico-chemical
methods were analyzed; two locally manufactured and two imported. Results of all the
analysis showed that the locally produced cements, i.e., Elephant and Ashaka, differ in
their physico-mechanical properties from the international ASTM and BSI standards.
They are better used for structures involved with low load carrying capacities.
The Burham cement matched well both in its chemical and physico-mechanical
properties and thus can be subjected to structures involved with loading. Dangote
cement needs to be further investigated upon. The developed assessment technique
based on comparative analysis of ASTM and BSI standards with the technical qualities
of the local cement brands can be used to control product quality during manufacturing
of cement.
Keywords: Chemical composition, titrimetric/gravimetric method, Burham cement,
Dangote cement, physico-mechanical structures.
determination of the ammonium hydroxide end of a glass until the cement was well
group was acidified by using 5ml of HCl. A decomposed. The solution was diluted to 50ml
few drops of methyl red indicator were added in hot water and heated to near boiling by
to the solution and 30ml of warm ammonium means of a high-temperature hot plate. The
oxalate (50g/l) was also added. The solution covered mixture was further digested for 15
was heated to a temperature of 70-80°C. minutes at a temperature just below boiling.
NH4OH (1:1) was added dropwise with The solution was then filtered through a
constant stirring until changing the colour from medium-textured paper into a 400ml beaker
red to yellow. The solution was allowed to and the precipitate was thoroughly washed with
stand for 1 hour with occasionally stirring hot water. The filter paper was transferred into
during the first 30 minutes. The solution was the original beaker and 100ml of hot (near
filtered using a retentive paper and was washed boiling) NaOH solution (10g/l) was added.
moderately with cold ammonium oxalate This material was digested at a temperature
(1g/l). The filtrate was reserved for the below boiling for 15 minutes. During digestion,
determination of MgO. the mixture was occasionally stirred and the
The precipitation and filter paper were filter paper was well macerated. The solution
transferred to the same beaker in which was acidified with HCl and methyl red
precipitation was first made. The oxalate was indicator was added.
dissolved in 50ml of hot HCl (1:4) and the The solution was filtered through
filter paper was macerated. The mixture was medium-textured paper and washed with hot
diluted to 200ml with water and few drops of NH4NO3 solution (20g/l) at about 14 times. The
methyl red indicator were added together with residue was ignited in a weighed platinum
20ml of ammonium oxalate. The solution was crucible at 900-1,000°C and cooled in a
heated nearly to boiling and calcium oxalate dessicator. The cooled product was weighed as
was precipitated again by neutralizing the acid percentage of insoluble residue.
solution with NH4OH (1:1) dropwise until Calculations:
distinctly changing the colour to yellow. The Insoluble Residue (%) =
solution was combined with that already (Weight of ignited residue x 100)/W,
obtained for the determination of MgO. where: W = Weight of sample.
The precipitate was dried in a weighed
covered platinum crucible and the paper was Free Lime, Procedure: As related to the
charred without inflaming. Finally, the tightly chemical analysis of cement by conventional
covered crucible was heated in a muffle and instrumental techniques by BSI (1978), the
furnace at a temperature of 1,100 to 1,200°C, procedure used was as follows.
cooled in a desiccator and weighed as CaO. Approximately 1.0g of finely grounded
The ignition was repeated until a constant cement sample was weighed in a long-necked
weight was obtained. Erlenmeyer flask and 50ml already heated
Calculation: ethylene glycol (100-120°C) was added. The
CaO (%) = Weight of Precipitate x 100)/W, flask was closed with a stopper and heated on a
where: W = Weight of the sample taken. magnetic stirrer hot plate for about half an hour
to bring the free calcium oxide into solution.
