PROBLEM 1.

9
KNOWN: Width, height, thickness and thermal conductivity of a single pane window and
the air space of a double pane window. Representative winter surface temperatures of single
pane and air space.
FIND: Heat loss through single and double pane windows.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction through glass or air, (2) Steady-state

conditions, (3) Enclosed air of double pane window is stagnant (negligible buoyancy induced
motion).
ANALYSIS: From Fourier’s law, the heat losses are

Single Pane:
T −T
qg = k g A 1 2 = 1.4 W/m ⋅ K 2m2
L ( )
35 oC
0.005m
= 19, 600 W <

T −T
Double Pane: qa = k a A 1 2 = 0.024 2m 2
L ( )
25 oC
0.010 m
= 120 W <
COMMENTS: Losses associated with a single pane are unacceptable and would remain
excessive, even if the thickness of the glass were doubled to match that of the air space. The
principal advantage of the double pane construction resides with the low thermal conductivity
of air (~ 60 times smaller than that of glass). For a fixed ambient outside air temperature, use
of the double pane construction would also increase the surface temperature of the glass
exposed to the room (inside) air.
 PROBLEM 1.28
KNOWN: Length, diameter, surface temperature and emissivity of steam line. Temperature
and convection coefficient associated with ambient air. Efficiency and fuel cost for gas fired
furnace.
FIND: (a) Rate of heat loss, (b) Annual cost of heat loss.
SCHEMATIC:

= 0.8

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steam line operates continuously throughout year, (2) Net radiation
transfer is between small surface (steam line) and large enclosure (plant walls).
ANALYSIS: (a) From Eqs. (1.3a) and (1.7), the heat loss is

⎣ ( )
q = q conv + q rad = A ⎡ h ( Ts − T∞ ) + εσ Ts4 − Tsur
4 ⎤
⎦

where A = π DL = π ( 0.1m × 25m ) = 7.85m 2 .

Hence,

( )
q = 7.85m 2 ⎡10 W/m 2 ⋅ K (150 − 25 ) K + 0.8 × 5.67 × 10−8 W/m 2 ⋅ K 4 4234 − 2984 K 4 ⎤
⎣ ⎦

q = 7.85m 2 (1, 250 + 1,095 ) W/m 2 = ( 9813 + 8592 ) W = 18, 405 W <
(b) The annual energy loss is
E = qt = 18, 405 W × 3600 s/h × 24h/d × 365 d/y = 5.80 × 1011 J

With a furnace energy consumption of E f = E/ηf = 6.45 × 1011 J, the annual cost of the loss is

C = Cg Ef = 0.02 $/MJ × 6.45 × 105 MJ = $12,900 <

COMMENTS: The heat loss and related costs are unacceptable and should be reduced by
insulating the steam line.
 PROBLEM 1.67
KNOWN: Dimensions, emissivity, and solar absorptivity of solar photovoltaic panel. Solar
irradiation, air and surroundings temperature, and convection coefficient. Expression for conversion
efficiency.
FIND: Electrical power output on (a) a still summer day, and (b) a breezy winter day.
SCHEMATIC:
T∞ = 35°C or -15°C
h = 10 W/m2·K or 30 W/m2·K
GS = 700 W/m2
Tsur = 35°C or -15°C
ε = 0.90

αS = 0.83

P Photovoltaic panel, Tp

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) Lower surface of solar panel is insulated, (3)
Radiation from the environment can be treated as radiation from large surroundings, with α = ε.

ANALYSIS: Recognize that there is conversion from thermal to electrical energy, therefore there is a
negative generation term equal to the electrical power. Performing an energy balance on the solar
panel gives
E& in − E& out + E& g = 0
qrad − qconv − P = 0
⎡⎣α S GS − εσ (Ts4 − Tsur4 ) ⎤⎦ A − hA(Ts − T∞ ) − ηα S GS A = 0
Dividing by A, and substituting the expression for η as a function of Tp yields
⎡⎣α S GS − εσ (Tp4 − Tsur4 ) ⎤⎦ − h (Tp − T∞ ) − (0.553 − 0.001Tp )α S GS = 0

(a) Substituting the parameter values for a summer day:

0.83 × 700 W/m 2 − 0.90 × 5.67 × 10 −8 W/m 2 ⋅ K 4 (Tp4 − (308 K) 4 ) − 10 W/m 2 ⋅ K (Tp − 308 K)
−(0.553 − 0.001Tp ) × 0.83 × 700 W/m 2 = 0
3799 W/m 2 − 5.1 × 10−8 W/m 2 ⋅ K 4Tp4 − 9.42 W/m 2 ⋅ K T p = 0

Solving this equation for Tp using IHT or other software results in Tp = 335 K. The electrical power
can then be found from
P = ηα S GS A = (0.553 − 0.001Tp )α S GS A
= (0.553 − 0.001 K -1 × 335 K) × 0.83 × 700 W/m 2 × 8 m 2 = 1010 W <
(b) Repeating the calculation for the winter conditions yields Tp = 270 K, P = 1310 W. <
COMMENTS: (1) The conversion efficiency for most photovoltaic materials is higher at lower
temperatures. Therefore, for the same solar irradiation, more electrical power is generated in winter
conditions. (2) The total solar energy generated would generally be less in the winter due to lower
irradiation values and a shorter day.
 PROBLEM 2.30
KNOWN: Temperature distribution in a one-dimensional wall with prescribed thickness and thermal
conductivity.
FIND: (a) The heat generation rate, q& , in the wall, (b) Heat fluxes at the wall faces and relation to q& .
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) One-dimensional heat flow, (3) Constant
properties.
ANALYSIS: (a) The appropriate form of the heat equation for steady-state, one-dimensional
conditions with constant properties is Eq. 2.21 re-written as
d ⎡ dT ⎤
&
q=-k
dx ⎢⎣ dx ⎥⎦
Substituting the prescribed temperature distribution,
&
q=-k
d ⎡d
⎢
dx ⎣ dx ( ⎤
⎦
d
dx
)
a+bx 2 ⎥ = −k [ 2bx ] = −2bk

&
q=-2 ( )
-2000oC/m 2 × 50 W/m ⋅ K=2.0 ×105 W/m3. <
(b) The heat fluxes at the wall faces can be evaluated from Fourier’s law,
dT ⎤
q′′x ( x ) = −k .
dx ⎥⎦ x
Using the temperature distribution T(x) to evaluate the gradient, find
d ⎡
q′′x ( x ) = −k a+bx 2 ⎤⎥ = −2kbx.
⎣⎢
dx ⎦
The fluxes at x = 0 and x = L are then

q′′x ( 0 ) = 0 <
(
q′′x ( L ) = −2kbL=-2 × 50W/m ⋅ K -2000oC/m 2 × 0.050m )
q′′x ( L ) = 10, 000 W/m 2 . <
COMMENTS: From an overall energy balance on the wall, it follows that, for a unit area,
E& in − E& out + E& g = 0 q′′x ( 0 ) − q′′x ( L ) + qL=0
&
q′′ ( L ) − q′′x ( 0 ) 10, 000 W/m − 0 2
& x
q= = = 2.0 × 105 W/m3.
L 0.050m
 PROBLEM 2.33
KNOWN: Transient temperature distributions in a plane wall.
FIND: Appropriate forms of heat equation, initial condition, and boundary conditions.
SCHEMATIC:
t t=0

t=0 t

x L x L
(a) (b)

t t

t=0 t=0

x L x L
(c) (d)

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction, (2) Constant properties, (3) Negligible radiation.
ANALYSIS: The general form of the heat equation in Cartesian coordinates for constant k is
Equation 2.21. For one-dimensional conduction it reduces to

 2T q 1 T
 
x 2 k  t

At steady state this becomes

d 2T q
 0
dx 2 k

If there is no thermal energy generation the steady-state temperature distribution is linear (or could be
constant). If there is uniform thermal energy generation the steady-state temperature distribution must
be parabolic.

Continued…
 PROBLEM 2.33 (Cont.)

