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Precompetition Emotions, Bodily Symptoms, and Task-

Specific Qualities as Predictors of Performance in High-
Level Karate Athletes
a a b
CLAUDIO ROBAZZA , LAURA BORTOLI & YURI HANIN
a
Università di Padova
b
Research Institute for Olympic Sports
Published online: 17 Aug 2010.

To cite this article: CLAUDIO ROBAZZA , LAURA BORTOLI & YURI HANIN (2004) Precompetition Emotions, Bodily Symptoms,
and Task-Specific Qualities as Predictors of Performance in High-Level Karate Athletes, Journal of Applied Sport Psychology,
16:2, 151-165, DOI: 10.1080/10413200490437679

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 XXX TJ1040-06 April 7, 2004 12:40

JOURNAL OF APPLIED SPORT PSYCHOLOGY, 16: 151–165, 2004

Copyright © Association for Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology
ISSN: 1041-3200 print / 1533-1571 online
DOI: 10.1080/10413200490437679

Precompetition Emotions, Bodily Symptoms, and Task-Specific

Qualities as Predictors of Performance in High-Level
Karate Athletes

CLAUDIO ROBAZZA AND LAURA BORTOLI

Università di Padova
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YURI HANIN

Research Institute for Olympic Sports

The study, based on the Individual Zones of Optimal Functioning (IZOF) model, examined the
practical utility of precompetition idiosyncratic emotions, bodily responses, and task-specific
qualities (physical, technical, and tactical performance characteristics) in predicting the per-
formance of ten Italian high-level karate athletes. First, athletes recalled their best and worst
performances to develop individualized scales (profiles) with 33-idiosyncratic items (12 items
for emotions, 12 for bodily responses, and nine for task-specific qualities). These scales were
then used to assess the athletes’ actual emotions, bodily responses, and task-specific qualities
15 minutes prior to the first-round fight in ten competitions across the entire season. It was
revealed that idiosyncratic emotions and bodily responses differentiated between successful
and less than successful (average) performances. These findings provide empirical support for
the validity and practical utility of the in/out-of-zone notion extended to bodily symptoms. In
contrast, relatively stable, task-specific characteristics did not differentiate between individu-
ally good and average situational performances. Future directions and practical implications
of the study are suggested.

One of the key factors in enhancing athletic achievement, especially in high-level sport, is
an accurate, task-relevant, and individual-oriented prediction of performance based on emo-
tional states (Annesi, 1998; Gould & Udry, 1994; Hanin, 1980, 1997; Hardy, Jones, & Gould,
1996). Such predictions may create a sound basis for the development of effective mental
training programs for the athlete and team. Unfortunately, most of the existing approaches em-
ploy nomothetic models that emphasize general principles of behavior derived from the study
of groups and thus are hardly applicable to individual athletes. Another limitation of these
group-oriented perspectives is their predominant focus on precompetition anxiety. Finally, a

Received 10 October 2002; accepted 1 April 2003.

The research was supported by a grant of Istituto Superiore di Educazione Fisica, Bologna, Italy. The
authors acknowledge Elena Brunello and Franco Campanati for their help in data collection. The authors
thank the editor, the section editor, and the two anonymous reviewers for their insightful comments and
suggestions in an earlier version of this paper.
Address correspondence to Claudio Robazza, Ph.D., Dipartimento di Scienze Mediche e Chirurgiche,
Polo 40 Semeiotica Medica, Via Ospedale Civile, 105, 35128 Padova, Italy. E-mail: c.robazza@tin.it

151
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152 C. ROBAZZA ET AL.

group-oriented approach may underestimate the phenomenology of performance-related expe-

riences reflecting an athlete’s perspective (Dale, 1996). Therefore, an idiographic (individual-
oriented) approach to the prediction of individual athletic performance holds promise, espe-
cially in the field setting of high-achievement sport.
Our exploratory study used the Individual Zones of Optimal Functioning (IZOF) model
(Hanin, 1997, 2000b, 2000c) as a conceptual framework and methodological tool to examine
the effectiveness of individual-oriented predictions of performance in highly skilled and ex-
perienced athletes. Space limitations preclude a detailed review of extant literature featuring
the IZOF model and relevant empirical research. Therefore, readers are referred to reviews
highlighting the application of the model to anxiety research (Jokela & Hanin, 1999; Raglin
& Hanin, 2000) and positive and negative emotions (Hanin, 1997, 2000b; Robazza, Bor-
toli, Zadro, & Nougier, 1998). Several constructive critiques of the approach are also available
(Cerin, Szabo, Hunt, & Williams, 2000; Gould & Tuffey, 1996; Kamata, Tenenbaum, & Hanin,
2002; Landers & Arent, 2001; Zaichkowski & Baltzell, 2001). The sections below provide a
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brief overview of selected aspects of the IZOF model bearing directly on the prediction of
athletic performance based on individualized emotion profiling.

THE IZOF MODEL

The IZOF model, developed in the naturalistic setting of elite sport, holds that emotion is a
component of the psychobiosocial state conceptualized as a situational, multimodal, and dy-
namic manifestation of total human functioning (Hanin, 1997, 2000b). Five basic dimensions
(form, content, intensity, time, and context) describe the individually optimal and dysfunctional
structure and dynamics of performance-related emotional experiences. Such descriptions first
identify selected multimodal idiosyncratic markers of emotional states related to success-
ful and poor performances. These markers then serve as individualized criteria to estimate
actual emotional states by repeated assessments during the season. Compelling empirical ev-
idence supporting the model provides several guidelines for predicting emotion-performance
relationships.