Insoluble Residue, Procedure: From the The temperature of the hot plate was
chemical analysis of cement by conventional maintained between 70-80°C for 15-20 min.
and instrumentation techniques according to The resultant solution was filtered through
the ASTM reference method (ASTM 1986), Bucher-funnel containing double filter paper.
the procedures used were as follows. The precipitate was washed with 10ml portion
1 g of the sample was weighed and 25ml of glycol and about 10-15ml of water was
cold water was added to the dispersed cement added to the filtrate. This material was titrated
while swirling was quickly added to 5ml of against 0.1N HCl using 2-3 drops of 1%
HCl. The solution was warmed and the bromocresol blue/green indicator. The end-
material was well grinded with the flattened point was noted when there was a change in
colour from blue to yellow. mould were set on the working bench and all
Calculations: bolts were tightened using the spanners. The
Free lime (%) = (0.02804 x N x 100)/W, base of the mould was greased with a thin film
where: of petroleum jelly and also the joints of the two
W = weight of sample in g; and halves. As quick as possible, the concrete
N = normality of HCl. mixture was scooped into each mould (to half
the depth) in a single layer. The concrete
Determination of Physical Properties of mixture was tamped in each mould with 25
various Portland Cements strokes of the tamping bar spread uniformly
over the cross-section of the mould and
Consistency of Standard Cement Paste: exerting the same force in each case by raising
As given in BSI (1978), the procedure the bar about 30mm above the surface of the
employed was as follows. concrete and guiding it as it is then allowed to
400g of cement sample was weighed and fall under its own weight.
spread out on a steel plate for about 30 minutes More mixture was scooped into each
to cool to the temperature of the mixing room cube being completely filled to the brim. This
(27±50°C). 30% water content of the mass of material was tamped again 35 times for each
dry cement was added as a start. The mixture mould. The assembled mould was placed on a
was mixed for 4±0.25 minutes by using a vibrating machine and well secured in place, a
trowel to give a paste and was immediately suitable hopper was used to facilitate filling.
transferred into the mould laying on the steel The mould was vibrated on a jolting machine
plate. The top of the mould was smoothened for 2 minutes. Afterwards, the cubes were
off as quickly as possible with the aid of the covered with an impervious sheet to avoid
trowel. The mould and paste were placed under evaporation and were allowed to cure at room
the plunger in the vicat apparatus and the temperature for 24 hours. The cubes were
plunger lowered gently to contact the surface removed from their mould after 24 hours and
of the paste. This material was released quickly were marked for identification. This material
and allowed to sink into the paste. was then immersed in clean water to be
The scale reading of the vicat apparatus removed for crushing after a required number
was noted after 1 minute and recorded. If the of days.
plunger penetrates to a point 5 to 7 mm above The cubes were brought out of the water
the bottom of the mould, the water-cement in due time and their surface was carefully
ratio is taken as the consistency, if not, a new wiped clean of water and adhering loose sand.
water-cement ratio is taken and the procedure The DM0 Samuel Denison Compression
repeated. machine was switched on 15 minutes before
use. The weights of the cubes in air were
Compressive Strength Test: From the determined by using a spring balance. Each
procedure of British Standard Specification for cube was then placed inside the crushing
Portland cement BS 12:1958 (BSI 1978) the machine centralizing it by using the scribe lines
compressive strength was carried out as of the four locating pins on the bottom plates
follows. and with the marked face of the cube to the
The ELE mixing bowl and paddles were front of machine. The Perspex guard was
wiped clean with a damp cloth and different closed and the ‘Enter’ sign pressed on the
grades of cement, sand and aggregates in the machine.
ratio of 1:2:4 were weighed into the mixing
bowl. 10% weight calculated as tap water was Slump Test on Cement: As stated in the
added and mixing was carried out until a laboratory work instruction of WAPCO (1986),
cement mortar of homogenous consistency was the procedures used are as follows.
obtained. The concrete was turned in the bowl The same mix for concrete cubes in
over 3-4 times by using the scoop and trowel. compressive strength test shall be used for the
12 pieces of clean 150 x 150 x 150mm cube slump test. The time clock was immediately
switched on. The mould was placed on a final set was reached when the needle makes an
smooth horizontal rigid non-absorbent surface impression on the surface but annular cutting
and while being firmly held in place was filled edges fail to do so.