In case (a), the steady-state temperature distribution is constant, therefore there must not be any
thermal energy generation. The heat equation is

 2T 1 T
 <
x 2  t

The initial temperature is uniform throughout the solid, thus the initial condition is

T ( x, 0)  Ti <
At x = 0, the slope of the temperature distribution is zero at all times, therefore the heat flux is zero
(insulated condition). The boundary condition is

T
0 <
x x0

At x = L, the temperature is the same for all t > 0. Therefore the surface temperature is constant:

T ( L, t )  Ts <
For case (b), the steady-state temperature distribution is not linear and appears to be parabolic,
therefore there is thermal energy generation. The heat equation is

 2T q 1 T
  <
x 2 k  t

The initial temperature is uniform, the temperature gradient at x = 0 is zero, and the temperature at x =
L is equal to the initial temperature for all t > 0, therefore the initial and boundary conditions are

T
T ( x, 0)  Ti ,  0, T ( L, t )  Ti <
x x 0

With the left side insulated and the right side maintained at the initial temperature, the cause of the
decreasing temperature must be a negative value of thermal energy generation.

In case (c), the steady-state temperature distribution is constant, therefore there is no thermal energy
generation. The heat equation is

 2T 1 T
 <
x 2  t

Continued…
 PROBLEM 2.33 (Cont.)

The initial temperature is uniform throughout the solid. At x = 0, the slope of the temperature
distribution is zero at all times. Therefore the initial condition and boundary condition at x = 0 are

T
T ( x, 0)  Ti , 0 <
x x 0

At x = L, neither the temperature nor the temperature gradient are constant for all time. Instead, the
temperature gradient is decreasing with time as the temperature approaches the steady-state
temperature. This corresponds to a convection heat transfer boundary condition. As the surface
temperature approaches the fluid temperature, the heat flux at the surface decreases. The boundary
condition is:

T
k  h T ( L, t )  T  <
x xL

The fluid temperature, T∞, must be higher than the initial solid temperature to cause the solid
temperature to increase.

For case (d), the steady-state temperature distribution is not linear and appears to be parabolic,
therefore there is thermal energy generation. The heat equation is

 2T q 1 T
  <
x 2 k  t

Since the temperature is increasing with time and it is not due to heat conduction due to a high surface
temperature, the energy generation must be positive.

The initial temperature is uniform and the temperature gradient at x = 0 is zero. The boundary
condition at x = L is convection. The temperature gradient and heat flux at the surface are increasing
with time as the thermal energy generation causes the temperature to rise further and further above the
fluid temperature. The initial and boundary conditions are:

T T
T ( x, 0)  Ti ,  0, k  h T ( L, t )  T  <
x x0 x xL

COMMENTS: 1. You will learn to solve for the temperature distribution in transient conduction in
Chapter 5. 2. Case (b) might correspond to a situation involving a spatially-uniform endothermic
chemical reaction. Such situations, although they can occur, are not common.
 PROBLEM 2.42
KNOWN: Coal pile of prescribed depth experiencing uniform volumetric generation with
convection, absorbed irradiation and emission on its upper surface.
FIND: (a) The appropriate form of the heat diffusion equation (HDE) and whether the prescribed
temperature distribution satisfies this HDE; conditions at the bottom of the pile, x = 0; sketch of the
temperature distribution with labeling of key features; (b) Expression for the conduction heat rate at
the location x = L; expression for the surface temperature Ts based upon a surface energy balance at x
= L; evaluate Ts and T(0) for the prescribed conditions; (c) Based upon typical daily averages for GS
and h, compute and plot Ts and T(0) for (1) h = 5 W/m2⋅K with 50 ≤ GS ≤ 500 W/m2, (2) GS = 400
W/m2 with 5 ≤ h ≤ 50 W/m2⋅K.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction, (2) Uniform volumetric heat generation, (3)
Constant properties, (4) Negligible irradiation from the surroundings, and (5) Steady-state conditions.
PROPERTIES: Table A.3, Coal (300K): k = 0.26 W/m.K
ANALYSIS: (a) For one-dimensional, steady-state conduction with uniform volumetric heat
generation and constant properties the heat diffusion equation (HDE) follows from Eq. 2.22,
d ⎛ dT ⎞ q&
⎜ ⎟+ = 0
dx ⎝ dx ⎠ k
(1) <
Substituting the temperature distribution into the HDE, Eq. (1),
& 2 ⎛ x2 ⎞
qL d ⎡ qL & 2⎛ 2x ⎞ ⎤ q&
T ( x ) = Ts + ⎜1 − ⎟ ⎢0 + ⎜ 0− ⎥ + ? = ?0
2⎟
(2,3)
⎜ 2k 2⎟ dx ⎢ 2k ⎝ L ⎠ ⎥⎦ k
⎝ L ⎠ ⎣
we find that it does indeed satisfy the HDE for all values of x. <
From Eq. (2), note that the temperature distribution must be quadratic, with maximum value at x = 0.
At x = 0, the heat flux is

