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Screen design: Composing with dynamic symmetry

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 Displays 22 (2001) 115±124
www.elsevier.nl/locate/displa

Screen design: composing with dynamic symmetry

David Chek Ling Ngo*, Eugene Ch'ng
Faculty of Information Technology, Multimedia University, 63100 Cyberjaya, Malaysia
Received 4 September 2000; revised 13 December 2000; accepted 19 March 2001

Abstract
This paper considers a technique for analysing the composition information of displays based on Hambidge's dynamic symmetry. While,
by using this technique, our study of dynamic symmetry that underlies 150 real screens shows an unmistakable use of plan schemes of the
system in 40% of them, few adhere absolutely to it. It is hard to say if their use was intentional. The use of dynamic symmetry as a screen
layout technique has not been mentioned so far because so little is known about it. However, such technique can have a substantial impact on
the user's perception of interface aesthetics. q 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Screen design; Screen aesthetics; Systems of proportion; Dynamic symmetry

1. Importance of screen aesthetics
The importance of screen aesthetics has been demon-
strated in a variety of studies. For example, two recent
studies show that very high correlations were found between
users' perceptions of interface aesthetics and usability.
Three experiments [1] were conducted to validate and repli-
cate, in a different cultural setting, the results of a study by
Kurosu and Kashimura [2] concerning the relationships
between users' perceptions of interface aesthetics and
usability. The results support the basic ®ndings by Kurosu
and Kashimura. Very high correlations were found between
perceived aesthetics of the interface and a priori perceived
ease of use of the system. Also, in a study of information
systems use, researchers found that ªif computers were
perceived initially as dif®cult to use, users were more likely
to express dissatisfaction with the interface of the system
after four months of use.º [3]. Thus, it is possible that among
the various factors that affect system usability in particular
and system acceptability in general, interface aesthetics play
a major role. Aesthetics affect people's perceptions of
apparent usability Ð which, in turn, may in¯uence longer
term attitudes towards the system.
Heines [4] claims a poorly designed computer screen can
hinder communication. Can a visually pleasing computer
screen enhance communication and learning? The results
of a study by Szabo and Kanuka [5] indicate that if we are
concerned with minimising learning time and maximising
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 160-3-83125268; fax: 160-3-83185264.
E-mail address: dclngo@yahoo.com (D.C.L. Ngo).
0141-9382/01/$ - see front matter q 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0141-938 2(01)00060-9
learner completion rates, as we design screens for computer
based instruction we should consider applying the principles
of design used in the study. Toh [6] claims that aesthetically
pleasing layouts can affect the student's motivation to learn.
A study by Grabinger [7] indicates that organisation and
visual interest are important criteria in judging the readabil-
ity and studyability of the real screens. Screens that are
plain, simple, unbalanced, and bare are perceived as unde-
sirable. Aspillage [8] claims that good graphic design and
attractive displays help contribute to the transfer of informa-
tion.
What exactly is good appearance, and what is character-
istic for a screen that we call beautiful? Does good visual
design require more artistic than scienti®c talent? Is artistic
vision necessary in good design? Can we make interface
design objective, pure, and scienti®c? Traditionally, visual
design has been relegated to the realm of art rather than
science. There is, however, a large base of knowledge
about visual literacy that is applicable to screen layouts.
This knowledge is derived from several sources: basic
psychological research, human factors studies, experiences
of designers and users, and graphic design experience.
Much of this information has been compiled into a variety
of guidelines for what comprises a visually pleasing appear-
ance. Recent studies have also begun to focus on synthesis-
ing the guidelines and empirical data related to the
formatting of human±computer interfaces into a well-
de®ned framework (e.g. [9±11]). While aesthetic guidelines
exist to help designers create attractive displays, and have
been formally codi®ed, the state of aesthetic theory is rela-
tively primitive. There are few, if any, identi®able design
116 D.C.L. Ngo, E. Ch'ng / Displays 22 (2001) 115±124
systems to help interface designers combine screen
elements in ways that improve system acceptability. We
intend to start a new line of research looking into the possi-
bilities of incorporating systems of proportion that have
been used through the ages in an attempt to create beautiful
works into screen layouts. We will use a higher conception
of beauty, going beyond the concepts of perceptual research
outlined by Galitz [12] to include the proportioning law
found in nature.
