$340 Reducing Are-Flash Hazards tion via MIRRORED BITS work very well for these applications. 3.10 Reducing Arc-Flash Hazards ‘The past several years have brought a heightened awareness of the importance of personnel safety around ‘electrical apparatus, as is reflected in recent regulations and standards. For example, the National Fire Preven- tion Association (NFPA) published the NFPA Standard 70E to document electrical safety requirements [23]. This standard provides specific rules for determining the category of electrical hazards and the personal pro- tective equipment required in the defined and marked hazard zones. In particular, industry and utilities recognize that arc- flash events can cause dangerous and potentially fatal levels of heat, ultraviolet radiation, blast pressure, fly- ing shrapnel, and deafening sound waves. The existing standards are mainly concerned with the heat energy from the are flash, IEEE Standard 1584 [24], for exam- ple, provides information on how to calculate arc energy and establish boundary distances for personnel when working around energized electrical equipment. References [25] and [26] provide detailed arc-flash cal- culation examples. 3101 Methods for reducing are-flash hazards. ‘The energy produced by an arc-flash event is propor- tional to the voltage, current, and duration of the event. Design engineers can reduce system voltage or fault currents, but the best and most direct ways to reduce are-flash hazards are to prevent personnel from work- ing in danger zones and to shorten fault-clearing times. ‘The most common methods for reducing are-flash haz- ards are [26]: * Avoiding the hazard area. + Installing are-resistant switchgear. + Limiting the fault current. + Improving protection schemes. 310.11 Avoiding the hazard area “The safest way to prevent arc-flash injuries is to avoid the danger zone. Performing work on de-energized equipment eliminates working in hazard areas. Tech- nology offers several ways 0 gather information and perform operations without entering the hazard area [27]. Communications links to the equipment provide Key maintenance and operating data. Manufacturers provide remotely controlled breaker racking mech: nisms to perform actions away from the are-lash zone. ‘310.12 Installing arctesistant switchgear Switchgear manufacturers have modified the design and construction of electrical switchgear to withstand the blast of an arc flash. Enhancements include rein- forcing doors and structures, as well as providing a path to discharge the blast pressure and material away from personne! working areas. Arc-esistant switchgear typically also includes breakers with high-speed clear- ing times. 3101.3 Limiting the fautt current Reducing the available fault current lowers the arc energy, thus limiting the hazard. High-impedance transformers and series reactors reduce phase and ground-fault current, and i grounding reduces the ground-fault current. On low- and medium- voltage systems, current-limiting fuses provide fast clearing times and limit the fault current. 310.14 Improving protection schemes ‘The new abilities in microprocessor-based relays pro- vvide many low-cost ways to reduce are-flash hazard by reducing fault-clearing times. Possible improvements to distribution protection schemes include: + Faster overcurrent protection: — Lower coordination time intervals. ~ Applying instantaneous elements ~ Applying negative-sequence overcurrent elements (Section 3.4). * Adding bus differential protection (Section 6.4.1, Section 6.4.2, and Section 6.4.3). + Adding zone-interlocked protection (Section 6.4.5). + Adding breaker-failure protection (Section 6.5). * Adding high-speed line protection with fiber-optic or radio channels (Section 3:9). + Enabling an instantaneous overcurrent element dur- ing maintenance. + Adding are-flash protection. Enabling an instantaneous overcurrent element during maintenance improves safety for personnel working near energized equipment. You can enable the instanta- neous element using a pushbutton on the relay, a sepa- rate switch, or a communications channel. While activated, this scheme disables the time coordination and allows the breaker to trip without any delay. Acti- vate this special protection scheme when workers are near the energized switchgear. You can add this scheme to new or old installations at low cost. 310.2 Arc-flash protection, Are-flash protection uses fiber-optic light sensors located in metal-enclosed and metal-clad switchgear to detect high-energy are-flash events and initiate high- Scanned with CamScannerspeed breaker tripping. Including arc-flash detection in 4 protective relay, such as the SEL-7S1A, minimizes cost and complexity by using the relay hardware and software and the existing tripping circuits. The added advantage of processing arc-flash detection in the relay is the ability to use a fast overcurrent element as a supervising element to improve security. The SEL-7514 provides four arc-lash protection elements. Each element includes: + Are-flash time-overlight™ (TOL) element. + Are-flash overcurrent element. 3.0.2.1 Arc-fash time-overlight element Are-flash detection sensors provide a clear measure- ‘ment of an are flash. The light emitted during an arc- flash event is significantly brighter than normal amt ent light. The light surge is noticeable as soon as the flash starts and is easy to detect using proven technol- ogy. The SEL-751A relay supports four fiber-optic light sensors of two distinct types: point sensors. and bare-fiber sensors. Fiber-optic cables bring the light signals from the sensors to the detectors located in the relay. Figure 3.30 shows a rear view of the SEL-751A relay with a point sensor connected to one of the four inputs available inthe optional arc-flash card, Figure 3.30 SEL-751A with a the are-flash card Point sensor connected to ‘The point sensor is omnidirectional and is optimized {or installation in individual switchgear compartments ‘The bare-fiber sensor is a high-quality plastic f optic cable