Identifying Optimal and Dysfunctional Emotional States

It is crucial for accurate predictions to realize that each athlete has not only individually
optimal emotional intensity (high, moderate, or low; Hanin, 1980) but also a specific con-
stellation (Hanin, 1993, 1997, 2000b) or a “recipe” (Gould & Udry, 1994) of optimal and
dysfunctional emotional content that is best described as athlete-generated markers. More-
over, idiosyncratic emotional content and intensity are different in practices and competitions
and vary across pre-, mid-, and post-event performances (Hanin & Stambulova, 2002; Syrjä,
Hanin, & Pesonen, 1995; Syrjä, Hanin, & Tarvonen, 1995). Our study focused on identifying
the idiosyncratic content of emotions, bodily responses, and task-specific characteristics as
performance predictors in precompetition situations. The other four components of the form
dimension (cognitive, motivational, behavioral, and communicative) were not examined in this
particular context.
Several individualized assessment procedures are proposed to qualitatively and quantita-
tively identify optimal and dysfunctional emotional states (see Hanin, 2003, for details). These
include semi-structured interviews (Orlick, 1986), self-report scales, individualized emotion
and performance profiling (Butler & Hardy, 1992; Hanin, 2000a), metaphor-generating meth-
ods (Hanin & Stambulova, 2002), and narratives (Sparkes & Silvennoinen, 1999). The present
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PRECOMPETITION STATES AND KARATE PERFORMANCE 153

study used an emotion profiling procedure to generate idiosyncratic markers of emotions,

bodily symptoms, and performance characteristics.

Prediction and Explanation of Emotion–Performance Relationships

The IZOF model makes several empirically supported and individual-oriented predictions
of emotion-performance relationships. First, there is a high degree of interindividual variability
in the content and intensity of idiosyncratic optimal and dysfunctional emotions accompany-
ing individually successful and poor performances. In other words, athletes would experience
different content and intensity of optimal and dysfunctional emotions, and what is optimal
for one athlete could be detrimental for another. Second, the impact of individually optimal
and dysfunctional emotions upon athletic performance is predicted by contrasting current (or
anticipatory) intensities of each emotion with previously established bandwidths (zones) of
intensity. Third, separate and interactive effects of emotions enhancing and impairing sporting
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activity should be considered. Specifically, a high probability of individually successful per-

formance is expected when combined maximum-enhancing and minimum-impairing effects
(in-zone condition) are observed. In contrast, a high probability of poor performance is pre-
dicted when low-enhancing and high-inhibitory effects (out-of-zone condition) occur (Hanin,
1997, 2000b; Kamata et al., 2002).
The in/out-of-zone notion in the prediction of performance has been successfully tested as
applied to uni-dimensional and two-dimensional measures of anxiety (see Jokela & Hanin,
1999, meta-analysis for a review). Several studies also examined the practical utility of the
in/out-of-zone notion applied to pleasant and unpleasant emotions in predicting performance
(see Hanin, 2000c, for a review; Robazza et al., 1998; Robazza, Bortoli, & Nougier, 2002; Syrjä,
Hanin, & Pesonen, 1995; Syrjä, Hanin, & Tarvonen, 1995). Our study attempted to extend the
direction of this research by examining the predictive power of idiosyncratic emotions as well
as bodily responses and task-specific characteristics.
The zone concept of the IZOF model applied to emotions reflects individual differences in the
athletes’ ability to efficiently recruit and utilize available resources. Therefore, the explanation
of the functional impact of emotions upon performance is based on the notion of resource
matching. Optimal pleasant and unpleasant emotions are related to the availability of resources
and their effective recruitment and utilization; they would produce energizing (enhanced effort)
and organizing (enhanced skill) effects. In contrast, dysfunctionally unpleasant and pleasant
emotions imply the lack of resources and their inefficient recruitment and utilization, which
would result in dis-energizing and dis-organizing effects upon performance. Similarly, emotion-
related bodily responses would involve effective (or ineffective) recruitment and utilization of
available resources, and serve as predictors of successful and less than successful performance.
In addition to emotions and bodily symptoms, performance characteristics important to succeed
in a selected sport were introduced in this study as a new parameter. These task-specific qualities
are supposed to reflect a total performance potential, that is, availability of individual resources
without implying recruitment or utilization processes.
In summary, the purpose of the present study was to examine the practical utility of the
in/out-of-zone notion as applied to the idiosyncratic intensity and content of emotions, bodily
symptoms, and task-specific characteristics to predict athletic performance. Based on previous
research findings, we hypothesized that high-level athletes would be able to recall and identify
their optimal and dysfunctional emotional states, bodily responses, and task-specific charac-
teristics related to successful and less than successful performances. Moreover, the content and
intensity of athletes’ significant experiences would be highly idiosyncratic and instrumental in
predicting successful and less successful performances across the competitive season.
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154 C. ROBAZZA ET AL.

Shotokan karate athletes were participants in this study. Karate, due to its short duration of
fighting (a single round lasts 90 seconds with an additional 90 seconds of fighting only in case
of a tie), was deemed especially appropriate to examine the functional impact of precompetition
states upon performance. Thus, emotions are supposed to remain relatively stable from pre- to
mid-event situations and this would enhance the predictive power of precompetiton states. For
instance, in the Terry and Slade (1995) study mood and anxiety measures 40 minutes prior to
a first-round fight discriminated well between winning and losing karate athletes. Thus, these
investigators concluded that karate performance appears exceptionally mood-dependent.