dT ⎞ ⎡ qL & 2⎛ 2x ⎞ ⎤
q′′x ( 0 ) = − k ⎟ = − k ⎢ 0 + ⎜ 0 − ⎟⎥ =0
dx ⎠ x = 0 ⎢⎣ 2k ⎝ L2 ⎠ ⎥⎦ x = 0

so that the gradient at x = 0 is zero. Hence, the

bottom is insulated.

(b) From an overall energy balance on the pile, the conduction heat flux at the surface must be

q′′x ( L ) = E& ′′g = qL

& <
Continued...
 PROBLEM 2.42 (Cont.)
From a surface energy balance per unit area shown in the schematic above,
E& in − E& out + E& g = 0 q′′x ( L ) − q′′conv + GS,abs − E = 0

& − h ( Ts − T∞ ) + 0.95GS − εσ Ts4 = 0

qL (4)

−8
20 W m ×1m − 5 W m ⋅K ( Ts − 298 K ) + 0.95 × 400 W m − 0.95 × 5.67 × 10
3 2 2 2 4 4
W m ⋅K Ts = 0

Ts = 295.7 K =22.7°C <

From Eq. (2) with x = 0, find

20 W m3 × (1m )
2
& 2
qL
T ( 0 ) = Ts + = 22.7o C + = 61.1o C (5) <
2k 2 × 0.26 W m ⋅ K
where the thermal conductivity for coal was obtained from Table A.3.
(c) Two plots are generated using Eq. (4) and (5) for Ts and T(0), respectively; (1) with h = 5 W/m2⋅K
for 50 ≤ GS ≤ 500 W/m2 and (2) with GS = 400 W/m2 for 5 ≤ h ≤ 50 W/m2⋅K.

Solar irradiation, GS = 400 W/m^2

Convection coefficient, h = 5 W/m^2.K 80

80
Temperature, Ts or T(0) (C)

60
Temperature, Ts or T(0) (C)

60

40
40

20

20
0
0 10 20 30 40 50

Convection coefficient, h (W/m^2.K)

-20
0 100 200 300 400 500 T0_C
Ts_C
Solar irradiation, GS (W/m^2)

T0_C
Ts_C

From the T vs. h plot with GS = 400 W/m2, note that the convection coefficient does not have a major
influence on the surface or bottom coal pile temperatures. From the T vs. GS plot with h = 5 W/m2⋅K,
note that the solar irradiation has a very significant effect on the temperatures. The fact that Ts is less
than the ambient air temperature, T∞ , and, in the case of very low values of GS, below freezing, is a
consequence of the large magnitude of the emissive power E.
COMMENTS: In our analysis we ignored irradiation from the sky, an environmental radiation effect
4 where T = -
you’ll consider in Chapter 12. Treated as large isothermal surroundings, Gsky = σ Tsky sky

30°C for very clear conditions and nearly air temperature for cloudy conditions. For low GS
conditions we should consider Gsky, the effect of which will be to predict higher values for T s and
T(0).
 PROBLEM 3.4
KNOWN: Desired inner surface temperature of rear window with prescribed inside and outside air
conditions.
FIND: (a) Heater power per unit area required to maintain the desired temperature, and (b) Compute and
plot the electrical power requirement as a function of T∞,o for the range -30 ≤ T∞,o ≤ 0°C with ho of 2,
20, 65 and 100 W/m2⋅K. Comment on heater operation needs for low ho. If h ~ Vn, where V is the
vehicle speed and n is a positive exponent, how does the vehicle speed affect the need for heater
operation?
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) One-dimensional heat transfer, (3) Uniform heater
flux, q′′h , (4) Constant properties, (5) Negligible radiation effects, (6) Negligible film resistance.
PROPERTIES: Table A-3, Glass (300 K): k = 1.4 W/m⋅K.
ANALYSIS: (a) From an energy balance at the inner surface and the thermal circuit, it follows that for a
unit surface area,
T∞ ,i − Ts,i Ts,i − T∞ ,o Ts,i − T∞ ,o T∞ ,i − Ts,i
+ q ′′h = and that q ′′h = −
1 hi L k + 1 ho L k + 1 ho 1 hi