without ‘0 pn) This hea a jacket (1,000 pm). This clear ftber-optic cable acts as a lens, bringing in light from the area. The bare-fiber sensor is optimized for arc flash detection in long, distributed resources, such as the switchgear bus compartment Using a fiber-optic loop connection allows the relay t0 test the system by periodically injecting light. This loop testing system works with either the point sensor or the bare-fiber sensor. Each sensor has one end connected t0 ‘transmitter in the relay and the other end connected t0 4 detector in the relay. The relay continually monitors all are-flash sensors by pulsing them with light every 10 minutes. This diagnostic system asserts a Relay Word bit if a sensor is damaged. ‘The operating time of the TOL elements in the SEL-751A4 relay isan inverse function of the input light level, expressed in multiples of the TOL element Pickup value (Figure 3.31). The shape of the inverse time characteristic is fixed to provide robust rejection Of unrelated light events without adding unnecessary settings. This characteristic offers enhanced security and exceptionally fast operation, w ee Figure 3.31 Inverse are-flash TOL elements. ne characteristic of the SEL-7S1A Given the critical nature of the are-flash protection function, you should set the TOL pickup value based on the ambient light level. This approach guarantees maximum sensitivity and provides the fastest tripping time, The SEL-TS1A rela light. You can dis ETER 'y continuously measures ambient » can display its valve using the front-panel > Light Intensity menu, as well as the MET 1 command, Set the TOL pickup value above the highest normal light intensity expected at each arc-flash sensor llation, Arc-flash events significantly exceed virtu- ally a il illumination levels normally found in a switch- gear environment ‘The only exception is exposure to direct sunlight, wi Peete ete which can reach or exceed are-flash TOL element setting thresholds. Scanned with CamScanner21 Distribution Automation 30.2.2 Are-flash overcurrent element ‘Supervising the TOL element with a high-speed over- Current element improves security without sacrificing tripping speeds [26]. Many standard overcurrent cle- ments have operating times between 6 and 20 milliseconds. These elements are slower than the TOL clement. To avoid introducing additional delay, the high-speed overcurrent element must be as fast as the are-flash detection. “The SEL-751A relay includes one three-phase and one ‘ground instantaneous overcurrent element for are-flash detection supervision. These arc-flash overcurrent ele- ments use raw analog-to-digital converter samples, with a sampling rate of 16 samples per cycle. Individ- tual samples are compared with the setting threshold, followed by a security counter that requires two sam- ples in a row to be above the setting threshold. SEL-751A are-flash protection is exceptionally fast. ‘Typical relay operating times are approximately 2-5 milliseconds when equipped with the optional fast- hybrid output card. With standard, electromechanical ‘outputs, tripping time increases to 7-13 milliseconds, ‘The arc-flash overcurrent elements do not reject har- ‘monies and therefore have a natural tendency to oper- ate under high harmonic load conditions. To avoid unintended element pickup, set the are-flash overcur- rent element pickup at least two times the expected ‘maximum load. TOL element supervision will prevent temporary activation of the arc-flash overcurrent ele- ‘ment during cold-load pickup conditions from causing misoperation 3.0.2.3 Event reports Relay event reports show light and current analog mea- surements (Figure 3.32). By monitoring the incoming. Tight as an analog signal, users can view and set the normal light levels for the application. ‘The event reporting also provides a troubleshooting tool with time-tagged events, including sensor light levels. ‘Tracking the are-flash intensity provides the detail needed to determine the root cause of an event. Figure 3.32 SEL-751A fault event report containing current and light data 310.24 Sensor location ‘Are-flash detection systems typically use a combina- tion of point sensors and bare-fiber sensors connected toa single relay. Locate sensors where arc-flash detec- tion for the specific sensor would trip the correspond- ing upstream breaker. Installation of sensors. varies, depending on the switchgear manufacturer, type of gear, and number of sections. Multiple sensor inputs in the relay provide coverage and sectioning options. Figure 3.33 shows a typical application example in switchgear with one incoming and two radial (outgoing) feeders. SEL-7S1A relays controlling breakers 1, 2, and 3 protect all three feeders. Feeder breakers 2 and 3 must trip for downstream faults, nor- ‘mally located in the outgoing cable termination com- partment. ‘To obtain better coverage, install multiple sensors in the same compartment, as shown in Figure 3.33, with point sensors LSI and LS2 connected to Relay 2 Relay 1 and Breaker 1 protect the bus compartment and the outgoing breaker compartments for breakers 2 and 3, Sensors LSI, LS2, and LS3 connect directly to Relay 1. Sensor LSI is a bare-fiber loop enclosing the entire length of the bus. ‘You can also use radial feeder relay sensors (such as LS3 connected to Relay 2) to transfer-trip the upstream breaker. Implement this logic using the relay SELo«ic® programming ability ety & Figure 3.33. Switchgear application example. 