METHOD
Participants
Participants were ten elite, black-belt Shotokan karate competitors (karateka), eight males
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and two females, from northeast of Italy. They ranged in age from 17 to 27 years (M = 20.9 yr.,
SD = 4.3 yr.), practiced karate for eight to 18 years, and undertook at least four weekly practice
sessions of two hours each. At the time of the study, eight athletes were members of the Italian
national team and two candidates were expected to join the team. The athletes had extensive
experience in national and international competitions in which they obtained prominent results.
Five karateka won at least one Italian national competition in their careers and three of them
ranked among the top three in international events. Only experienced, high-level athletes were
chosen to take part in the investigation. Actually, our ten athletes represented almost all the
best Italian karate athletes available at the time of the study. Experience and competition
levels were supposed to affect the individual’s awareness of the content and functional effects
of precompetition emotions leading to reliable estimates. The purpose of the research was
explained to coaches and karateka at their practice sites. Informed consent was then obtained
from participants who decided to take part in the study and from the parents of a 17-year-old
athlete.

Measures
Task-Specific Characteristics
Three lists of descriptors were developed to help athletes select or generate their own
descriptors of sport-specific qualities needed to succeed in karate fighting (kumite). Three
black-belt, high-level instructors and an expert physical trainer practicing karate identified
the items of the stimulus lists in a brainstorming session. The procedure used to generate the
specific qualities was based on the performance profiling approach of Butler and colleagues
(Butler & Hardy, 1992; Butler, Smith, & Irwin, 1993). The specific question for discussion
was “What are the physical, technical, and tactical abilities an elite karateka needs to excel
in kumite?” After a three-hour session, the four experts identified a number of descriptors
regarding: (a) physical qualities (e.g., execution speed of kizami-tsuki, and execution strength
of mae-geri); (b) individual technical skills (specific actions) required to perform karate (e.g.,
gyaku-tsuki, and mawashi-geri giodan); and (c) individual tactical skills required to accomplish
attacking and defensive fighting strategies (e.g., attacking with kizami-tsuki, and anticipating
the opponent’s intentions with mae-geri). The three stimulus lists thus developed were then
presented to athletes asking them to identify the qualities deemed necessary to excel in karate
fighting.
Doyle and Parfitt (1996, 1997) examined the psychometric characteristics of performance
profiles in track and field athletes. These authors showed support for the predictive validity of
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PRECOMPETITION STATES AND KARATE PERFORMANCE 155

the profile after a period of familiarization with the assessment procedure. Areas of perceived
need emerging from the profiles enabled significant prediction of actual performance measures
as well as athletes’ and coaches’ perceptions of performance scores (Doyle & Parfitt, 1996).
Similarly, D’Urso, Petrosso, and Robazza (2002) provided evidence for performance differ-
entiation and discrimination of rugby players based on sport-specific descriptors. Doyle and
Parfitt (1997) again obtained support for the construct validity of the profile in track and field
athletes. Decreased profile areas of perceived need were congruent with increased performance
as athletes progressed from the preparation period to the competitive season.

Emotion and Bodily Descriptors

An idiographic emotion scaling in this study used two stimulus lists with positive and
negative emotional and bodily descriptors. The scaling was based on the emotion step-wise
method proposed by Hanin (1997, 2000a), in which athletes select personally relevant items or
generate their own descriptors of emotional experiences associated with their recalled best and
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worst preperformance states (see Procedure section). The emotion list contained 70 positive and
negative descriptors randomly arranged. Adjectives describing emotions used by Hanin and
Syrjä (1995a, 1995b; see also Hanin, 2000a) with athletes were translated into Italian. Four
Italian sport psychologists, who spoke English, were involved in translating the adjectives.
Two of them translated the words into Italian and the other two translated them back into
English. Translations were then checked with the help of a native speaker of English. In
developing equivalent forms of psychometric scales in different languages, several validation
procedures (blind back-translation, use of bilingual subjects, etc.) were employed. However, to
native speakers, literal translations often sounded strange, inappropriate, or even meaningless.
Therefore, in a few cases, when there was no exact equivalent in Italian, we relied on athletes’
spontaneous selection of descriptors, to make sure they captured their significant experiences.
The emotion stimulus list with translated adjectives has been employed in several studies
of Italian competitors drawn from different sports (e.g., Robazza, Bortoli, & Nougier, 1998,
2002; Robazza, Bortoli, Nocini, Moser, & Arslan, 2000). In a sample of skilled performers
(Robazza, Bortoli, & Nougier, 1998), the words “focused”, “motivated”, and “determined”
were among the most frequently selected facilitating-positive items, whereas “tense”, “wor-
ried”, and “aggressive” were among the most frequently selected facilitating-negative words.
“Unfocused”, “nervous”, and “unconfident” were often identified as inhibiting-negative items,
whereas “relaxed”, “cheerful”, and “secure” were among the most selected inhibiting-positive
ones.
The bodily symptoms list, containing 45 descriptors of pleasant and unpleasant bodily ex-
periences concomitant with performance emotions, was developed and applied in a sample of
referees and athletes (Bortoli & Robazza, 2002; Robazza & Bortoli, 2003). The most frequently
selected facilitating-positive descriptors were those indicating “relaxed muscles”, “regular
breathing”, and for movements, “vigorous”, “energetic”, and “smooth.” The most often identi-
fied facilitating-negative terms were those relating to “muscular tension”, “sweating”, “stomach
butterflies”, “stomach tension”, and “accelerated heart rate”. Inhibiting-negative terms were
ones of “physical exhaustion”, “loose legs”, “stiff movements”, “back pain”, and “headache”,
while inhibiting-positive ones were “relaxed muscles”, “slow movements”, “yawns”, “feeling
fresh”, (not “sweaty”), and “loose legs”.
Although reliability and validity might be a concern when using any measurement, id-
iographic assessment procedures have certain advantages over group-oriented standardized
tests. Specifically, idiographic assessments have high face and content validity; the content of
selected or self-generated descriptors is highly relevant and meaningful for the athletes; and fi-
nally, the words have important connotations with performance-related experiences. Therefore,
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156 C. ROBAZZA ET AL.