This paper focusses on how a composition style referred
to as dynamic symmetry can be incorporated into man-
machine interfaces. It begins with a related work section.
Section 3 proposes an algorithm for analysing the composi-
tion information of displays based on dynamic symmetry.
By using this algorithm, Section 4 examines some of the
approaches to dynamic symmetry that have been
consciously or unconsciously used in the past. The
experiment conducted in Section 5 provides empirical
validation of this technique. Finally, we summarise the
paper and review the contributions.
2. Related research
Symmetry is de®ned by Webster as ªsimilarity of form or
arrangement on either side of a dividing line or plane; corre-
spondence of opposite parts in size, shape, and positionº.
But the Greeks had a different understanding of symmetry.
Each element of a building must be related to every other
element, and each element to the whole as in the human
body. When every important part of a building is set in
proportion by the right correlation between height and
width, and between width and depth, dynamic symmetry
is achieved. Or, as the Greeks called it, analogia (it
achieves), consonance between the parts and the whole.
The former was termed `static', the latter `dynamic'.
Several guidelines documents have proposed that the
spatial relationships among the elements on a screen should
provide some degree of symmetrical balance. For example,
Mullet and Sano [13] stated that ª¼heavy use of symme-
trical layouts¼ is perfectly appropriate for a user interface.º
Some GUI standards such as OSF/Motif strongly encourage
symmetrical arrangement of windows and dialog boxes
throughout the environment.
Galitz [12] proposed that symmetry should be achieved
by centring the display itself and maintaining an equal
weighting of elements on each side of the vertical axis.
Streveler and Wasserman's [10] symmetry was computed
as the difference between the centre of mass of the displayed
elements and the physical centre of the screen. In addition,
Ngo et al. [11] proposed a measure of symmetry as one of
their objective techniques for assessing the spatial proper-
ties of screens. However, they all refer to the same type,
namely static symmetry.
The whole of dynamic symmetry, that canon of propor-
tion discovered and taught by the late Jay Hambidge [14]
and related to the arts of space somewhat as are the laws of
musical harmony to music, was developed from the loga-
rithmic spiral simply by translating from curved into angular
form Nature's most fundamental and omnipresent ®gure.
Thus was produced a series of rectangular triangles and
their perpendiculars which in turn yield the `root rectangles'
of dynamic symmetry.
There have been quite a few relevant studies recommend-
ing the use of these classical rectangles. For example,
Marcus' [15] book on screen design describes the following
shapes as aesthetically pleasing: square (1:1), square root of
two (1:1.414), golden rectangle (1:1.618), square root of
three (1:1.732), and double square (1:2). In their article,
`Improved Visual Design for Graphics Display,' Reilly
and Roach [16] note that ªA well-proportioned arrangement
of (screen) objects contributes to the visual interest of a
design.º ªClassical systems of proportion codify relation-
ships known to please the mind as well as the eye,º wrote
Mullet and Sanon [13]. Ken Blundell's [17] lecture notes on
human±computer interface indicates that, ªA rectangle
generated by such a rule (the golden rectangle) is inherently
pleasing.º
From a usage standpoint, `The principle of proportion
helps you select appropriate proportions for components
of your applications.' [18]. Galitz [12] suggests that aesthe-
tically pleasing proportions should be considered for major
components of the screen, including windows and groups of
data and text. In a set of speci®c guidelines, Red-Tail
Information Technologies [18] stated that:
² Uses for the golden rectangle. Use this proportion for
boundaries on the screen containing further square and
rectangular elements.
² Uses for the double square. This proportion can be used
for boundaries of two symmetrically placed components.
By doing this, the two components will draw equal
attention inside their respective squares.
² Uses for the square. Use this proportion for icons and
other graphics or text blocks that need to be prominent,
and at the same time make ef®cient use of space.