3.11 Distribution Automation 3111 Distribution automation objectives Modern distribution automation (an important element of smart grid technology) uses intelligent electronic devices (IEDs) and communications networks to auto- Scanned with CamScannertically and rapidly isolate faults, restore power, and Control reliable td economical operation ofthe dist- bation system, Multifunction relays are an economical solution for distribution automation because they mea- sure system voltages and currents, monitor the status of breakers, reclosers, and switches, communicate between devices, and are programmable. ‘The objectives of distribution automation include: + Optimizing distribution system operation (minimiz ing power losses and correcting power factor). * Controlling voltage. + Load balancing and load shedding. + Improving service availabilty + Improving service restoration, + Enhancing power quality + Accommodating distributed generation sources. + Enhancing situational awareness. These objectives are interdependent [28]. For example, restoring service to a feeder section may result in over. load conditions, excessive voltage drop, or power fac- tor degradation. The control system ‘may need to transfer load from the overloaded feeder to adjacent feeders or perhaps shed noncritical load to alleviate actual or predicted overloads. The control system may also need to adjust voltage regulators to alleviate volt- age drops or switch capacitors to correct power factor and reduce losses in the new feeder configuration. ‘The distribution automation system actuates these apparatus: * Voltage regulators * Capacitor banks. * Breakers, + Reclosers. + Sectionalizers. + Motor-operated switches, ‘Two categories of distribution respond to the required abilities nication. In a distributed system, nication operate peer-to-peer among the IEDs. Section 3.11.2 and Section 3.11.3 deseribe distributed automa tion systems. In a centralized system, a distribution ‘automation controller (DAC) coordinates the logic and. communication among the IEDs. Section 3.114 describes centralized automation systems. automation systems and available commu- the logic and commu- 3.112 Automatic throw-over schemes ‘Throw-over schemes monitor the line two sources and aut haster3 Distribution System Protection Automation, and Monitoring using SEL-3S1R Recloser Controls and MIRRORED Bits communications. Figure 3.34 depicts the throw-over scheme, which may use different communications channels, such as fiber optic cable, digital spread-spectrum radio, copper Wire, ‘oF telephone line. Both recloser controls provide stan- dard overcurrent protection and reclosing functions. At «each location, the recloser control monitors the recloser ‘status and the voltages at cach side of the recloser. Each ‘control has communications ports suitable for commu- nicating between the two controls over different chan- nels, Figure 34° Automatic throw-over scheme using ‘SEL-351R Recloser Controls and MIRRORED BITS ‘communications. Under normal conditions, the load is fed through the normal-source recloser, and. the standby-source recloser is open. Both recloser controls continuously ‘monitor phase voltage magnitudes. The normal-source ‘ecloser also provides overcurrent protection. When any phase voltage measured by the normal- Souree recloser control drops below a preset level and an overcurrent condition does not exist, the normal- Source recloser trips after a settable time delay. If the normal-source recloser trips on a low-voltage condi- tion, the standby-source recloser closes after a settable time delay and restores service to the load. When the normal-source voltage returns to a healthy ‘tate and synchronism-close supervision is enabled, the normal-source - recloser closes after a settable time delay if a synchronism or dead-bus condition exists. It synchronism-close supervision is disabled, the ‘Standby-source recloser trips after a settable time delay ‘when the normal-source line voltage becomes healthy (the load again is temporarily without power). Then, the normal-source recloser closes afer & settable time ‘delay following the trip ofthe standby-source recloset to restore power tothe load. Reference (29] provides application examples of the ‘automatic throw-over scheme (Figure 3.34). A scheme Scanned with CamScanner‘341 Distribution Automation installed at a large industrial system uses fiber-optic communication between two recloser controls sepa- rated by one pole span on a distribution circuit Another scheme uses digital point-to-point radios. Yet another throw-over scheme uses a pad-mounted trans- fer switch instead of reclosers. 3.11.3 Distribution network fast-restoration schemes ‘The effect of a service interruption depends on the type of load. Reference [30] summarizes a survey of critical service loss durations for industrial plants. Twenty-five percent of industrial plants must completely restart pro- duction if service is interrupted for more than 10 cycles. The average time to restart these industrial plants is more than 17 hours. Even short service inter- tuptions may cause significant economic loss to the customer. Many utilities still restore distribution loads after a fault by manually operating switches and other section- alizers to isolate the faulted line. One way of reducing restoration times is to apply microprocessor-based relays and/or recloser controls at each switch location with voltage signals supplied from voltage transform- ers at each side of the switch. The devices detect hol dead voltage conditions, thereby allowing fast auto- ‘matic tripping and restoration of switches. Implement- ing this scheme with SEL-351R or SEL-651R Recloser ‘Controls reduces restoration times of nonfaulted lines from minutes (manual restoration) to seconds. Using intelligent relays or recloser controls linked together by communications channels can further reduce load restoration times from minutes or seconds to cycles. SEL Application Guide AG2004-09 provides general guidelines for using SEL-651R Advanced Recloser Controls and MIRRORED BITS communica- tions to implement high-speed reconfiguration schemes in distribution networks. Figure 3.35 shows the elementary diagram of a net- work reconfiguration scheme, Each SEL-651R com- municates with adjacent recloser controls via a MirkoRED BITS communications channel. Typical communications media between recloser controls include fiber-optic cable or digital spread-spectrum radios. This scheme does not require voltage inputs, other than those used to power the relay and provide trip and close energy. ‘An example of the system operation for @ permanent fault between reclosers R2 and R3 is as follows: 1. Instantaneous overcurrent elements in the RI and R? recloser controls pick up for the fault. A timer with delayed dropout asserts in each control. The overcurrent element in the R3 recloser control does not pick up because the system is radial (R4 open). 