one should recognize that idiographic measurements offer a viable alternative in overcoming
some of the limitations of normative procedures. For example, several researchers contend that
the limited number of emotions usually assessed by the questionnaires may not adequately
tap into the individual’s competitive experience (Hanin & Syrjä, 1995a; Robazza et al., 2000).
Moreover, data about groups obtained by normative scales are often irrelevant to individual
athletes. In contrast, the reliability of idiosyncratic measures has been demonstrated. In a sam-
ple of high-level soccer players, Hanin and Syrjä (1996) reported a reliability of idiosyncratic
emotion scales. Mean intraindividual Cronbach alphas of the facilitating-positive, facilitating-
negative, inhibiting-positive, and inhibiting-negative emotion scales ranged from .54 to .90.
In addition, significant correspondence between recalled and actual scores, and between pre-
dicted and actual scores was found in 76.5% and in 70.6% of the players respectively, thus
providing evidence for the accuracy of recall and prediction in athletes. Robazza and Bortoli
(2003) found Cronbach alphas ranging from .78 to .86 on emotion scales, and from .74 to .85
on bodily scales.
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Borg Category Ratio (CR-10) Scale

In order to use the same scoring procedure for emotional, bodily, and sport-specific idio-
graphic descriptors, a modified Borg Category Ratio (CR-10) scale was adopted as proposed
by Hanin (2000a). The scale has been used in psychological studies of exercise capacity, exer-
tion, or pain (see Borg, 2001), and for investigation of emotional intensity (see Hanin, 2000a,
2000c). The verbal anchors of the scale, developed to avoid floor and ceiling effects, were 0 =
nothing at all, 0.5 = very, very little, 1 = very little, 2 = little, 3 = moderately, 5 = much,
7 = very much, 10 = very, very much, • = maximal possible (no verbal anchors were used
for 4, 6, 8 and 9). Single item scores may range from 0 to 11. The scale allows one to make
ratio comparisons on intensity ratings and to determine the magnitude of direct intensity. It can
be used for intraindividual, interindividual, and group contrasts (Borg, 2001). The responses
of 200 athletes who rated the intensity of their optimal, dysfunctional, and current emotional
states (for a total of 46,934 intensity scores), revealed adequate distribution of verbal anchors
along the intensity continuum (Tummavuori & Hanin, 2000).

Procedure
The objectives of the study were discussed with the athletes. Confidentiality regarding
individual information was assured, and it was made clear that participation in the study could
be discontinued at any time, should any disturbance in their performance be perceived. The
investigation was carried out in two stages involving both emotional and performance profiling,
and a repeated precompetition assessment.

Emotion and Performance Profiling

Athletes were met individually and provided with a form to help them develop and graph-
ically display their own multidimensional profile of their best and worst preperformance
states. Emphasis was placed on the benefits of the performance profiling procedure in help-
ing each athlete develop individualized self-regulation strategies. Participants were asked to
recall their best-ever competition, to describe how they felt prior to the first-round fight, and
to identify their most relevant descriptors using the stimulus lists. Specifically, athletes had
to choose three emotional descriptors and three bodily symptoms perceived as facilitating-
pleasant, and three emotional descriptors and three bodily symptoms perceived as facilitating-
unpleasant. Participants were asked to think about their worst-ever competition and describe
how they felt prior to their first-round fight, and then to identify inhibiting-unpleasant and
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PRECOMPETITION STATES AND KARATE PERFORMANCE 157

inhibiting-pleasant emotional and bodily descriptors. Twelve emotions and 12 bodily symp-
toms were thus selected. After that, athletes identified three physical, three technical, and three
tactical characteristics deemed necessary for high achievements.
A total individualized profile included 33 emotion, symptom, and task-specific items. Fi-
nally, athletes scored, on the modified Borg CR-10 scale, emotion, symptom, and task-specific
items referring to recalled best preperformance conditions, and then referring to recalled worst
preperformance states. Therefore, two intensity scores for each item reflected recalled best and
worst precompetition states.