² Uses for the square root of two. This proportion is often
used to present text on the screen.
Gait [19] presented an algorithm transforming windows
of arbitrary dimensions to pretty windows. A pretty window
is a window with the dimensions of a golden rectangle. The
premise of Gait's work is the existence of a class of rectan-
gles whose use as windows presents a more satisfying and
agreeable appearance to users than arbitrarily dimensioned
windows. Through a review of the literature related to clas-
sical proportions, Ngo et al. [11] derived a technique for
quantifying this concept of how well-proportioned the
screen is. Design grids often consist of a set of regularly
spaced vertical and horizontal lines that describe a set of
equal-sized rectangular grid ®elds. An asymmetrical grid
 D.C.L. Ngo, E. Ch'ng / Displays 22 (2001) 115±124
Fig. 1. A screen from a shareware programme Australian Pay Calculator.
system [20] extends this idea by using the golden section to
provide for more dynamic composition possibilities.
The apparent abundance of guidelines for the use of the
root rectangles may lead one to believe that there is a corre-
sponding abundance of their applications. We need to
realise that `Unfortunately, little regard is made for
such rules in interface design.' [17]. Furthermore,
while many guidelines documents recommend using
the root rectangles in screen design, mostly seem to
neglect Hambidge's notion of relationship between
rectangles (to be discussed later).
3. Hambidge's technique for realising dynamic
symmetry
The rectangles such as 3/2, 5/4, 8/5, 3, etc., of which the
proportions show only rational numbers,p arep called
p
static rectangles. The rectangles such as 2, 3, 5,
p p
5/2, f ˆ … 5 1 1†=2 (the Golden Rectangle), showing
irrational numbers in their proportions, are called
dynamic rectangles. These latter are the ones used in
dynamic symmetry. They allow much more ¯exibility
Fig. 2. A screen from Boomerangs Ð Echoes of Australia (MindVision Interactive, Australia).
117
and a much greater variety of choice than the static
rectangles, specially when used in order to establish
the commodulation by proportion of the elements and
the whole of a composition.
In order to obtain dynamic symmetry or commodulation,
we must use the rectangles
p palreadyp introduced
p as dynamic,
that is the rectangles 2, 3, 5, f , f and f 2 (that is
rectangles such that the ratios between their longer and their
shorter sides are equal to these numbers). The rectangles f ,
p p
f 2, f and 5 are all related, but p
they are not related to 2
and 3. The rectangles 1 …1=1 ˆ 1=1†; the square, and 2,
p
…2=1 ˆ 4=1† the double square, are at the same time static
and dynamic. The diagonal of the double square 2 is
p p
5; p
this 2 or 4 rectangle is thus related to the rectan-
p
gle 5, itself related to … 5 1 1†=2; the golden section
proportion.
The commodulation or linking of all the elements of the
planned whole is through a certain proportion or a set of
related proportions. This notion of relationship between
rectangles, that is, between their proportions, derives its
importance from a law of composition already mentioned
by L.B. Alberti and rediscovered by Hambidge, the `law
of the non-mixing of proportions or themes in a plane
118 D.C.L. Ngo, E. Ch'ng / Displays 22 (2001) 115±124

Fig. 3. A screen from Boomerangs Ð Echoes of Australia (MindVision Interactive, Australia).

composition'; in such a composition, only `related' themes
must be used, `antagonistic' themes must not be mixed.
Hambidge's method takes into consideration the fact that
the overall frame of a two-dimensional plan or composition
is generally a rectangle or a complex of rectangles; in his
method of harmonic subdivision or analysis, these
rectangles are treated by the diagonal. That is, we draw a
diagonal, and from one of the opposite summits a perpendi-
cular to this diagonal; this can be repeated with the other
diagonal, and from the points of intersection between

Fig. 4. Two versions of a screen from Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia 1999 (Microsoft Corporation). (a) Original format. (b) Reformatted version. (c)
Reformatted version, harmonic analysis.