2. Recloser R2 operates to lock out for the fault. The delayed- 1991. Available: htpiliwww sel E,O Schweitzer. Il, G. W. Scheer, and M. W. Fetis TA Htesh look at distribution protection.” in Secon Jarcrational Symposium on Distribution Automation gud Demand Side Management, Fort Lavderdale, FL Janwary 13-15, 1992. Available: http: www.scling com, A. F.Blneweihi E. O. Schweitzer, Il, and M. W. Fel ty Ngpatvescauence overcurrent clement applica ion and coordination in distribution Protection,” /EEs Trans. Power Del, vol. 8.00. 3, pp. 91S. 954, Tel 1993, 4B. Roberts and A. Guzmén, design and eval tive Relay Confe 1994. Available: hp A. Guzman, J.B. Ro directional elemer tem condition Relay Conference. Spokane WA” 1996, Available: hipster 1. B. Roberts, E, Poggi, “Limits to “Directional elemer .” in 21st Annual Western Protec *, Spokane, WA, October 18-2 vdiwww.selinc.com. oberts, and D, October 15-1 ww seline.com, ©. Schweitzer, I, R. Arora, and 1 sitivity of ground directional an distance protection, Annual Western Protes T0909 A) Conference, Spokane, WA, October 245 1995. Available: hutpliwww.sclinc com P,,Costello, M. Moon, and G. Bow, “Use of di tional elemey ‘industrial interface,” Scanned with CamScanner213 References 9 10) (12) 03) 4h us} 6 7 118) uo} (20) J. B. Roberts, H. J. Altuve, and D. Hou, “Review of ground. fault protection methods for grounded, Shroundd, an compen dstaton tems in 28h Annual Western Protective Relay Conference. Spokane, WA, October 23-25, 2001. Available: hetp// www.seline.com. D. Hou and N. Fischer, “Deterministic high-imped- ance fault detection phase selection on Ungrounded distribution systems." in 32nd Annual Westem Protective Relay Conference, Spokane, WA, October 25-27, 2005. Available: hitp/hwww. com. . roa, M. Cruz, and F. Calero, “Experience, improvements in operat ‘and successes ‘ofan ungrounded distribution network protection Scheme.” in 33nd Annual Western Protective Relay Conference, Spokane, WA, October 17-19, 2006, ‘Available: butp://ww.seline com. . Hou, “Detection of high-impedance faults in power distribation systems. in 33nd Annual Wester Protec: tive Relay Conference, Spokane, WA, October 17-19, 2006, Available: hup:iwww-seline.com. impedance fault detection—feld tests spendability analysis.” in 36h Annual Western Protective Relay Conference, Spokane, WA, October 20-22, 2009. Available: up:/www seline.com. R. Lavorin, D. Hou, H. J. Altuve, N. Fischer, and F. Calero, “Selecting directional elements for impedance- {grounded distribution systems.” in 34th Annual West en Protective Relay Conference, Spokane. WA, Octo- fer 16-18, 2007. Available: hup//www selinc.com: E.O. Schweitzer, I and J. B. Roberts, “Distance cle- _ 19th Annual Wester Protective Relay Conference, Spokane, WA, October 20-22, 1992. “Available: butp://www.seline.com. J, B, Roberts, A. Reyes, and T. Stulo, “Sympathetic wiping. pobion Reais and soon im 24h wePmNE cre Proecive Relay Conference. Spo, came WAC October 21-23, 1997. Available: tp! swwwselinc.com. K._Belrendh, “Protection for ump ot Sources” in 291k Annual Western Protective Rel Cinjonince, Spokane, WA, Ociober 22-24, 2002. ‘Available: brp:/hew-seine.com. | Muthausen, J. Schaefer, M. Mynam, A. Guzmén, 2 Me fo sAmaming toy, cent ‘Blanding in the future.” in 36th Anmaal Western Pro anne jay Conference, Spokane, WA. October 20- 1732009. Available: hup:/www selne.com. _ Fodero, “High-speed distribution communications-assisted pro- istribution applications,” in 3st Relay Conference, Spo- 2004, Available: ‘tp:// protection {ection schemes for di ‘Annual Western Protective kane, WA, October 19-21, www seline.com. a it J, W. Gregory, and J. J. R. Fairman, K. Zimmer tribution automation Niemira, rt Nigmira jon in 27th Annual Western Protective Tes Conference, Spokane. WA, October 24-26, ‘2000. Available: htip//www-seline.com- en (22) 123) (24) 2s) [26] a7 (28) 129) Bo) Bu Bar 331 S. Sinchez, A. Dionicio, M. Monjaris, M. Guel, G. Gonzélez. ©. Vizquez, J. L. Estrada, H. J. Altuve Muitoz, I. Yénez, and P. Loza, “Directional compar son protection over radio channels for subtransmission Tines: field experience in Mexico.” in 34h Annual Western Provetive Relay Conference, . WA, October 16-18, 2007, Available: htip:/www seine E. Gonrel, J. Niemira, and E. Nelson, “Distribution automation helps revitalize “community.” in 35th ‘Annual Western Protective Relay Conference, Spo- Kane, WA, October 21-23, 2008. Available: ‘htp:// Easterners IEEE Guide for Arc Flash Hazard Calculation ‘Standard 1584, 2002, ern J. Buff and K. Zimmerman, “Application of exist technologies to reduce. are‘ash hazards” in 23nd Annual Western Protective Relay Conference, Spo- kane, WA, October 17-19, 2006, Available: tp M. Zeller and G. Scheer, “Add trip security to are-flash descction for safety and rehab. in 50h Annual Western Protective Relay Conference, WA, October 21-23, 2008. Available: hip://www.seine G. Scheer and M. Zeller, “Safety impact of instrumen- tation and control systems,” in 33rd Annual Western Protective Relay Conference, Spokane, WA, October 17-19, 2006, Available: hup://wwwseline.com. W. Allen, “Effects of wide-area control on the protec- tion and operation of distribution networks,” in 35th Annual Western Protective Relay Conference, Spo- ane, WA, October 21-23, 2008, Available: tp wwwseline.com. K. Zimmerman and M. Collum, “Implementing distri- tation automation and protection; in Sk Annual Wes ‘em Power Delivery Automation Conference, Spokane, WA, April 1-3, 2003. Available: btp://www.selinc. com. IEEE Recommended Practice for the Design of Reli- tate ini ad Commerce Power Syn EE Standard 493, 2007, G. Hataway, T: Warten, and