Xperiment@)) AIM: : = IM: To find the focal length °F a convex mirror, using a convex lens, 7 REQUIREMENTS ; Optical bench with two pins, THEORY: A convex mirror always forms a virtual imag find the focal length, indirect method as describe length has been found is placed between the com The object needle is placed of convex mirror behind the at O itself It will happen o1 after the refraction throug] @ convex lens, convex mirror, lens holder, mirror holder and four uprights, € and, therefore, its focal length cannot be found directly. To -d below is used. An auxiliary convex lens whose rough focal vex mirror M and the object needle O as shown in figure 2.1 at a distance about 1.5 times the rough focal length of convex lens and convex lens is so adjusted that a real and inverted image of object needle is formed nly if the rays of light starting from the object O, strike the convex mirror normally th the convex lens. In the absence of the convex mirror, these rays would have met a e position R _ 7 the centre of curvature of the mirror. The focal length of a convex mirror f= > Where R is the radius o curvature and is equal to PIL PROCEDURE : X (@) Determine the rough focal length of the convex lens. : : (6) Clamp the lens holder with the convex lens at 50 om mark on the optical bench. Fix this upright in thi position throughout. ; (c) Take a thin optical needle and mount it on an upright and place it at a distance of 1.5 times the focal lengt! of the convex lens towards the left of the lens. . (4) Mount the convex mirror on another upright and place it near the lens towards the right of the len as show in figure 2.1 Fig.240* ; sed and about 30 cm away from the object needle see the im verted image of t the left eye closed an eee ie formed by reflection fom ie convex mot Let the tips ofthe object needle and the image of the object ede coincide (f) Let the i rth. (g) Remove the parallax by moving the convex mirror back and e =PP (i) Note the position of the convex mirror upright, ( Remove the convex mirror and place another upright with a thick needle, Now, ee the parallax between the image needle and the image of object needle on the other side of the lens (note you are not to disturb the position of lens or the object needle) while adjusting the position of the image needle. (k) Note the position of the image needle, ()) Find the index correction to be applied to. OBSERVATIONS : Length of knitting needle, x o Observed distance between I needle and back of convex mirror, y= Index correction for R = (xy) om Rough focal length’ of the convex lens = TABLE Position of upright carrying]) \Radius of curvature (R) | Focal length Correctéd Pi : S.No. | Convex mirror|Image needle| Observed PI Pom) | Hem) | | (em) Pa a io casei fill dood RESULT: The focal length of the given convex mirror is... om. PRECAUTIONS : (i) The uprights should be vertical (i Do not place the object needle closer than the rough focal length of the I | (use spirit level to make the optical bench horizontal). lens. This will produce a virtual image. (ii) Tips of object needle and image need of the mirror and lens. (iv) Keep your eye at least 30 cm away (0) Parallax should be removed tip 10 tip. (i) Index correction should be applied to lle should be at the same height and should correspond with the centre from the image needle to view the image clearly. R, the radius of curvature of the mirror, SOURCES OF ERROR: (i) The uprights may not be vertical. (ii) The parallax removed may not be perfect. not be accurate. (iii) The scale chosen on the graph may oe alAIM : To find the focal length of a convex lens by, plotting graphs between u and y or between z and i} y REQUIREMENTS : ‘An optical bench, three uprights, a convex lens, a lens holder, two optical needles and a half metre scale, THEORY : ‘When a ray of light, parallel tothe principal axis is incident on a lens, it ater refraction, passes through the focus OF apPeats to pass through the focus. In case of a convex lens, the nature and size of the image depends on the Position of the object, To find the focal length of given convex lens, we can use the formula : ea i u where _v = distance of the image from the optical centre, u = distance of the object from the optical centre. Jf = focal length of the lens. [Note : the sign of wis to be taken negative as per the sign covention}, In this method, we find the values of v for different values of w using the method of parallax. ‘We plot graphs (i) between u (taken along the ve axis) and v (taken along the +ve axis). The shape of the graph is as shown in fig. 3.2. The value of the focal length is determined as explained under ‘calculation’. (ii) The graph between -t (taken along ~ve x-axis) and +t (taken along +ve y-axis). The graph will be a straight line as shown in