Precompetition Assessment
Precompetition repeated assessments were conducted over the entire competitive season
collecting data for ten events. Participants were provided with a form for each competition
containing their individualized 33-item scales. They were requested to score each item on
the modified Borg CR-10 scale within the 15 minutes prior to the first-round fight with the
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“How do you feel right now?” instructions. Participants also evaluated their performance on the
CR-10 scale immediately after the end of the first-round fight. This retrospective evaluation was
restricted to the first event of a series of fights with the purpose of focusing on the link between
precompetition states and performance, and to control for the effects of other factors (i.e., event
duration and outcomes) that would moderate the predictive power of precompetition states. A
self-referenced performance assessment was deemed appropriate for the study purposes since
final results or jury decisions may not account for factors (such as the opponent’s ability) that
cannot be easily quantified (D’Urso et al., 2002; Gould, Tuffey, Hardy, & Lochbaum, 1993;
Terry, 1995).
In summary, emotions, bodily symptoms, and task-specific qualities related to best-ever and
worst-ever performances were identified and scored using a recall method. The 33-item indi-
vidualized scale resulting from this procedure was then used in repeated actual assessments that
involved (a) precompetition ratings of emotions, bodily symptoms, and task-specific qualities,
and (b) immediate post-performance self-rating of individual performance using the CR-10
scale.

RESULTS
Participants identified a total of 42 emotional descriptors, 39 bodily descriptors, 17 physical
qualities, 20 technical skills, and 14 tactical skills.1 All data of athletes across ten competitions
were examined. Scores of items with a same content category (facilitating-pleasant emotions,
facilitating-pleasant symptoms, etc.) were averaged, resulting in 11 variable raw data scores.
Three performance levels were established based on the athlete’s self-ratings on the Borg
CR-10 scale of current achievements across the competitive season. Performance scores of
100 events, for ten athletes with ten competitions each, were classified good (5–10 range),
average (3–4), or poor (0–2). Thirty-four competitions were good (M = 5.82, SD = 1.40), 57
average (M = 3.54, SD = 0.50), and nine poor (M = 1.39, SD = 0.78). Poor competition data
were excluded because of the small number, so that a total of 91 recorded observations were
analyzed to differentiate actual good and average performances.
Analysis was conducted on raw data and intraindividual data of the 11 content categories
using performance level (good and average) as an independent variable. The advantages of
intraindividual approaches, which were sensitive to within-subjects fluctuations, have been

1
Descriptive results of idiosyncratic profiles and ANOVA results of the interactive effects of emotions
and symptoms are available from the first author.
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158 C. ROBAZZA ET AL.

recognized and advocated by several authors. Intraindividual analyses were applied to examine
the anxiety-performance relationship in different sports, for example in basketball (Sonstroem
& Bernardo, 1982), pistol shooting (Gould, Petlichkoff, Simons & Vevera, 1987), and swim-
ming (Burton, 1988). Similarly, the value of using difference scores in the analysis was demon-
strated in studies testing the zone notion of the IZOF-emotion model (e.g., Prapavessis & Grove,
1991; Robazza, Bortoli, & Nougier, 2002; Robazza, Bortoli, Zadro, & Nougier, 1998; Syrjä,
Hanin, & Pesonen, 1995; Syrjä, Hanin, & Tarvonen, 1995).2
For all analyses, alpha level for main effects and follow-up was set at .05. A more stringent
alpha level, to avoid Type I errors, was not deemed necessary since planned comparisons were
based on a sound theoretical framework and the results of previous work. Cohen’s measure of
effect size (d) has also been reported for follow-up tests.

Raw Data Analysis

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Raw data analysis of emotions and bodily symptoms yielded significant results, Wilks’s
λ = .73, F(8, 82) = 3.70, p < .001, η2 = .27. Univariate ANOVA follow-up revealed significant
differences on facilitating-pleasant emotions, F(1, 89) = 15.07, p < .001, η2 = .14, d = 0.84,
facilitating-unpleasant emotions, F(1, 89) = 9.63, p < .003, η2 = .10, d = 0.67, inhibiting-
unpleasant emotions, F(1, 89) = 4.41, p < .04, η2 = .05, d = 0.45, and inhibiting-unpleasant
bodily symptoms, F(1, 89) = 6.83, p = .01, η2 = .07, d = 0.56. Mean raw scores of significant
variables characterizing good performance were higher compared to average performance,
whether items were facilitating or inhibiting (see Table 1, Raw Scores column). Thus it was
possible to differentiate between performances classified as good and average. MANOVA on
perceived quality descriptors did not reach significance.

Intraindividual Analysis Using the Direct Method

Actual best and worst performances were chosen for each athlete among the ten retrospec-
tively assessed to compute intraindividual scores with the direct method. Best performance
scores ranged 4 to 11 (M = 6.40, SD = 2.22), whereas worst performance scores ranged 0
to 3 (M = 2.00, SD = 1.05). Thereafter, two absolute difference scores for each dependent
variable (emotions, symptoms, and task-specific qualities) were computed, subtracting (a) the
score relating to actual best performance from the score relating to current assessments (91
observations, 34 good and 57 average achievements); and (b) the score relating to actual worst
performance from the score relating to current assessments (91 observations). Scores were
computed as absolute values because the focus of the IZOF model is on the magnitude rather
than the direction of difference scores.
MANOVA results on actual best minus current performance scores of emotional, bodily,
and perceived quality descriptors did not reach significance. In contrast, MANOVA results
on actual worst minus current performance scores of emotional and bodily descriptors were
significant, Wilks’s λ = .81, F(8, 82) = 2.45, p < .02, η2 = .19. Follow-up revealed significant
effects for facilitating-pleasant emotions, F(1, 89) = 14.17, p < .001, η2 = .14, d = 0.82, and
facilitating-pleasant symptoms, F(1, 89) = 5.02, p < .03, η2 = .05, d = 0.49. According to