C. Stephens, “Implemen- tation of high-speed distribution network reconfga- tation scheme,” in 32nd Annual Western Protective Relay Conference, Spokane, WA, October 25-27, 2005. Available: hip//wwwseline.com. D. J. Dolezilek and S. Schweitzer, “Practical applica tions of smart grid technologies,” in 11h Annual West- ‘em Power Delivery Automation Conference, Spokane, WA, April 7-9, 2009. Available: hitp:/www.sline. com, J.W. Rice, N. C. Seeley, and $, Fulford, “Improved service reliability for rural electric customers—inno- Yative auto-restoration, following oss of primary source interconnection,” in 33rd Annual Western Pro- tective Relay Conference, Spokane, WA, October 17~ 19, 2006. Available: hitp:/Avww.selinc.com. Scanned with CamScanner56 [34] W. Allen and T. Lee, “Flexible bi gh-speed load shed: ding using a crosspoint switch.” in 32nd Annual West em Protective Relay Conference, ‘Spokane, WA. Gctober 24-27, 2005. Available: http://www seline MM. Al lla, H. Kim, and N.C. Seeley. ‘a redundant. Toad-sheddi islanded power plants, The appli: system for in 350h Annual Western Pro Relay Conference, Spokane, WA, October 21 2008. Available: hitp:/Avww.seline.com, Scanned with CamScanner4 Transmission Line Protection Edmund 0. Schweitzer, Ill, Héctor J. Altuve Ferrer, and Joseph B. Mooney 411 Introduction ‘Transmission lines link generating plants and load cen- ters. Fast clearing of line faults preserves system stabil- prevents equipment damage, and improves power ‘quality. To reduce fault-clearing time, transmission line protection usually includes a communications link between the line terminals. Single-pole tripping and reclosing further enhance power system stability and power quality. Microprocessor-based relays and digital communications channels provide the functions needed to protect transmission lines. This chapter covers: “Line protection challenges in modem transmission tas a Jements with reli- + Mho and quadrilateral distance elements able polarizing quantities that provide dependable, secure, fast, and sensitive line protection. + Using modem distance elements to solve impedance ‘measurement problems. a, dare + Usi directional comparison scheme wit Sanat pais ‘and dependability for high-speed fault clearance: + Using line protection relays that combine phase and : ferential ele- juence-component, alpha-plane dif treats with distance elements to provide dependable, secure, fast, and sensitive line protection. + Limits to line protection sensitivity. + Solving series-compensated line protection prob- Jems using modern relays ; — Using modem Tine protection relays to impl SAE fie tipping, schemes and enhance power system stability and power quality. «+ Preventing distance element operation during power Proc sas for out-of-step conditions. i + Applying line thermal protection fo maxis powet transfer, especially under c during major power system disturbances, + Using fault location information from n dais to ‘expedite line repair and speed service . 4.2 Transmission Systems of Today and Tomorrow In the past, transmission systems were regional net- ‘works restricted fo the geographic limits of individual utilities. Then neighboring utilities built interies to cre- ‘ate the interconnected transmission systems that we have today. Interconnected transmission systems share generation resources from many utilities, which improves reliability, enhances efficiency, and facilitates planning for maintenance and responding to contingen- cies. Figure 4.1 depicts the interconnected system of North America, one of many examples worldwide. However, interconnected transmission systems are fac- ing new challenges, as many large blackouts in differ- cent countries have recently shown: + Economical, environmental, and political fmt to building new transmission lines and generating stations are reducing generation reserves and trans- mission network redundancy. + Transmission systems need to accommodate new types of generation sources. We will see more wind and solar generation, for example. Weather condi- tions will influence generation as well as load. “Free energy markets are forcing power flows through relatively weak portions of the transmission systems. Engineers study contingencies in an attempt to evaluate the impact of foreseeable events on the power system. ‘The unpredictability of generation broadens the range of contingencies: the unexpected can, and does, happen (Figure 4.2). ‘We must consider these factors for present and future power systems: + Smaller security margins. + Highly variable and less predictable power flows. + New types of sources. + Shorter lines, series-compensated lines, and tapped Tines as new generation and loads are integrated. +The performance of many protection schemes depends on the sources connected. Scanned with CamScannerFigure 4.1. “The power system of North America includes several large a transmission systems interconnected through asynchronous (de) links. Figure 4.2 In modem power systems, contingency studies ‘may not include all possible real-life events, Because of all these factors, present and future trans- mission systems need faster, more robust protection and control. Fortunately, we can do a lot more for less money with modern relays. For example, these relays provide, at low cost: + High-performance directional and distance ele- ments. * Traditional and custom-designed directional com- parison protection schemes, + Dependable, secure, fast, and sensitive differential protection schemes, * High security for load and power swing conditions. * Single-pole tripping (SPT) and reclosing. + Series-compensated line protection. + Synchrophasor measurements, ‘Transmission systems require extensive application of pilot protection, which uses a communications channel to provide fast line-fault clearing. Pilot protection has evolved as communications channels became more available and less expensive. Spread-spectrum radio, for example, is a modern, low-cost channel. Usually, dedicated optical fiber is the best communications channel