fig. 3.3, cutting the y-axis at the point P and Q respectively. At the point P, + = 0, therefore, the intercept OP gives us the reciprocal of focal length Similarly, at the point Q, 2 = 0 and the intercept OQ gives the reciprocal ofthe focal length, PROCEDURE : ; (@) Obtain the rough focal length of the given convex lens by focusing the image of a distant object on the wall. ‘Twice the value of this focal length gives 2fof the given lens Mount the given lens on the lens holder and place the upright ‘on’ position 50 om ofthe optical bench, | * Level the optical bench with the help of adjusting screw and the spirit level. a P Place the optical needle on one side boil of the lens at position between f and 2f and the image needle on the other’ object, i side as shown in figure 3.1 © © @ Image Needle Fig. 3.1 GRAPH OF 11uAND 1/v.Remove the parallax between the image ofthe object needle and the image needle, To remove the paral letthe tips of the image needle andthe image of the object needle coincide, The image needleis nomad forward or backward o thatthe image ofthe object needle and the image needle move together when the eye is moved to left or right. (f) Note the position of object needle, imageneedle andthe lens uprights. Move the object needle 2 om behind 2fand remove the parallax and repeat the above step. (s) (i). Repeat the above steps with diferent postion of object needle without disturbing thelens postion (i) Find the index corrections tobe applied tow and. OBSERVATIONS : Length of kniting needle, x=... 6m Observed distance between O needle and convex lens, = .n.6MM Observed distance between I needle and convex lens, = index correction for u=(°—}) vure-0-0M Index correction for v= (@— 2) v--.eu6m Rough focal length ofthe Iens = oes 6 : TABLE PR EOH oh tnolUpright Tal MMS Distances (em) men sna fom eam! em S.No. aa . Cae 6 is oat eee 30 | «| ee 4 Beas | emetal al ee 5 aie 5. | CALCULATIONS (BY GRAPHICAL METHOD) : a (1) u-vgraph: “i Select a suitable scale and plot the graph between u and v, Represent w on —ve x-axis andv On +tve taxis. The graph willbe as shown in figure 3.2 Draw.a line OA making an angle 45° with either x-axis or y-axis. The point where it meets the rectangular hyperbola is (2f, 2/). Half the value of either coordinate'gives us the value of f Select a suitable scale (be very careful in selecting the scale for this graph) and plot a graph between. sand othe: ‘graph will be as shown in iv a figure3.3.‘The straight line passing through the points will. cut the x-axis and y-axis arpointsPand Q BL 1 The intercepts OQ = =F and OP =: Hence, the reciprocal of the iatercepteives the value of f= Li* Sr oy, Z RESULT: ‘The focal length of the given convex lens as determined from : () The calculation in tabular column =... us om (i) From the u-v graph =..,.... . CM, (ii) From and = raph. seine OT, PRECAUTIONS : @) The uprights should be vertical (use spiritlevel to make the optical bench horizontal). (i) Donot place the object needle closer than the rough focal length of the lens. This will produce a virtual image. (ii) Tips of object needle and image needle should be at the same height and should: correspond with the centre of the «Tens, (iv) Keep your eye at least 30 cm away from the image needle to view the image cleatly. (%) The parallax should be removed tip to tip. SOURCES OF ERROR: ( The upright may not be vertical (1) The parallax removed may not be perfect (it) The scale chosen on the graph may not be accurate. AIM : To find the focal length of a concave le REQUIREMENTS : Concave lens, convex lens, four uprights, two optical neds, lens older, optical bench, THEORY : ti A concave lens always forms a virtual image and hence its focal length cannot be found directly, Therefore, we tise an indirect method to find its focal length. The process is similar to the one discussed in experiment 2. However, the Convex mirror is replaced by a concave lens. ‘ As shown in the fig, 4.1, the image of an object at O is formed at. The position of this located by removing parallax between P and the image I,periment AIM: To find the focal length of a concave lens, using a convex lens. REQUIREMENTS : Concave lens, convex lens, four uprights, two optical needles, lens holder, optical bench. THEORY : A concave lens always forms a virtual image and hence its focal length cannot be found directly. Therefore, we use an indirect method to find its focal length. The process is similar to the one discussed in experiment 2. However, the convex mirror is replaced by a concave lens. As shown in the fig. 4.1, the image of an object at O is formed at I. The position of this located by removing parallax between P; and the image I).concave lens is now introduced between the convex lone and pin Py, ‘The Lnage off, vall nove shift to