2
It should be acknowledged that some limitations are associated with this approach. Edwards (1995),
for example, raised concerns on the use of difference scores as dependent variables. He ascribed the
major problems of difference scores to low reliability, conceptual ambiguity, confounding effects of
the independent variables on the components of the difference, and transformation of an inherently
multivariate model into a univariate model.
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PRECOMPETITION STATES AND KARATE PERFORMANCE 159

Table 1
Means and Standard Deviations of Dependent Variable Raw Scores and Intraindividual
Scores (Actual minus Current Performance Scores, and Recalled minus Current
Performance Scores) by Performance Level
Actual Actual Recalled Recalled
Raw Scores Best–Current Worst–Current Best–Current Worst–Current
Content categories and
performance level M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD

Facilitating pleasant emotions

Average performance 4.22 0.98 0.89 1.18 0.81 0.86 1.54 1.58 3.03 1.11
Good performance 5.27 1.61 1.00 1.53 1.68 1.34 1.87 1.67 4.13 2.02
Facilitating pleasant symptoms
Average performance 3.69 1.26 1.12 1.06 0.96 1.22 2.15 1.26 2.64 1.31
Good performance 3.94 1.31 0.94 1.46 1.61 1.52 1.69 1.53 2.92 1.40
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Facilitating unpleasant emotions

Average performance 2.75 1.68 0.87 0.95 0.97 1.21 1.54 1.53 1.64 1.46
Good performance 3.94 1.93 0.85 1.49 1.64 2.11 1.65 1.83 1.99 1.88
Facilitating unpleasant symptoms
Average performance 2.75 1.27 1.06 0.84 0.91 0.85 1.65 0.92 1.69 1.51
Good performance 3.25 1.34 0.86 0.86 0.93 0.82 1.25 1.01 2.69 2.47
Inhibiting unpleasant emotions
Average performance 2.19 0.99 0.62 0.49 0.73 0.62 1.41 0.92 2.65 2.66
Good performance 2.77 1.65 0.78 0.75 0.94 0.82 1.61 0.97 4.23 3.24
Inhibiting unpleasant symptoms
Average performance 2.31 1.22 0.90 0.81 0.86 0.90 2.06 1.58 2.22 1.77
Good performance 3.04 1.43 0.85 0.76 1.10 0.87 2.07 1.51 2.86 2.23
Inhibiting pleasant emotions
Average performance 2.48 1.08 0.67 0.59 0.75 0.73 1.39 0.90 1.31 0.84
Good performance 2.67 1.13 0.57 0.66 0.88 0.83 1.79 1.10 1.06 0.78
Inhibiting pleasant symptoms
Average performance 2.75 0.95 0.98 0.93 0.85 0.78 1.31 0.98 1.82 1.05
Good performance 3.07 0.95 0.93 0.98 0.95 0.85 1.25 1.08 1.86 1.35
Physical factors
Average performance 4.40 1.37 0.72 0.75 0.84 0.68 1.24 0.68 2.56 1.88
Good performance 4.81 1.67 0.85 1.29 1.12 1.10 1.23 0.93 2.75 2.31
Technical skills
Average performance 4.63 1.14 0.82 0.73 0.98 0.81 1.33 0.88 2.75 1.38
Good performance 4.97 1.38 1.00 1.15 1.32 1.15 1.48 1.36 2.78 1.65
Tactical skills
Average performance 4.27 1.49 0.94 0.87 0.90 0.84 1.54 1.14 2.37 1.42
Good Performance 4.74 1.83 1.01 1.33 0.99 1.29 1.60 1.22 2.29 1.56

predictions of the zone notion, item mean scores of good performance were larger than average
performance for both emotions and symptoms, that is, more distant from worst performance
(see Table 1, Actual Worst–Current column). Contrary to what was revealed in the raw scores
analysis, the differences between intraindividual scores on inhibiting items were not significant.
Moreover, no significant findings emerged on perceived quality descriptors.

Intraindividual Analysis Using the Recall Method

Besides the direct method, the recall method was used to compute intraindividual scores.
Two absolute difference scores for each dependent variable were again derived by subtracting (a)
the score relating to recalled best performance from the score relating to current assessments
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160 C. ROBAZZA ET AL.