for protection. There are many dark fibers, ‘which can be put to use for protection and control at ow cost. Multiplexed channels, such as synchronous ‘optical network (SONET) or synchronous digital hier archy (SDH) channels, reduce cost because they allow sharing of high-bandwidth optical fibers. Advance- ments in SONET/SDH devices have made protection applications more secure, Table 4.1. summarizes transmission line protection challenges in modern power systems. This. chaptet describes how modern relays help engineers face most of these protection challenges. Scanned with CamScanner‘Table 4.1 Summary of transmission line protection challenges. “Transmission Line Protection Challenges Power System | Instrument Transformer Fault Related gh ielated Channel Related | Application Related Tnieed effect Traad encroachment |Current transformer (CT) |Loss of channel Single-pole tripping saturation Faultresistance [Load andsystem | Open or shorted CTs Noisy channel Shor ines unbalances Mutual coupling |Powerswings | Loss-of-potential ‘Low-bandwidth channel | Long lines Evolving fauts | Weak sourees | Coupling-capacito voltage Paral lines —_—- fronstornss (CCV) ans Antercircuit faults. [Effect of unfaulted | Three-terminal lines phases Cross-country faults Tapped lines Close-in, 2er0- Series-compensated voltage faults Tines Switeh-onto-fault 4.3 Line Protection Principles In radial systems, fault current flows in only one direc- tion. Overcurrent protection (Section 3.2, Section 3:3, and Section 3.4) using relays, reclosers, and fuses isthe typical protection for radial distribution lines. looped either In systems, fault current can flow in direction at the relay location, depending on the fault location, Looped lines are common in transmission systems and are increasingly used in subtransmission and distribution systems. Protection of looped lines can use any of these principles: + Directional overcurrent protection. * Distance protection. + Directional comparison protection. + Phase comparison protection. + Differential protection. Table 4.2 compares these protection principles. current protection (Section 3.5 and Dies! rere tt ee operation of overcurrent elements. Directional overcur- rent protection i relatively simple and economical, but its high-speed protection zone reach varies wit changes in the source impedance, and it requires setting revisions for power system changes. frectional overcurrent protection (67) must be rae ie aren wich is proetion sensi ity and speed. Overcurrent elements oe respond i's negative- or zero-sequence current Can . Toad current. Adding a negative-seavence oveinee element (Section 3.4) improves sensi) Tie re for phase-to-phase faults. Ground direct rent protection (67N), which responds to the zero- sequence current, is more sensitive than ground dis- tance protection. Distance protection (Section 4.5 and Section 4.6) uses voltage and current to determine the zone of the fault. A distance protection scheme generally includes three phase distance elements (21) and three ground distance elements (21N), with three or more protection zones each. Source-impedance changes have almost no effect ‘on the high-speed zone reach of distance protection Directional overcurrent and distance schemes provide primary line protection, and also provide backup pro- tection to adjacent lines and buses. These schemes do ‘not require communications channels, but their high- speed protection zones do not cover 100 percent of the protected line. Thus, clearing of line-end faults may be time delayed, which could jeopardize power system stability, affect power quality, cause equipment dam- age, and be more of a safety risk Pilot protection, or teleprotection, uses a communica tions channel to compare information from the line ter- minals and provide high-speed fault clearing for 100 percent of the protected line. Pilot protection includes directional comparison and current-only schemes (phase comparison and line differential schemes). In directional comparison protection (Section 4.7), instantaneous directional overcurrent or distance ele- ments exchange fault direction information over the ‘communications channel. Directional comparison pro- tection may work with any high-speed, dedicated chan- nel. Channel impairments (failure or noise) may affect scheme dependability or security, depending upon the scheme logic (tripping or blocking logic). Scanned with CamScannerCopter 4 Transmission ine Protection impedance. 5) 21 provides beter ianoe Yate tance coverage than 21N. nel, 4) 67Q is not affected by communications chan Directional Overcurrent (67,67N, 610) (87,87N, 870) ae Does not require | 1) High-peod prtec- |1) High-speed protection zone covers oe pa, on zone cover 100 | 100percem ate 2) Does not require commu- Percent ofthe line ‘ aie 2) High-speed prote- 2) High-speed protection zone reac a feaicretinom [2a vithany (Upp macnn ne BLEIN and G7 provide afeciedby source” |high-apcod.deaaed ter ground fauresis- 3) Provides high phase and ground faut-esistance coverage ‘nbalances, power swings, ‘mutual coupling, voltage inversion, and current inver tunbalances, power swings, mutual cou- ling, voltage inversion, swings, mutual cou. ling, voltage inversion, ‘and current inversion, and by evolving. ime Sena yong a Pefepebipe i and erss- ty fat "| 5) Does not provide 6) Requires sing revisions beckupprzton for for power system changes, 3) Provides high ground |4 Provides high elect and secu pling, eee mut COu- Coverage than 67 with | fault nsisamse eee Lay fe sci a-ha [5 ony ees arenas 5) Provides time-coordi- ty. |67Q elements. ‘immune to loss-of-potential or C¢ oe a at or = |sSec ine dl. Ned ecpe Amos immune oot st ion fo alice ine ances, power swings uta co and bus faults. Pling 2nd votngeinverion 7) Performs well for ‘evolving, intercit- cuit, and erocoumty fal 8) May handle curent inversion 5) dems fated phases cas to apply for single-poletiprog, mite merits [eter ne | Game ie —TyReqaracer inet ct fer 100, | etehoneet iets ependabiiyo | chan SH 