q ′′h =
o
(
15 C − −10 C
o
) -
o
25 C-15 C
o
= (1370 − 100 ) W m = 1270 W m
2 2
<
0.004 m 1 1
+
1.4 W m ⋅ K 65 W m ⋅ K 10 W m ⋅ K
2 2

(b) The heater electrical power requirement as a function of the exterior air temperature for different
exterior convection coefficients is shown in the plot. When ho = 2 W/m2⋅K, the heater is unecessary,
since the glass is maintained at 15°C by the interior air. If h ~ Vn, we conclude that, with higher vehicle
speeds, the exterior convection will increase, requiring increased heat power to maintain the 15°C
condition.
3500

3000
Heater power (W/m^2)

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0
-30 -20 -10 0

Exterior air temperature, Tinfo (C)

h = 20 W/m^2.K
h = 65 W/m^2.K
h = 100 W/m^2.K

COMMENTS: With q ′′h = 0, the inner surface temperature with T∞,o = -10°C would be given by
T∞ ,i − Ts,i
T∞ ,i − T∞ ,o
=
1 hi
=
0.10
1 h i + L k + 1 h o 0.118
= 0.846, or o
( )
o o
Ts,i = 25 C − 0.846 35 C = − 4.6 C .
 PROBLEM 3.24
KNOWN: Representative dimensions and thermal conductivities for the layers of fire-fighter’s
protective clothing, a turnout coat.
FIND: (a) Thermal circuit representing the turnout coat; tabulate thermal resistances of the layers
and processes; and (b) For a prescribed radiant heat flux on the fire-side surface and temperature of
Ti = 60C at the inner surface, calculate the fire-side surface temperature, To.
SCHEMATIC:

Shell Moisture barrier Thermal liner

Fire To Ti = 66oC
a b c d
(s) mb (tl)
air air
gap gap Firefighter
qrad = 0.25 W/cm2

Li (mm) 0.8 1.0 0.55 1.0 3.5

ki (W/m-K) 0.047 0.012 0.038

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) One-dimensional conduction through the layers,
(3) Heat is transferred by conduction and radiation exchange across the stagnant air gaps, (3) Constant
properties.

PROPERTIES: Table A-4, Air (470 K, 1 atm): kab = kcd = 0.0387 W/mK.
ANALYSIS: (a) The thermal circuit is shown with labels for the temperatures and thermal
resistances.

R”air,ab R”air,cd

To Ta Tb Tc Td Ti

qrad
R”s R”mb R”tl

R”rad,ab R”rad,cd

The conduction thermal resistances have the form R cd  L / k while the radiation thermal
resistances across the air gaps have the form
1 1
R rad  
h rad 3
4 Tavg

The linearized radiation coefficient follows from Eqs. 1.8 and 1.9 with  = 1 where Tavg represents
the average temperature of the surfaces comprising the gap


h rad    T1  T2  T12  T22  4 Tavg
3

For the radiation thermal resistances tabulated below, we used Tavg = 470 K.

Continued …
 PROBLEM 3.24 (Cont.)