 D.C.L. Ngo, E. Ch'ng / Displays 22 (2001) 115±124 119

Fig. 5. Two versions of a screen from IBM Worldbook 1999 (IBM Corporation). (a) Original format. (b) Reformatted version. (c) Reformatted version,
harmonic analysis.

diagonals, perpendiculars and sides, are drawn parallels to 4. Harmonic analysis of real screens
the sides. This process can be continued with many varia-
tions, and every diagram thus obtained is what Hambidge This study examines whether dynamic symmetry has
called a `harmonic subdivision', that is, produces a perfect been applied to screen design in the past. It began with
commodulation of surfaces, and obeys the `law of non- the selection of 150 screens from a variety of multimedia
mixing themes'. systems. We sampled screens that represented a wide
Here, we propose the following method for analysing the variety of design characteristics, from simple to complex
composition information of screen layouts. and from plain to sophisticated. Screens with many graphic
features and a sophisticated design appearance were chosen,
While it is not stable as well as ones with few text elements and little sophistica-
For target rectangles in a layout tion. Next, the 150 screens were analysed for their composi-
Divide the rectangles into smaller tion information using a computer-based tool in which the
rectangles analysis technique presented in Section 3 has been imple-
For the smaller rectangles mented. The input to the tool is a model example of the
If a rectangle is too small Or the screen to be analysed, drawn over the original screen
rectangle is a root rectangle Then using a screen editor.
Ignore the rectangle The root rectangles show up everywhere in these screens.
Else More than 40% of the screens use these proportions. These
Make the rectangle the target results are quite surprising, given the fact that HCI literature
End mostly seem to neglect the proportion issue completely. The
End analyses show unmistakably the conscious use of the root
End rectangles of dynamic symmetry. However, it would seem
End that these designers did not consciously apply Hambidge's
120 D.C.L. Ngo, E. Ch'ng / Displays 22 (2001) 115±124
Fig. 6. Two versions of a screen from the Chiropractic Solution kiosk (Chezken Knowledge Integration Inc.). (a) Original format. (b) Reformatted version. (c)
Reformatted version, harmonic analysis.
technique of composition. Figs. 1±3 are the good examples
of the use of dynamic symmetry. But, the ®t is not perfect.
Fig. 1 shows the analysis of a screen from a shareware
programme Australian Pay Calculator (the overall area is a
double square, the quick bar is composed of 12 squares and
a f rectangle, the groupings Options and Medicare Levy are
both squares. The central section Enter Gross Pay Container
p
makes an area composed of a f rectangle and two areas:
each divided into a f rectangle plus two smaller f
rectangles, the excess area are two rectangles: each divided
into a double square on the left and four 5 rectangles on the
right). Fig. 2 shows the analysis of a screen from an award-
wining multimedia CD-ROM Boomerangs Ð Echoes of
Australia (the overall area is a square plus a f 2 rectangle,
the main area of the screen a f rectangle equal to the whole,
the navigational bar is composed of ®ve f 2 rectangles). Fig.
3 shows the analysis of another screen from Boomerangs Ð
Echoes of Australia (the overall area is a square plus three
squares, the main area is divided into two parts: each
composed of a square plus a f 2 rectangle, the navigational
bar is composed of eight f rectangles).
These diagrams and the controlling diagrams of many
other screens studied here show the conscious or
unconscious use of dynamic rectangles, which produces,
because of its characteristic properties, `the recurrence of
the same proportion in the elements of a whole' [21].
Although the ®ts between them and corresponding sets of
proportions (which obey the rule of non-mixing themes)
produced using Hambidge's technique are not perfect, we
see the desirability of using a system of proportions, rather
than picking each dimension with no regards to the others in
a composition. Without being taught, screen designers have
gravitated to the basic technique of dynamic symmetry.
5. Empirical study of dynamic symmetry applications
This study examined viewer judgements about the
aesthetics of real screens copied from existing multimedia
and web-based applications compared to their reformatted
versions based on Hambidge's dynamic symmetry. Samples
of all screens are shown in Figs. 4±9. The same basic infor-
mation was presented in the corresponding current and
reformatted versions. We attempted to improve the
aesthetics of the reformatted versions by using Hambidge's
technique of composition. The study materials were
 D.C.L. Ngo, E. Ch'ng / Displays 22 (2001) 115±124
Fig. 7. Two versions of a screen from Mammals: A Multimedia Encyclopedia (National Geographic Society). (a) Original format. (b) Reformatted version.