in 3 layers, each approximately one third of the
height of the mould. Each layer was tamped Soundness Test (Expansion
with the round end of the tamping rod for about Determination on Cement): One of the
25 times. The strokes were well distributed in a accelerated tests used in BSI (1978) and
uniform manner over the cross-section of the laboratory work instruction of (WAPCO 1986)
mould. For the second and subsequent layers, was created by Le Chatelier (1904). This test
the tapping rod was able to penetrate the was carried out as follows.
underlying layer. After the top layer has been The cement paste was prepared as of a
well tamped, the surplus concrete from the top standard consistency and filled in to the
of the cone was stricken off with a expansion mould, or Le Chatelier mould (Le
sawing/rolling motion of the rod. Chatelier 1904), placed on a glass plate. The
The mould was removed from the split end of the mould was gently closed by
concrete slowly and carefully in a vertical tying it with a piece of cotton as the operation
direction. The time elapsed was six minutes was being carried out. The surface of the paste
and thus allowed for the concrete to slump. was well smoothened and levelled with the
The cone was turned upside down and blade of a gauging trowel and was covered
placed on the base plate next to the slumped with another piece of glass and was
concrete. The tamping rod was placed on top of immediately immersed in clean water. A 50g
the cone, projecting over the highest point of weight was placed on top of the plate for
the concrete. The distance from the top of the compaction.
slumped concrete was measured to the After 24 hours, the mould was removed
underside of the rod and recorded. from the water and the distance between the
pointers measured by using a meter rule. The
Setting Time Determination on Cement: mould was re-immersed in water again and was
As stated in BSI (1978), a sample of cement brought to boiling point within 30 minutes and
paste of standard consistency was prepared and afterwards allowed to boil for one hour. This
the time of first mixing the water with cement material was then kept in the water and allowed
was noted down. A slight excess of paste was to cool. The distance between the pointers was
immediately transferred into the mould in one again measured. The difference between the two
layer by using hand trowel. The top of the measurements represents the value for soundness.
mould was smoothened and levelled. The
mould was placed under the initial set needle of
cross-sectional area of 1mm and the needle was Discussion of Results
covered gently onto the surface of the paste and
was quickly released by allowing it to sink to The characterization and evaluation of
the bottom. These tasks were repeated several the available brands of Portland cements have
times at regular intervals of 10 minutes in become necessary in order to correctly evaluate
different positions of mould until the paste has the product quality and, hence, the area of
stiffened sufficiently for the needle not to application. From the experimental results
penetrate deeper than 5mm above the bottom presented in Tables 1-3, the percentage
of the mould. composition of the various cements analyzed
The time interval between the addition of varied from one cement brand to the other.
water and the initial setting time was recorded. There were significant differences in the
Finally, the needle was replaced with a 1mm values of their chemical composition when
square needle fitted with a metal annular subjected to variance test and also a high
attachment and this probe was allowed to come correlation was obtained when the physical
gently with contact with the surface of the parameters (dependent variables) were varied
cement paste at an interval of 15 minutes. The with the chemical composition (independent
variable).
Technical Report 170
AU J.T. 12(3): 164-174 (Jan. 2009)
Table 1a. The composition of major constituents of some indigenous and imported Portland
cement (ANOVA).
Table 1b. The composition of some minor constituents of some indigenous and imported Portland
cement (ANOVA)
Table 3. Analysis on variance (Anova) on physical and mechanical properties of Portland cement.
The cement samples shall be individually in fact, this is the least value when compared to
discussed and overall deduction would be the other analyzed cements.
given in the conclusion. The CaO percentage composition was
quite low in comparison with its indigenous
Ashaka Cement counterpart as a result of the higher
uncombined lime in the clinker. This high
From Table 1a, the CaO of Ashaka CaO-free content could be attributed to
cement merges well with Type IV of ASTM improper sintering condition or long storage of
Portland cement (ASTM 1986) and was the clinker before grinding. This may enhance
slightly in conformity with Type I. This polymerization of the unstable alite and belite
corresponded to the Low Heat Portland Cement forms into the subsequent release of free CaO
of BSI (1978) and Ordinary Portland cement, (Bensted 1979).