(91 observations); and (b) the score relating to recalled worst performance from the score
relating to current assessments (91 observations).
MANOVA results on recalled best minus current performance scores of emotional, bodily,
and perceived quality descriptors were not significant; while MANOVA results on recalled worst
minus current performance scores of emotional and bodily descriptors reached significance,
Wilks’s λ = .82, F(8, 82) = 2.24, p < .04, η2 = .18. Follow-up revealed significant effects for
facilitating-pleasant emotions, F(1, 89) = 11.27, p < .002, η2 = .11, d = 0.73, facilitating-
unpleasant symptoms, F(1, 89) = 5.70, p < .02, η2 = .06, d = 0.52, and inhibiting-unpleasant
emotions, F(1, 89) = 6.33, p < .02, η2 = .07, d = 0.55. These findings paralleled those
obtained by intraindividual analysis using the direct method. Consistent with the zone principle
predictions, mean scores of significant variables (inhibiting items included) relating to good
performance were more distant from recalled dysfunctional states than average performance
(see Table 1, Recalled Worst–Current column). Here again, perceived quality descriptors did
not yield significant results.
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DISCUSSION
The main purpose of the study was to examine whether the in/out-of-zone notion of the
IZOF model could be applied to idiosyncratic emotions, bodily symptoms, and task-specific
characteristics in highly skilled karate athletes. Empirical findings reported in the extant lit-
erature provide empirical evidence for the validity and practical utility of the concept of zone
using idiosyncratic emotional descriptors (e.g., Robazza, Bortoli, & Nougier, 2002; Robazza,
Bortoli, Zadro, & Nougier, 1998; Syrjä, Hanin, & Pesonen, 1995; Syrjä, Hanin, & Tarvonen,
1995). However, idiosyncratic bodily symptoms were not included in IZOF-based investigative
protocols testing the zone notion. In this study, intraindividual analyses of bodily symptom
scores and emotional scores yielded performance differentiation in accordance with the in/out-
of-zone predictions.
Performance differentiation was also revealed on raw data of several variables (facilitating-
pleasant emotions, facilitating-unpleasant emotions, inhibiting-unpleasant emotions, and
inhibiting-unpleasant bodily symptoms). Compared to average performances, higher mean
scores of emotions and bodily symptoms were associated with good performances whether
the emotional states were facilitating or inhibiting. The beneficial effects of a high intensity
of facilitating emotional states were self-evident. In contrast, the findings of inhibiting items,
expected to be lower in the case of average performance, would appear atypical or difficult to
explain. Despite what was obtained with raw score analysis, intraindividual analysis revealed
that difference scores of inhibiting emotional states, derived by using the direct method, did not
reach significance. Furthermore, significant results were obtained using the recall method with
difference scores of inhibiting emotions in the expected direction. Specifically, mean scores
of inhibiting emotions relating to current good performance, compared to current average
performance, were more distant from recalled worst performance scores.
Overall findings revealed that good achievements were associated with precompetition emo-
tional states distant from dysfunctional (actual or recalled) individual zones, whether emotions
were facilitating or inhibiting. This is in line with the in/out-of-zone notion (Hanin, 1997,
2000c) and the findings obtained in several empirical studies (Robazza, Bortoli, & Nougier,
2002; Robazza, Bortoli, Zadro, & Nougier, 1998; Syrjä, Hanin, & Pesonen, 1995; Syrjä,
Hanin, & Tarvonen, 1995). Significant findings emerged contrasting intraindividual data re-
sulting from worst (actual or recalled) performance minus current performance scores. Results
were not significant in intraindividual data derived from best (actual or recalled) performance
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PRECOMPETITION STATES AND KARATE PERFORMANCE 161

minus current performance scores. The explanation may lie in the generally satisfying levels
of competitors’ achievements across events, which yielded difference scores of worst minus
current performance data larger than best minus current performance data.
Contrary to what was found for emotions and bodily symptoms, task-specific character-
istics did not differentiate between karate performances on raw data or intraindividual data,
apparently because analysis excluded poor competition scores. Our results were in agreement
with previous research which showed that tactical skill constructs did not differentiate best
and intermediate performances of rugby players (D’Urso et al., 2002). In particular, tactical
skill raw scores of the best and intermediate games were not different, although both were
significantly higher than scores of the worst games. A possible explanation may be related to
the features of a situational sport such as karate fighting. For example, a karateka may score
highly on personal construct items prior to a contest as a consequence of a satisfying physical
and technical preparation. However, the superiority of an opponent or other uncontrollable
factors (e.g., referee’s evaluation) are likely to bias the immediate post-performance retro-
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spective assessment. As a result, an objectively good level of fighting performance may be

retrospectively self-rated as less than satisfactory or average. This may moderate the predictive
power of precompetition perceived qualities in differentiating self-evaluated good and average
accomplishments.
A different reason may explain the lack of differentiation between good and average per-
formances on perceived task-specific quality scores. The assessment procedures to establish
optimal/non-optimal zones of descriptor intensities probably provided a “rough” estimation
of the zones. In the direct method, just two competitions, the best and the worst, were taken
as reference points to contrast current assessments. In the recall method, current assessments
were compared to recalled best and worst precompetition conditions established with the ath-
lete. Perceptions of individuals’ optimal/non-optimal conditions to perform are supposed to
change across a competitive season according to physical and technical changes. Moreover,
even experienced athletes may need some time to develop awareness of factors leading to
success and failure. Time is also necessary for athletes to become familiar with the assessment
procedures, and then provide accurate and valid evaluations. Reliable and sensitive profiles are
expected to develop over time through repeated assessments and refinements (Doyle & Parfitt,
1996; Hanin, 2000a). Therefore, researchers and practitioners are advised to monitor sport-
specific characteristics and emotional states after a phase of development and improvement of
idiosyncratic measures.
Performance differentiation obtained for emotion and symptom scores can be interpreted
within the framework of the IZOF model. Precompetition emotions and bodily symptoms
are components of the psychobiosocial state; they are associated with dynamic processes
of situational recruitment and utilization of available individual resources. Emotional states
are dynamic and may fluctuate widely from pre-, mid-, to post-event (D’Urso et al., 2002;
Hanin & Stambulova, 2002; Syrjä, Hanin, & Pesonen, 1995; Syrjä, Hanin, & Tarvonen, 1995).
In contrast, sport-specific characteristics (i.e., qualities, abilities, or capacities) are trait-like,
relatively stable factors reflecting the important developmental potential of the athletes and
the availability of resources. Although they are needed to excel in a particular sport, these
characteristics reflect more on an athlete’s general potential than how this potential is used
via the processes of energy production (enhancing effort) and energy utilization (organizing
behavior). Therefore, highly developed sport-specific qualities do not necessarily guarantee
successful performance in either one or many competitions. That is why optimal emotional
states can sometimes compensate for the lack of outstanding resources by providing energy for
skillful performance or decision-making processes. By their very nature, trait-like factors are
important from a long-term developmental perspective, but are expected to be less sensitive
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162 C. ROBAZZA ET AL.

