강래형

전북대학교 메카트로닉스공학과, 로스알라모스연구소-전북대학교 한국공학연구소

E-mail : reon.kang@jbnu.ac.kr

Chap. 1 Characteristics of Aircraft Structures

 구조물 (Structure)
• 교량, 터널, 댐 등과 같이 천연 또는 인조 재료를 써서 하중을 기초에 전
달하고 그 사용 목적에 유익하도록 건조된 공작물의 총칭.

• 항공우주구조물 vs. 기타 공학 구조물

 항공우주 구조물은 경량화, 에너지 효율 등에 초점
 Materials with high stiffness, high strength, light weight

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 Chap. 1 Characteristics of Aircraft Structures
[보충설명]
stiffness(강성) vs. strength(강도)

1. 강성/강성도 (Stiffness, 剛性度)

ㅇ 탄성 재료가 변형에 저항하는 정도
- 강성도가 큰 것은 탄성계수가 크며, 탄성변형에 대한 저항이 큰 것을 말함
즉, `강성도`는 `탄성계수`와 등가적임 .. 변형력에 대응하여 복원력을 주는 능력

2. 강도 (Strength)
ㅇ 재료가 파손되지 않고 견딜 수 있는 재료 고유의 특성
- 재료 선택,처리공정에 의해서 영향 받고, 형상(모양)에는 의존하지 않음
ㅇ 강도 세기에 따른 구분
- 항복 강도(Yield Strength) . 탄성변형에서 영구변형이 시작되는 임계 응력 값
- 최대 강도(Ultimate Strength) . 재료가 항복강도를 지나 급격한 단면적 감소(Necking) 현상이 발생
하는 강도
- 파괴 강도/파단 강도(Fracture Strength) . 최대 강도 이상으로 하중이 가해지어 결국 재료가 파괴
되는 강도

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Chap. 1 Characteristics of Aircraft Structures

• Monocoque structures
 Monocoque, also structural skin, is a structural system where loads are
supported through an object's external skin, similar to an egg shell. The word
monocoque is a French term for "single shell" or (of boats) "single hull".
• Semi-monocoque structures
 The term semi-monocoque refers to a stressed shell structure that is similar
to a true monocoque, but which derives at least some of its strength from
conventional reinforcement. Semi-monocoque construction is used for,
among other things, aircraft fuselages, car bodies and motorcycle frames.

The Dornier-Zeppelin D.I, the first production all-metal monocoque aircraft Semi-monocoque structure inside an aircraft's rear fuselage -4-
Chap. 1 Characteristics of Aircraft Structures

• Composite materials

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Chap. 1 Characteristics of Aircraft Structures

 항공기 구조

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Chap. 1 Characteristics of Aircraft Structures

 항공기 제작 과정

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Chap. 1 Characteristics of Aircraft Structures

 항공기 비행 원리 및 종류

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Chap. 1 Characteristics of Aircraft Structures

 항공우주분야의 현재와 미래

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Chap. 1 Characteristics of Aircraft Structures

 항공우주분야의 현재와 미래

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Chap. 1 Characteristics of Aircraft Structures

 항공우주분야의 현재와 미래

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Chap. 1 Characteristics of Aircraft Structures

 사람 힘으로도 하늘을 날 수 있다?

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Chap. 1 Characteristics of Aircraft Structures

 공학(Engineering)이란?

자연현상
수식화
관찰

과학적 지식 수학적 지식

새로운 기능
수행을 위한 검증 해석 문제 해결 실용화
문제 해결 방안 제시
문제 제시 및 실험

경제성 분석

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Chap. 1 Characteristics of Aircraft Structures

 역학(Mechanics)이란?
• a branch of physical science that deals with energy and forces and
their effect on bodies
• the branch of physics that deals with the action of forces on bodies and
with motion, comprised of kinetics, statics, and kinematics.
• Mechanics is an area of science concerned with the behaviour of
physical bodies when subjected to forces or displacements, and the
subsequent effects of the bodies on their environment.

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Chap. 1 Characteristics of Aircraft Structures

 항공우주구조물에 발생하는 진동과 해결 방안

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Chap. 1 Characteristics of Aircraft Structures

 Wing Deformation Test

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Chap. 1 Characteristics of Aircraft Structures

 Flutter Test

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Chap. 1 Characteristics of Aircraft Structures

 Impacts are dangerous

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Chap. 1 Characteristics of Aircraft Structures

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Chap. 1 Characteristics of Aircraft Structures

 Requirements for aircraft structural design

• High Strength - Maximum expected load (limit load ) must not exceed material
failure stress.
• Low Weight - Minimum structural weight for best performance (very important
difference compared to other types of structures). Higher structural weight
requires larger wing area and larger engine thrust, which further increase
weight. Higher weight leads to higher fuel consumption and lower range.
• High Stiffness - Stiffness determines force - deflection (stress - strain)
relationship (Spring: Kx = f; K = AE/L for rod, where E = Young’s modulus, A=
cross sectional area, L = length)
• Large Fatigue Life - Repeated application and removal of loads cause fatigue.
Fatigue failures occur at much smaller stress compared to strength failure.
Takeoff/landing and gust cause load cycles. Fatigue life, rather than strength
requirements, dominate structural design for transport aircraft (~70,000 hrs).
• Large Buckling Resistance - Lateral displacement of columns under axial load
మ ாூ
known as buckling. Critical buckling load, ܲ ൌ గ ൗ௅మ , where I = Moment of
inertia of column cross-section.
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Chap. 1 Characteristics of Aircraft Structures