(c) Reformatted version, harmonic analysis.
modi®ed with minor changes to the positions and sizes of
the components. Trade-offs had sometimes to be made
between ensuring compliance with the proportioning law
on one hand, and preserving the original look-and-feel on
the other hand. In most cases, the former approach was
preferred.
The screen shown in Fig. 4(b) was created by reformat-
ting the screen shown in Fig. 4(a), which is from Microsoft
Encarta Encyclopedia 1999, to adhere to the dynamic
symmetry principle. Fig. 4(c) shows the analysis of the
reformatted screen (the navigational bar is composed of
three 0.191
p rectangles: each divided into p three squares
plus a 5 rectangle, the object on the left is a f rectangle,
the object on the right is a square).
The format shown in Fig. 5(b) was the result of applying
the dynamic symmetry principle to the format shown in Fig.
5(a), which is from IBM Worldbook 1999. Fig. 5(c) shows
the analysis of the reformatted screen (the object on the left
is a square plus a f 2 rectangle, the object on the right is a
square, the excess area in between is composed of six f and
two squares).
The screen shown in Fig. 6(a) is from the Chiropractic
121
Solution kiosk. Fig. 6(c) shows the analysis of the refor-
matted version shown in Fig. 6(b) (the title bar is a 0.0895
p
rectangle, which is divided into ®ve 5 rectangles, all
subsequent objects are f rectangles, except for the NEXT
button, which is a square).
The screens shown in Fig. 7(a) and (b) are two very
similar versions of a screen from Mammals: A Multimedia
Encyclopedia. The only signi®cant difference between the
screens is that dynamic symmetry is obtained in Fig. 7(b)
and (c) shows the analysis of the screen (all objects and
p
divisions are f rectangles, except for the excess area
between the two objects on the left, which is a strip of
four f rectangles).
The reformatted screen shown in Fig. 8(b) obeys the
principle of dynamic symmetry, while the original format
shown in Fig. 8(a), which was developed by Virtual Realm
Exchange, appears to violate the principle. Fig. 8(c) shows
the analysis of the reformatted one (the object on the left is a
f 2 rectangle, the object in the middle is a f rectangle, the
object on the right is a square plus a 0.5528 rectangle, which
is composed of a square plus two f rectangles).
The screen shown in Fig. 9(a) was developed by The
122 D.C.L. Ngo, E. Ch'ng / Displays 22 (2001) 115±124
Fig. 8. Two versions of a web screen by Virtual Realm Exchange. (a) Original format. (b) Reformatted version. (c) Reformatted version, harmonic analysis.
Employment Agents Movement. Fig. 9(c) shows the
analysis of the reformatted version shown in Fig. 9(b) (the
object on the left is a f rectangle with dynamic division into
two parts: one at the top and the other at the bottom,
the object on the right is a square, the object at the
bottom is placed on the divisional lines created from
the diagonals).
This study presented empirical data to compare their
aesthetics. Participants were 94 undergraduate students
(37 males, 52 females, ®ve unspeci®ed sex) in a Malaysian
university. Subjects were members of a variety of informa-
tion technology classes and received credit for participating
in the study. Although subjects were members of informa-
tion technology classes, they were not familiar with screen
design concepts. The six screens with their reformatted
versions were copied onto grey scale transparencies and
displayed in a large classroom, using an overhead screen
projector. Each pair was displayed for about 20 seconds.
During that time, participants selected the most visually
pleasing member from each pair.
As Table 1 shows, our redesigns had signi®cant effect on
the preference data. The percentages of viewers preferring
the reformatted over current screens shown in Figs. 4±9 are
61.70, 76.60, 88.30, 54.26, 73.40, and 85.11%, respectively.