than dynamic situational factors in the prediction of an individual performance. The present
findings lend initial empirical support for this contention.
More research is needed to test the feasibility of combining dynamic-states assessments
with dispositional performance measures and to improve the predictive validity of such assess-
ments. Therefore, the preliminary findings in this study should be interpreted with caution.
The relatively small size of the sample was not an issue in our study, which focused on in-
traindividual aspects of emotional and bodily experiences as related to successful and less than
successful performances of almost all available top-level Italian karate athletes. However, fu-
ture research should include a larger number of participants and be conducted across different
sports to enable the researcher to make safer generalizations. Qualitatively oriented studies
are also recommended (Hanin, 2003). In addition, there is a need to explore the interaction of
other components of the psychobiosocial state and their contribution in describing, explain-
ing, and predicting the athletic experience and sport achievements. Research within the IZOF
psychobiosocial framework should be conducted in a holistic perspective by integrating emo-
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tional, bodily, and motivational components, as well as sport-specific performance variables.

This would result in a multidimensional picture best representing the single effects of each
component and their total functional/dysfunctional impact.

Practical Implications
The development of idiosyncratic multidimensional profiles has merits for several applied
purposes. Individualized profiles are beneficial in helping athletes enhance their awareness
of functionally optimal and dysfunctional states, identify specific goals for improvement, in-
crease commitment in attaining these goals, monitor performance dynamics during contests,
and facilitate post-performance analyses (Butler & Hardy, 1992; Butler et al., 1993; Jones,
1993; Hanin, 2000c; Weinberg & Williams, 2001). From an applied perspective, the present
findings also indicate that coaches, athletes, and sport psychologists should realize that bodily
experiences are not limited to negative symptoms, such as those that may be associated with
precompetition anxiety. Bodily signals could be pleasant or unpleasant and functionally opti-
mal or dysfunctional. Athletes should learn to “read” these idiosyncratic signals well enough
to be able to control their emotional states.
Based on idiosyncratic emotional and bodily symptom descriptors, a coach can individual-
ize practices and enhance the quality of preparation of an athlete and/or team for competition.
The present findings also suggest that coaches’ predominant focus on physical, technical, and
tactical aspects of performance may not always be sufficient in helping athletes achieve a con-
sistently successful performance. In other words, the athlete and coach should emphasize not
only the development of sports-specific qualities but also their effective recruitment, utiliza-
tion, and recovery. This becomes possible by improving the awareness of athletes’ optimal and
dysfunctional emotional states prior to, during, and after competition. In the D’Urso et al.’s
(2002) investigation, some interviewed rugby players acknowledged spontaneously the advan-
tages of performance profiling in enhancing their awareness and achievement motivation. In
following suggestions derived from the IZOF model, one’s awareness of the functional impact
of dynamic situational factors, achieved by emotional profiling and repeated assessments, is
the first step in the self-regulation of emotional states. Once this awareness is attained, the ath-
lete can be helped to develop and implement self-regulation procedures to reach individually
optimal states. The same concept can be extended to sport-specific qualities in a long-term
developmental perspective. For example, the coach can assist an athlete who for some rea-
son is far from optimal technical or physical condition, in establishing adequate performance
goals and in planning proper training sessions. According to Dale and Wrisberg (1996), a
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PRECOMPETITION STATES AND KARATE PERFORMANCE 163

performance profiling technique can be particularly useful in creating an open atmosphere for
communication in which the coach and athlete have an opportunity to identify and discuss
areas in need of improvement, and design strategies to address weaknesses. Coach and athlete
can evaluate progress periodically by rating, recording, and displaying graphically the level of
the strength/weakness descriptors. In this way they can estimate goal-attainment levels, assess
the efficacy of training regimens, and adjust goals and strategies.
From the perspective of the applied sport psychologist, preliminary evidence for the ad-
vantages of IZOF-based multimodal interventions has been provided in two intervention stud-
ies. The first study involved two skilled tennis players in the treatment of multidimensional
anxiety (Annesi, 1998). In a second study, adopting a multiple single-subject design, the
psychological treatment was extended to target emotional and bodily symptom modalities
(Robazza, Pellizzari, & Hanin, in press). A multimodal self-regulation intervention was ap-
plied to experienced hockey players and gymnasts across a competitive season to help them
consistently reach their optimal zones and thus attain performance benefits. Essentially, the
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treatment was intended to enable athletes to improve their awareness of how different contents
and intensities of precompetition emotions and bodily symptoms exert facilitating or inhibiting
effects. Later, self-regulating procedures were systematically applied to recover and modulate
the intensity of optimal precompetition emotions and bodily symptoms. Study findings pro-
vided support for the beneficial effects of multimodal self-regulation strategies to optimize
precompetitive states and improve competitive achievements. Though preliminary, these re-
sults support the contention that mental training should address all the different modalities
(i.e., cognitive, emotional, motivational, bodily, behavioral, operational, and communicative)
matching them to the individual’s needs for improvement. To develop the most effective in-
tervention strategies, future research should explore additional target areas (e.g., cognitive,
motivational, behavioral, and communicative) incorporated in the recent developments of the
IZOF-psychobiosocial model.

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