 Aircraft loads
• Air Loads - Pressure distribution on aircraft during maneuver, gust,
control surface deflection, buffet. Spanwise and chordwise load
distribution.
• Inertia Loads - Acceleration, rotation, vibration, flutter
• Power Plant Loads - Thrust, torque, duct pressure
• Takeoff Loads - Catapult, aborted takeoff
• Landing Loads - Vertical load factor, arrested landing

 Tension, compression, torsion, shear, bending

• Factor of safety (~1.5) applied on ‘limit load’ (largest expected load) to

obtain ‘ultimate load’. Structure must withstand ultimate (or design)
load without failure. For fighter aircraft, limit load = 8 * Weight (‘8g’
maneuver)
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Chap. 1 Characteristics of Aircraft Structures

 Aircraft structural components

• Spars - Beams that extend from wing root to tip.

• Ribs - Maintain airfoil shape and transfer loads to spar.

• Skin - Wing or fuselage skin to carry loads. Small metal strips
(stiffeners, stringers, longerons) attached to prevent buckling.
• Fuselage Frames - Maintain fuselage shape and transfer load

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Chap. 1 Characteristics of Aircraft Structures

 Aircraft Materials (in general)

• Aluminum (80%) - Lightest for most parts (especially buckling)
• Steel (17%) - Highly loaded parts (landing gear, engine fittings)
• Titanium (3%) - High temperature parts (engine nacelle)
• Composites (carbon fiber + epoxy) - Secondary structures (control
surfaces, flaps, wing skin for figthter aircraft)

 Aircraft structures
• Aircraft structures are designed to use every part to its full capability.
Leads to shell-like (monocoque) & stiffened shell (semi-monocoque)
structures.
• Major aircraft components (wings, fuselage, tails) are comprised of
basic structural elements, each of which is designed to take a specific
type of load.

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Chap. 1 Characteristics of Aircraft Structures

 1.2 Basic structural elements in aircraft structure

• 1.2.1 Axial member (Bar, Rod)
 Axial members carry extensional or compressive loads applied along
its axis.

Stress (uniaxial), ߪ ൌ ‫ߝܧ‬

E = Young’s Modulus
ߝ= Normal Strain
Axial Force, ‫ ܨ‬ൌ ‫ ߪܣ‬ൌ ‫ߝܣܧ‬
A = cross-sectional area
EA is called the Axial Stiffness (not affected by the cross-section shape)

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 • 1.2.1 Axial member (Bar)

(1) Axial stiffness equivalent in both beams and (2)Varied axial stiffness

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Chap. 1 Characteristics of Aircraft Structures

• 1.2.2 Shear panel
a thin sheet of material used to carry in-plane shear load.

Shear force along x-direction is given by ܸ௫ ൌ ߬‫ ܽݐ‬ൌ ‫ܽݐߛܩ‬

where , G = shear modulus
ߛ= shear strain
For a curved panel (with constant shear), shear force along y- direction is
given by
ܸ௬ ൌ ߬‫ ܾݐ‬ൌ ‫ܾݐߛܩ‬
Shape of the panel does not affect ; usually it’s determined by non-
structural considerations (e.g., aerodynamic shape).

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Chap. 1 Characteristics of Aircraft Structures

• 1.2.2 Shear panel

ܸ௫ ܽ
ൌ
ܸ௬ ܾ
 Due to the ratio of geometric value in the x/y directions and the
corresponding shear stresses, a flat plate is the most efficient in
providing shear force per unit of material.

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Chap. 1 Characteristics of Aircraft Structures

• 1.2.3 Bending member (Beam)
 carry bending moments and also act as axial members.

ௗమ ௪
Beam theory, ‫ܯ‬௬ ൌ െ‫ܫܧ‬௬
ௗ௫ మ
where, My= Bending Moment
EI = Bending Stiffness
I = Area moment of Inertia
w = beam deflection along z-axis

 Beams also carry transverse shear forces, but if span (L) / depth (h) is
large, bending stresses are much larger. Wide-flange beam (as shown
above) are very efficient bending members.

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Chap. 1 Characteristics of Aircraft Structures

• 1.2.4 Torsion member

 carry torque formed by shear stresses acting in the plane of the
cross-section.

Hollow cylinders with equal cross-sectional areas

Torque, ܶ ൌ ‫ߠܬܩ‬
where, ߠ= twist angle (per unit length)
‫ =ܬܩ‬torsional stiffness
 Thin walled tubes are very efficient torsion members.

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Chap. 1 Characteristics of Aircraft Structures

 Wing and fuselage structures
• are a collection of the basic structural elements. Both wing and fuselage act
like beams and torsion members.
 Wing structure
• has axial members (stringers), bending members (spars), shear panels (spar
web, skin), ribs (in-plane transverse load; also reduce effective buckling length
of stringers).
• Wing skin together with spar webs forms an efficient torsion member. Subsonic
airplanes have thin skins; supersonic airplanes have relatively thicker skins
with integral stiffeners.
 Fuselage
• has small air loads, but large concentrated loads from wings, landing gear, pay
loads etc. Also loaded by internal pressure in the case of passenger aircraft.
• Fuselage skin (shear stress), stringers (or, longerons) for bending moment and
axial forces, frames/bulkheads for distributing concentrated loads and
maintaining shape.

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