shift the concave lens, 1) serves as a virtual object and lie real nage ta formed at ly, ‘Therefore, the concave lens 1 " The focal ent can bo colette wings orm f= = hoy fo, J Pole wey Note that according to the sign convention, bot wand # are positive, PROCEDURE : (a). Find the rough focal length of the lons by focussing the image of the distant object on the wall, Also, find index correction between tho image needle and concave lens, (b) Place a mounted pin P; aO ata distance greater than its focal length from the convex lens, (c) Obtain its real invorted image 1 on the other side of the lens by removing the parallax between image of the object O and the second noodle P, at I (see figure 4.1). Note the position of Py on optical bench, (d) Place the given concave lons in between the pin P, and the convex lens.‘The inverted image has shifted from the convex lens. (ce). Bring the concave lens closer to contyex lens until this shift i fairly large, (A). Shiftpin P2 and locate the image Ip by removing the parallax between the pin P, and image fy. Note ther position of P Let the distance of image I, from the concave lens be w and the distance of image I, from the cone lens be v, 1 ran Find the focal length of the concave lens by using the formula = = va (1) Find the index correction between the image needle and the concave lens. (g) CONVEXLENS OBSERVATIONS : Length of the knitting needle, x=. Observed distance between the needle and concave lens, y Index correction for both v and y=4~y= Rough focal length of the given convex lens: ke)Position of | Positionofconcave| Positionof | Obs zi cd | Ci Na imi age ly lens upright nage, ne ‘orrected net Corrected | 5_. a upright (cm) L(cm) upright I, (cm)| _u(cm) u(cm) | v(cm) v(cm) | (om) 4. 2: 3. 4, 5. ; RESULT: Mean f= 0.0... The focal length of the given concave lens =~......... cm. PRECAUTIONS : (i) Focal length of convex lens should be less than the focal length of concave lens so that the combination is convex. (i) The uprights should be vertical (use spirit level to make the optical bench horizontal). (iii) Donot place the object needle closer to the rough focal length of the lens. This will produce-a virtual image. (iv) Tips of objectneedle’and image needle should beat the same height and should correspond with the centre of the lens. (v) Keep your eye at least 30 cm away from the image needle to view the image clearly. (vi) Index correction should be applied to both w and v. SOURCES OF ERROR : () The upright may not be vertical. (ii) The parallax removed may not be perfect: (iff) The scale chosen 07 the graph may not be accurate.AIM : To determine the angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by pl otting a graph between the angle of incidence and the angle of deviation. REQUIREMENTS : Prism, drawing board, pins, white paper. THEORY: es E Refracting edge (Refraction through a glass prism 3A prisms a refracting medium bounded by intersecting plane surfaces that both disperse and deviate light. The two plane surfaces meet along an edge at a certain angle. These planes are called the refracting surfaces) The edgeis called the refracting edge and the angle is called the angle of prism or the refracting angle. A prism may be bound by any number of surfaces but the surface on which light is incident and the surface from which light emerges must be plane and non- parallel. D Refraction Refraction angle angleFite. shows thebchaviouroftay RQ when incident on th prism whoseseeton ABC inf. 2P1+-209+ 2QOS » 27425, as0A-+ZQ08 «291,24 nen + Fron (1) and (2), we have : 1) Lh Ley Lr o Asrptry and DaitenA But es Sin £0) When incident ray suffars minimum deviation :/=¢ andy == 0 AS 2r or r= A2 wld) ja (Dt aa 36) Substituting (4) and (5) in (3), wo got me 9.6.2 AtDn (SS) WS intl) Angle of minimum deviation (D,,) : IL is the minimum value of angle of deviation. PROCEDURE : (a) Fixa white paper on a drawing board with theholp of thumb pins, (0) Drawalinexx’ through the centre ofthe paper longitudinally. (C). Keop the triangular face ofthe prism with ono ofits edge onthe line and draw the boundary of the prism with thehelp of a sharp peneil [remember you have to draw at least 2 such boundaries at suitable distance on the same side of the page, see figure 5.3 below). Fig. 6.3 ormal N on the side AB at Q, aight ines Ry, making angle of 30° With thenormal ix two paper pins P, and P; on line RiQ. Keep the pins at maximum distance away from each other, (at Jeast 8 cm SO that you can locate the direction of incident ray and the emergent ray with an accuracy of 1°). pace the prism back on the mark ABC, Look forthe image of the pins Py ane P through the fuce AC, (@) Drawn (e) Draws! (x)(i) Take the third pin P,, close: ‘your left eye and fix the pin P, at such a: Position that the ima, and P3 