The screen shown in Fig. 7 has a lower percentage than the
other screens. This is not particularly surprising since the
screen shows one characteristic that is viewed negatively: it
looks as if some part is missing. There are no objects over
the 4 £ f grid. The unused white space makes the display
look fragmented.
Note that viewers clearly separated the screens shown in
Figs. 4(a), 5(a), 6(a), 7(a), 8(a), and 9(a) from the ones
in Figs. 4(b), 5(b), 6(b), 7(b), 8(b), and 9(b). The
screens in Figs. 4(b), 5(b), 6(b), 7(b), 8(b), and 9(b) were
viewed more positively than the screens in the ®rst group.
The controlling diagrams of the screens in the second group
show the use of dynamic rectangles and of the Golden Section,
which produces, because of its characteristic properties, `the
reassuring impression given by what remains similar to itself
in the diversity of evolution' [21]. Viewers appeared to notice
`this symmetry or commodulation between the elements and
between the elements and the whole'.
 D.C.L. Ngo, E. Ch'ng / Displays 22 (2001) 115±124
Fig. 9. Two versions of a web screen by The Employment Agents Movement. (a) Original format. (b) Reformatted version. (c) Reformatted version, harmonic
analysis.
6. Conclusions and future work
Dynamic symmetry has been around for a long time. But
rarely do we hear any discussion about its use as a design
tool. `(It) is now all but forgotten, but in it's day, it produced
a cultlike mass of followers in the art schools.' [22]. This
system offered designers a formula for reproducing natural
proportions in their works. Using dynamic symmetry for
screen layouts will give us an easy framework from which
to work. That is the purpose of this paper Ð to illustrate the
use of this system as a mean of laying out screen elements in
a dynamic and aesthetically pleasing way.
Here, we described an algorithm for analysing the
Table 1
Preference data for six paired comparisons
Screen pair Fig. 4 Fig. 5 Fig. 6 Fig. 7 Fig. 8 Fig. 9
Number of participants 58/94 72/94 83/94 51/94 69/94 80/94
who selected dynamic
screens/total number of
participants
Percentage of participants 61.70 76.60 88.30 54.26 73.40 85.11
who selected dynamic
screens
123
composition information of screen layouts based on the
dynamic symmetry principle. While, by using this method,
our study of the theory of proportion that underlies more
than 150 screens from a variety of popular multimedia
systems shows an unmistakable use of plan schemes of
dynamic symmetry in over 40% of them, few adhere
absolutely to the system. Our conclusion is that the evidence
based on the study supports the use of its root rectangles at
least in those 40% cases. The evidence also leads to the
conclusion that they do not obey its composition law.
It is hard to say if the use of these proportions was
intentional, because we have no written record verifying
their use. Many of its shapes are probably approximated
by designers of great native ability whose sense of form is
highly developed. As described by Mullet and Sano [13],
ªIn practice most designers manipulate proportion on the
basis of a highly developed perceptual sensitivity acquired
through years of experience¼ but classical systems such as
the golden rectangle are the inevitable starting point.º
Dynamic symmetry gives us the operational principles for
designing aesthetically pleasing visual displays.
The use of dynamic symmetry as a screen layout
technique has really not even been mentioned so far because
so little is known about it. However, such technique can
clearly have a substantial impact on the user's perception
124 D.C.L. Ngo, E. Ch'ng / Displays 22 (2001) 115±124
of interface aesthetics. As far as we know, this study is the
®rst formal attempt to hang screen design principles on the
proportioning system.
Experiments must be conducted to provide additional
empirical validation of the technique and the conventions.
Future research should also focus on evaluating the effects
of different analysis strategies. As we learn more about how
to lay things out in a visually pleasing way, we also need to
develop better tools for assisting screen designers. Expert
systems could be developed that would embody what is
known about effective screen design and would act as a
`designer's assistant'. A paper presenting a computer-
based design environment that incorporates the principle
of dynamic symmetry is under review at the present time.
Acknowledgement
The research reported here was supported by IRPA grant
191/9636/0012.
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[22] David Thompson Studio, Art history, http://www.dtstudio.com/
history.html.