respectively. The percentage content of SiO2, The C3S and C2S phases are in the region
Al2O3, Fe2O3 and MgO were all in conformity of type IV whereas the C3A and C4AF are of
with Type I. Although MgO was quite low, the type I (Table 2). The value of C3A was quite
value corresponded well with Ordinary Cement low (the least), 6.36%, and thus affected the
of BSI (1978). The percentage content of SO3 setting time, initial setting was after 120
is of the same magnitude with Type I and Type minutes and final setting was 145 minutes. The
II though slightly high in comparison to other presence of C3A enhances the rate of hydration
cement. and thus initial strength development (Le
The free-lime (CaOf) is in conformity Chatelier 1904). The physico-mechanical
with type I, so also is the mineralogical analysis showed that the Elephant brand has
content. However, the CaO differ totally from the lowest compressive strength of 17N/mm
Type I but corresponded with Type IV Low which is consistent with the observed poor
Heat of BSI (1978). consistency and soundness test value (Ghosh
The physical properties (Table 3) showed 1983).
that the initial setting time was the least in Based on this analysis, it is evident
comparison to other analyzed cement. Ashaka enough to say that Elephant cement lies in the
brand also had the fastest final setting time. region of type I Portland cement and can be
Along with the Elephant brand, they showed used for general concrete construction.
poor soundness value. This may be associated However, structures must not be subjected to
with high CaO free content (Sosman and loading.
Merwin 1916).
These variations are all within the Burham Cement
acceptable limit (BSI 1978; and ASTM 1986).
It can be deduced that Ashaka is more of type I In Table 1a-b, the percentage values of
ordinary cement used for general concrete SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3 fell within the range of
construction. However, the poor soundness and type I Portland cement. The MgO, though out
early final setting times seriously limit its area of range of ASTM (1986), still merges well
to structures not subjected to loading (Ghosh with BSI (1978) of Ordinary Cement.
1983). On the other hand, the percentage values
recommended for CaO, SO3 and CaO all fell
Elephant Cement within type IV of Portland cement. The high
percentage recorded for free lime is as a result
From Table 1a-b presented, Elephant of inefficiency in burning and may be
cement has some of its composition, i.e., SiO2 explained as in the case with Elephant cement
Al2O3, Fe2O3 and MgO in conformity with (BSI 1978).
Type I Ordinary Portland Cement of BSI The C3S and C2S contents tally well with
(1978). type IV low heat Portland cement, but the C3A
The SO3 percentage though low can still and C4AF corresponded to type I (Table 2).
be approximated as ordinary Portland cement, Based on the high silica content, Burham
cement has a higher compressive strength and From the performed analyses, it was
also the relatively high C3A content will observed that the two brands, Ashaka and
enhance initial strength gain. A compressive Elephant Portland cement, produced in the
strength of 23.92 N/mm2 was recorded which is country are defective, especially if judging by
according to the acceptable limit (BSI 1978). the physico-mechanical properties. The Fe2O3
The setting time for Burham cement was content in both cement brands is less than 3%
having initial setting of 125 minutes and final and MnO is practically absent in the raw
setting of 162 minutes. This could be attributed material used. This eliminates their influence
to the relatively low gypsum content compared on the clinker formation mechanism of alite,
to the high C3A (ASTM 1986). belite and calcium-alumino-ferrite solid
Sequel to this, it can be said that Burham solutions (Odigure 1997).
cement lies within the region of type I Portland Consequently, the poor performance of
cement. It can be used for general concrete these cement brands is connected with poor
structures considering the obtained soundness sintering conditions, especially inability to
value, such structures could be subjected to obtain the required sintering temperature and
loading. cooling regime (Volzenski 1986). This has
allowed the formation of predominantly poor
Dangote Cement hydrating belite solid solutions. It is
recommended that the locally produced cement
Dangote cement has so many varying be used particularly for structures with low
properties that are comparable with all the loading capacity.