be on the same line : : (Now, take the fourth pin Py, again close your left eye and fix the pin atsuch a position that the image of pins Rand Py and the pins P, and Py lie on the same line. [Fix the fourth Pin at least 8 em away from, the pin Ps}. Remove the pins from their Positions and encircle the points. Draw lines through point P,, Po aid P3, Py as shown in figure 5.3, ae () Produce the emergent tay backward and incident ray forward to meet at E, Measure the angle of deviation marked D. (#) Repeatall the above steps for angles 35°, 30° as the incident Tay may suffer total ( Plotthe graph of and D with D on y-axis s and i on.x-axis, The graph will be parabolic as shown in figure 5.4 OBSERVATIONS : _— Be of pins P; and Pe 40°, 45°, 50°, 55°, 60° - Donot take the angle of incidence less than intemal reflection), Angle ofprismA=...... CALCULATIONS : Draw the graph between i and D with D along the y-axis andialong . g theais. The graph will e U-shaped as shown in figure's,4, Find the mao inna Aeviation by drawing a staighe Pependcuerinetiom —§ f Owest point of the Staph to the y-axis. Call thi angle to be D,,. 3 To find the refractive index ofthe prism use equation : Sb oS $F inde oF ernence Fig. 84° y prism May not be useful ag the sizes of the prisms are very small and AC with a Tuler and place the prism touching the ruler,os a oF xperiment @) AIM: To study the I-V characteristic curve of a p- REQUIREMENTS ; Ap=ijmetion diode, a three volt battery, and connecting wires, THEORY; ‘junction diode in forward bias and reverse bias. ahigh resistance rheostat, 0-3 volt voltmeter, one milliammeter, one way key A p-n junction is a semiconductor device obtained by putting in contact a p-type semiconductor with an n-type Semiconductor. The one piece device so obtained is also ealled a junction diode, A junction diode can be biased in: two different ways : Forward biasing :In forward biasing, the p-type of crystal is connected tothe +e. of the bias battery and n-type to the -ve of the battery. In forward biasin g, the current increases as the forward bias is increased. The current increases slowly inthe beginning and then sharply. The forward current flows only if the initial forward voltageis greater than a certain minimum voltage represented by knee voltage. Reverse biasing : A p-n junction is said to reverse biased ifthe p-type crystal is connected to ve terminal and type is connected fo the +ve terminal ofthe bias battery Now, a very small current (in 1A) flows due to minority carriers. This current s called saturation current because itis found to be independent ofthe reverse bias, At certain Teverse voltage, the current suddenly increases due tothe breaking of the covalent bonds. This reverse voles called the zener breakdown voltage. PROCEDURE: : FORWARD CHARACTERISTICS: (@ Make the connections as shown in figure 8.1. mii on \VOLTMETER Fig. 8.4 Fe id milliamme (®) Keep the moving contact of the rheostat to the minimum and insert the key K. Voltmeter and milliammeter will showazero reading, 7 Is ias voltage Vi (c). Move the contact towards the positive of the battery to apply the forward bias voltage Vr remains zero. ‘ oa a _____ eereneeNRRSTCSTASNARUARE T= 0.1V. The currentthe forward bias vol Vi (@) Inotease ard bias voltage to 0.3 V in ste i : ote Steps. The current wil still be zero, (This is due to the juncti Vv) ion (¢) Increase ‘Vp to 0.4 V. Record the current. () Increase Vp in steps of 0.2 V and note the corres] 7 ponding milliammeter and . AtVp=2.4V. 7 and voltmeter readings, i ea i: ceak te Current increases suddenly. This represents the forward breakdown a () Braph between V and I, taking V along x-axis and I on ye — figure 8,3. J-axis. The graph will be as shown in REVERSE BIASING ; Forplotting reverse I-V characteristics the circuits modified as + Gi on sh ‘ thep-njunction. The milliammeter is replaced by microammeter as Sui. Thevolmeter as before is comeced aos shown. BATTERY Fig. 8.2 PROCEDURE : Same as in forward bias. The microammeter readings are noted corresponding to different voltmeter readings. A graph between V and Is plotted by taking V along x-axis and I along y-axis: The graph obtained is as shown in the figure 8.3. : 8 REVERSEBIAS | \ et 3. 3. —> FORWARD § BIAS, g v CURRENTINBA Fig. 03S.No. Correct readings of Voltmeter Milliammeter or microammeter Forward | * bias 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Reverse | 1. = bias 2 3. 4. 5. 6. ag = PRECAUTIONS : () Measuring instruments must be of proper range. => (ii) Make all connections neat, clean and tight. (iii) Key shouldbe used in circuit and opened when the circuitis not in use, (iv) Avoid applying forward bias voltage beyond breakdown. SOURCES OF ERROR : (@ The connection may not be tight. (ii) “The. junction'diode may be faulty.