56 Kbps foros Resueatae is aa 2) Channe! failure disables protection. igh speed procction ) Provides les phase . Sarmeckeatoeia” |2)21N over ten fautesiance cree |3) Does 0 provide backup poet source impedance proundfaultrestance [age es foragjacen ine and bus fas overage than GTN or "8° Derren se [gyemern Nae | imuvsesitance coverage rope nformatio for tan 3 3)Requirs vohage | Sectonat tn for nforttion for dec Snd dae? ea 2) Topical requires voltage | oration for dee § Jincrmaon decal |e Polrivation eye ated y polation nbalances poner i 5) May be affected by load, aay be affected by bus faults Line differential protection (Section 4, 8) compares cur- rent information from the line terminals over the com. munications channel. Phase comparison protects (Section 49), a panicular type of differential protec, tion, only compares current phase angle information, ich reduces the channel bandwidth requirement, However, line differential protect ‘Ban phase comparison protection [1]. Line differen ad Protection is secure and Aiferental scheme typically requires digital channel With a bandwidth of 56 kbps or higher. Channel failure disables differential protection, 44 Directional Overcurrent Protection A hase directional overcurrent protection scheme (67) Gncemits, Phase overcurrent elements supervised by {{iectional elements. Traditional 67 schemes vee three {itectional elements; each element typically responds ie Ppise-to-phase voltage and the current of the oppo. (90-degree connection). In modern relase. = Scanned with CamScanner45 Distance Protection a Figure 43 Directional overcurent riction application in a twosoure power system, positive-sequence directional element responds to three-phase faults, and a negative-sequence directional element covers all other multiphase faults (Section ‘A ground directional overcurrent protection scheme (GTN, 67Q) uses a ground overcurrent element that responds to the zero-sequence current and is supervised by a ground directional element. Ground directional elements (Section 3.5.2) may respond to zero-sequence (67N) or negative-sequence (67Q) quantities. Figure 4.3 shows the time-distance characteristics of six directional overcurrent relays protecting three lines that intereonnect two sources. Instantaneous overcur- rent elements underreach the remote line ends 0 pre- ‘ent misoperation for faults on the adjacent lines or the remote bus. Inverse-time overcurrent elements over- reach the adjacent lines to provide remote backup pro- tection. A coordination time interval AT that includes the breaker tripping time provides coordination between adjacent inverse-time overcurrent elements. Figure 4.3 shows that faults located in midline sections cause instantaneous operation at both line ends. Faults Close to one line end cause instantaneous operation of the relay closer tothe fault and time-delayed operation of the remote-end relay. 45 Distance Protection 4511 Basic principle Distance elements (21/21N) make phase or amplitude ‘comparison of signals derived from the measured volt ages and currents to create operating: characteristics. Electromechanical relays compare corques. Most solid state analog relays use time-coincidence, phase Soar parison techniques. Microprocessor based relays use torque like products and olher methods 10 te their operating characteristics (Section 4.54, Section 455, 12), [3], and (40). ‘We use the complex impeda analyze distance element opera ince plane, or R-X plane, to tion (Figure 4.4). We plot the element operating characteristic, shown as fabo cece in Figure 4.4; we also plot tho apparent or ‘measured impedance Z; sven by (1). The detance nt operates when the measured impedance the element operating characteristic. = 4.) where: V is the voltage input signal tothe element; Tis the current input signal to the element. Figure 4.4 Impodance-plane representation of disance clement operation. For normal load, the measured _ impedance (Z = Zroap in Figure 4.4) is the result of the power flow through the relay location. Typically, Z ally, plot closet the real axis ofthe impedance plane.” ‘When a fault occurs on the protected line, the measured impedance rapidly changes from Z = Zyoqp Z = Zeauir- With the proper input signals to the distance element, for bolted (no fault resistance) faults, Zrauer equals the positive-sequence i ce of the line section between the relay Nation athe fl location. This impedance is proportional to the electri- cal distance to the fault. Scanned with CamScanner4552 Distance protection schemes 45.21 Basic concepts stance protection scheme typically includes one ‘Retntaneene zone’ (Zone 1) and two defnitetime delayed zones (zones 2 and 3). Zone | and Zone 2 pro- Vide primary line protection, Zone 2 backs up the emote bus and partially backs up the adjacent lines, ‘and Zone 3 provides remote backup protection for the ‘whole Length of the adjacent lines. Figure 4.5(a) shows the time-distance characteristics of six distance relays protecting three lines that interconnect two sources, ‘The coordination time interval AT provides coordina- tion between Zone | and Zone 2 and between Zone 2 and Zone 3 of adjacent distance relays. Figure 4.5(b) shows the mho characteristics (Section 4.5.4) of relays 3 and 4 om the impedance plane. Figure 4.5(a) shows that midline faults cause instanta- neous Zone | operation at both line ends. Should ‘Zone | fail to operate, Zone 2 or Zone 3 of the remote backup relay operates. Faults close to one line end cause Zone 1 operation of the relay closer to the fault ‘and Zone 2 operation of the remote-end relay. When this sequential fault clearing is unacceptable, you can apply either a directional comparison scheme (Section 4,7) ora line differential scheme (Section 4.8). 