cement types. It recorded the lowest percentage The imported cement brands were not
of composition of CaO and also the highest uniform in their physico-mechanical and
percentage of Fe2O3. The SiO2 percentage chemical properties. The Dangote Portland
value was in accordance with the Ordinary cement has relatively high Fe2O3 content. It is
Cement of BSI (1978) and thus recorded an impossible to sinter such cement in a normal
average Compressive Strength of 22.0N/mm. rotary kiln. Consequently, microscopic analysis
The Al2O3 of about one percent composition needs to be performed to ascertain the class of
corresponded slightly with type IV of ASTM cement. This brand belongs to a slag Portland
(1986). The MgO and SiO2 values are of type I cement.
and its CaO and SO3 percentage composition The Burham brand has a chemical
are of type IV. It has the highest uncombined composition and physio-mechanical properties
lime, thus resulting in its low CaO. of a normal Portland cement. Both cements can
According to its mineralogical be used for structures with high loading
composition (Table 2), its C3S and C3A capacity.
corresponded to type I, while its C2S and C4AF
are type IV and type V, respectively. The low
value of C4AF was observed as a result of the Conclusion
substitution of ferric oxide for Alumina and
thus following to an increase in C3A and a Based on the investigation and
reduction of C4AF. This observation was experimental results, the following conclusions
ascertained as given in analytical form can be deduced:
(Volzenski 1986). 1. The indigenous Portland cement
The high C3A value is reflected in the brands, Ashaka and Elephant, conform in their
interval between the setting times of 11.38 chemical composition with the set of standards.
minutes. This is an indication of poor However, their physico-mechanical analysis
workability (Jackson and Dhir 1996). It is assessments show considerable deviation from
difficult to ascertain the grade of Dangote ASTM (1986) and BSI (1978). They are better
cement. It is most likely to be a slag Portland used for structures involved with low loading.
cement. This can only be verified with further 2. The Burham cement conforms well
investigation. both in its chemical and physico-mechanical
composition with the international standards
Technical Report 173
AU J.T. 12(3): 164-174 (Jan. 2009)
except in the free-lime percent value. Based on products and properties. Pergamon Press,
its soundness, it can be subjected to structures Elmsford, NY, USA.
involved with loading. Ghosh, S.N. (Ed.). 1983. Advances in Cement
3. The chemical and physico-mechanical Technology: critical reviews and case
properties of Dangote cement did not conform studies on manufacturing, quality control,
to any of the international standards. It needs to optimization and use. Pergamon Press,
be further investigated upon. Oxford, UK.
A classification guideline based on Jackson, N.; and Dhir R.K. (Eds.). 1996. Civil
ASTM (1986) and BSI (1978) was developed engineering materials. 5th ed. McMillan,
to enhance easy assessment of the Nigerian London, UK.
cement. This developed assessment technique Le Chatelier, H.L. 1904. Recherches
can be used to control product quality during expérimentales sur la constitution des
manufacturing of cement. mortiers hydrauliques. 2nd ed., Dunod, Paris,
France (in French).
Lea, F.M. 1970. The chemistry of cement and
References
concrete. 3rd ed. Edward Arnold, London,
UK.
ASTM. 1986. Annual Book of ASTM
Odigure, J.O. 1997. Preparation of cement raw
Standards. Volume 04.01. Cement; Lime;
mix containing metallic particles. Cement
Gypsum. American Society for Testing and
and Concrete Research 27(11): 1641-8.
Materials (ASTM), West Conshohocken,
Sosman, R.B.; and Merwin, H.E. 1916.
PA, USA.
Preliminary report on the system lime-ferric
Bensted, J. 1979. Early hydration behaviour of
oxide. Journal of the Washington Academy
Portland cement containing chemical by-
of Sciences 6: 532-7.
product gypsum. World Cement Technology
Volzenski, A.V. 1986. Mineral binding
10: 404-10.
materials. 4th edition. Stroyizdat, Moscow,
BSI. 1978. BS 4550-3.4:1978 Methods of
Russia (in Russian).
testing cement. Physical tests. Strength tests.
WAPCO. 1986. Laboratory work instruction of
British Standards Institution (BSI), London,
West African Portland Cement PLC
UK.
(WAPCO). Lagos, Nigeria.
Bye, G.C. 1983. Portland cement: composition,