Shell Air gap Barrier Air gap Liner Total

(s) (a-b) (mb) (c-d) (tl) (tot)

 2
R cd m  K / W  0.01702 0.0222 0.04583 0.0222 0.0921 --

R rad  m  K / W  --
2
0.04246 -- 0.04246 -- --

R gap  m  K / W  --
2
0.0146 -- 0.0146 -- --
R total -- -- -- -- -- 0.1842

From the thermal circuit, the resistance across the gap for the conduction and radiation processes is
1 1 1
 
R gap R cd R rad
and the total thermal resistance of the turn coat is
R tot  R cd,s  R gap,a  b  R cd,mb  R gap,c d  R cd,tl
2
(b) If the heat flux through the coat is 0.25 W/cm , the fire-side surface temperature To can be
calculated from the rate equation written in terms of the overall thermal resistance.
q   To  Ti  / R tot

 
2
To  66C  0.25 W / cm2  102 cm / m  0.1842 m2  K / W

To  526C <
COMMENTS: (1) From the tabulated results, note that the thermal resistance of the moisture barrier
(mb) is nearly 3 times larger than that for the shell or air gap layers. The thermal liner has the greatest
thermal resistance. (2) The air gap conduction and radiation resistances were calculated based upon
the average temperature of 570 K. This value was determined by setting Tavg = (To + Ti)/2 and
solving the equation set using IHT with kair = kair (Tavg).
 PROBLEM 3.33
KNOWN: Dimensions, thermal conductivity and emissivity of base plate. Temperature and
convection coefficient of adjoining air. Temperature of surroundings. Maximum allowable
temperature of transistor case. Case-plate interface conditions.
FIND: (a) Maximum allowable power dissipation for an air-filled interface, (b) Effect of convection
coefficient on maximum allowable power dissipation.
SCHEMATIC:

qrad Tsur = 298 K

< qcnv
q
Pelec Ts,p,  = 0.90
Air
Ac = 2x10 -4 m 2, R t,c Too = 298 K
h = 4 W/m2-K
L = 0.006 m W = 0.02 m

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state, (2) Negligible heat transfer from the enclosure, to the
surroundings. (3) One-dimensional conduction in the base plate, (4) Radiation exchange at surface of
base plate is with large surroundings, (5) Constant thermal conductivity.

5 2
PROPERTIES: Aluminum-aluminum interface, air-filled, 10 m roughness, 10 N/m contact
pressure (Table 3.1): R t,c  2.75  104 m 2  K / W.

ANALYSIS: (a) With all of the heat dissipation transferred through the base plate,

Ts,c  T
Pelec  q  (1)
R tot

1
where R tot  R t,c  R cnd  1/ R cnv   1/ R rad  

R t,c L 1  1 
R tot      (2)
Ac kW 2 W2  h  hr 

   Ts,p sur 
and h r   Ts,p  Tsur 2  T2 (3)

To obtain Ts,p, the following energy balance must be performed on the plate surface,
Ts,c  Ts,p
q
R t,c  R cnd
  
 q cnv  q rad  hW 2 Ts,p  T  h r W 2 Ts,p  Tsur  (4)

-4 2 -4 2 -4 2
With Rt,c = 2.75  10 m K/W/210 m = 1.375 K/W, Rcnd = 0.006 m/(240 W/mK  4  10 m )
= 0.0625 K/W, and the prescribed values of h, W, T = Tsur and , Eq. (4) yields a surface
temperature of Ts,p = 357.6 K = 84.6C and a power dissipation of

Continued …
 PROBLEM 3.33 (Cont.)

Pelec  q  0.268 W <

The convection and radiation resistances are Rcnv = 625 K/W and Rrad = 345 K/W, where hr = 7.25
2
W/m K.

(b) With the major contribution to the total resistance made by convection, significant benefit may be
derived by increasing the value of h.

4.5
4
Power dissipation, Pelec (W)

3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Convection coefficient, h (W/m ^2.K)

2
For h = 200 W/m K, Rcnv = 12.5 K/W and Ts,p = 351.6 K, yielding Rrad = 355 K/W. The effect of
radiation is then negligible.
2
COMMENTS: (1) The plate conduction resistance is negligible, and even for h = 200 W/m K, the
contact resistance is small relative to the convection resistance. However, Rt,c could be rendered
negligible by using indium foil, instead of an air gap, at the interface. From Table 3.1,
R t,c  0.07  10 4 m 2  K / W, in which case Rt,c = 0.035 mK/W.

2
(2) Because Ac < W , heat transfer by conduction in the plate is actually two-dimensional, rendering
the conduction resistance even smaller.