45.2.2 Reach settings Instantaneous Zone 1 must underreach the remote line end to prevent misoperation for faults on the adjacent lines or the remote bus. Typical reach settings are 70 percent (for short lines) to 90 percent (for long lines) of the line positive-sequence impedance. Time-delayed Zone 2 must overreach the protected line to ensure coverage of the remote bus and the line-end. section not covered by Zone 1. A typical reach setting is 120 percent ofthe line positive-sequence impedance. ‘Time-delayed Zone 3. should overreach the longest adjacent line under all system operating conditions. ‘The reach setting of time-delayed Zone 3 must include @ofa—ols Chapter 4 Transmission Line Protection the infeed effect caused by short-circuit current sources connected between the relay and the zone reach point (Section 4.6.1). In three-terminal lines, you should also consider the infeed effect when calculating Zone 1 and Zone 2 reach seitings. 45.23 Time-delay settings ‘When Zone 2 does not reach beyond the Zone 1 of the adjacent line relays, itis possible to time-coordinate the Zone 2 elements with the Zone 1 elements of the adja cent line relays and with the remote bus relays, #% shown in Figure 4.5(a). If we assume that the Zone | elements or the remote bus relays will clear the fault within five eycles, we can use a Zone 2 delay of seve? eycles: five cycles to clear the fault, plus a two-cycle margin forthe dropout of distance elements. This short Zone 2 time delay provides fast clearing. of internal faults close to one tine end. Shorter Zone 2 delays improve the chance of a successful reclose, reduce the chance of equipment damage, and improve power 8¥5~ tem stability and power quality. With this time setting: ‘Zone 2 may misoperate if a breaker fails to operate Aut ing a fault on the adjacent line. Automatic reclosing should restore the service to the unfaulted line Zone 2 must time-coordinate with the remote breaker failure protection scheme in most cases. For example, if the protected line has tapped load, a momentary out ‘age caused by a breaker-failure operation on an adja- cent line may not be an option. Also, a miscoordinat ‘may not be acceptable if the protected line lacks aut Matic reclosing. If the fault-clearing time for the breaker-failure scheme is 14 cycles, the Zone 2 element delay could be as low as 16 cycles: 14 cycles to clear the fault and a two-cycle margin. ‘When an adjacent line is shor, it may not be possible to Prevent Zone 2 from overreaching the Zone 1 of the adjacent line relays. In this case, the Zone 2 elements ‘must time-coordinate with the Zone 2 elements of the adjacent line relays, Figure 4.5 Distance protection application in a two-source power system. x Scanned with CamScanner45 Distance Protection ‘When Zone 3 does not reach beyond the Zone 2 of the adjacent ine relays, the Zone 3 elements must time- coordinate with the Zone 2 elements of the adjacent Tine relays, as shown in Figure 4.5(a). ‘The long Zone 3 reach settings resulting from the infeed effect make it difficult to avoid adjacent Zone 3 ‘overlap and require long time delays. Long-reaching distance zones are also prone to misoperation on load (Section 4.6.4). For these reasons, local backup protec- ion, including breaker-failure protection (Section 6.5), the preferred backup protection for high-voltage and cextra-high-voltage transmission lines. 455.3 Distance element input signals Protecting a three-phase transmission line forall possi- ble fault types generally requires three phase distance clements and three ground distance elements. Phase clements respond to three-phase, phase-to-phase, and phase-to-phase-to-ground faults. Ground elements respond to single-phase-to-ground and phase-o-phase- to-ground faults. Distance element voltage and current input signals should comply with the following princi- ples: + For a bolted fault on the protected line, at least one distance element should correctly measure the faulted line section impedance. + The impedances measured by the remaining distance elements should equal or exceed the faulted line sec- tion impedance. (These elements must not over- reach.) ‘Table 4,3 summarizes the input signals to traditional phase and ground distance elements. Reference (5] and ther books provide the mathematical derivation of these input signals. For bolted faults, phase and ground elements that receive only faulted-phase information (eferred to as the faut lop elements) mene the tive-sequence i of the faulted line sec~ nN se recap fr abated BC at, V = Vp—Ve and T= Ty—Te in (42 mZiL 42) where: Zs the line positive-sequence impedance; vr ie the distance tothe fault in per unit (p.x.) of Zu tance elements require the phase currents 10 (sce (4.3) times Ground dist bbe compensated by residual current ‘a multiplying factor Ko (see (44))- (43) where: T, isthe measured A-phase curent; J), is the measured B-phase current; Te isthe measured C-phase cureat Fp w ZucZu 3Zu (44) where: Zot. is the line zero-sequence impedance. ‘Table 43 Voltage and current input signals to traditional ‘phase and ground distance elements. Untransposed lines are becoming common. The unbal- anced mutual impedances of untransposed lines cause errors in distance element measurement. Because most relays use positive-sequence impedance to set the ele- ‘ment reach, Zone | elements may overreach and Zone 2 elements may underreach for certain fault types. To accommodate this error, you should reduce the Zone I element reach and extend the Zone 2 ele- ment reach. In some relays, Ko can only be set as a real number, which causes another distance measurement error. SEL relays either use (4.4) to automatically cal- culate Eo from the positive- and zero-sequence imped- ance of the line or allow manual setting of & as a ‘complex value. Ground distance elements may also use the currents of the other two phases of the line, instead of the zero- sequence current, to compensate the phase current [6]. ‘This solution eliminates the error caused by line unbal- ance. Complexity is a drawback: this solution requires ‘setting two multiplying factors instead of only k Modern relays use other voltages or even currents as polarizing quantities instead of the voltage input sig- nals listed in Table 4.3. Section 4.5.4, Section 4.5.5, Scanned with CamScanner