The Influence of the Material of Wind-Instruments on the Tone Quality

Author(s): Dayton C. Miller

Source: Science , Jan. 29, 1909, New Series, Vol. 29, No. 735 (Jan. 29, 1909), pp. 161-171
Published by: American Association for the Advancement of Science

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/1636184

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 . . . t. . . .

SCIENCE
A WEEgLY JtURNAL DEVOTEB TO THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENC
OFFICIAL NOTiCES AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN ASSO
FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OFl $CiENCE'
..FRIDAY, JANUARY 29, 19

FRiDAY, JANUARY 29, 1909 THS INFLUEN0B OF THE MATERIAL OP

WIND-INSTRUMENTS ON THE TONE
CONTENTS QUALITY1
The Influence of the Material of Wind- SOUND is the sensation resulting from
instruments on the Tone Quality: PRO-
FESSOR DAYTON C. MILLER ............... 161 the action of an external stimulus on the
sensitive
Report of Committee on Standards of Amer-nerve apparatus of the ear; it is
ican Universities ...................... 171
a species of reaction against this external
The Seventh International Congress of Ap-
plied Chemistry ........................ 174 stimulus, peculiar to the ear, excitable in
Darwin Anniversary Committee .. 176 no other organ of the body, and completely
Columbia University Darwin Lectures ..... 177 distinct from the sensations of any other
Scientific Notes and News ................ 177 sense.
University and Educational News ......... 181
Atmospheric vibration is the normal and
Discussion and Uorrespondence:-
Convocation Week: PROFESSOR WM. TRE- usual means of excitement for the ear,
pEASE. Gray's New Manual of Botany this vibration being produced directly in
PROFESSOR HENRY L. BOLLEY. Distribution
of the Nobel Prize: PROFESSOR WALTER F. some instruments, called wind-instruments,
W ILLCOX .............................. 182 and indirectly through the vibration of
Quotations:-
Harvard University and the Massachusetts elastic bodies in others, such as string and
Institute of Technology ................. 184 percussion instruments; and often the vi-
Scientific Books:- bration originates in bodies not especially
Church's Mechanics of Engineering: PRo-
ESSoR H. T. EDDY. Allen's Commercial designed for producing sounds.
Organic Analysis: PROFESSOR ALFRED HOFF- Physics is mainly concerned with the
MAN. Pittier's Las Plantas Usuales de
Costa Rica: W. E. SAFFORD. Snyder's nrature of the external stimulus, and the
Human Foods and their Nutritive Value:
word sound is often restricted to refer
PROFESSOR ELLEN H. RICHARDS .......... 185
Scientific Journals and Articles ........... 188 only to these external stimuli. But the
Botanical Notes:- purely mechanical properties of these
Two Recent Papers on Algce; Papers on
Fungi; Connecticut Mossworts: PROFEssOB
stimuli often differ among themselves dif-
CHARLES E. BESSEY ...... ............. 189 ferently than do the auditory effects. Our
Anthropology at the British Association: H. 90 interest is largely in relation to musical
Special Articles:-
The Presence of Water Vapor in the At-
sounds and hence for the present investi-
mosphere of Mars demonstrated by Quanti- gation we are concerned with the proper-
tative Measurements: DR. FRANK W. VERY.
The Selachians admitted as a Distinct ties of the sounds of mechanical physics
Class: DB. THEO. GILL .................. 191 only in so far as they affect the ear, or
Seventh Annual Meeting of the Society of produce sensation. We may, therefore,
Vertebrate Paleontologists: DR. W. D.
MATTHEW .............................. 194 define sound substantially in the words of
Societies and Academies:- Helmholtz, as already given, and proceed
The Geological Society of Washington:
DR. RALPH ARNOLD. The Society of Ex- 1Address of the vice-president and chairman of
perimental Biology and Medicine: DR. WM. Section B, American Association for the Advance-
J. GIES. The New York Section of the
American Chemical Society: C. M. JOYCE 198 ment of Science, delivered December 29, 1908.

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162 SCIENCB [N. S. VOL. XXIX. No. 73t

to investigate the physical cause of these characteristic of the tone called pitch;
sensations. this is easily proven to depend upon a very
If we investigate how many kinds of simple condition, that of mere frequency
sensation the ear can generate, we find of vibration.
that, either because of fundamental or ac- The second property of tone is loudness
quired distinctions, the ear divides sounds or intensity, which is not so simple as
roughly into two main classes, noises and pitch. For tones of the same pitch, it
musical tones. Helmholtz's distinction varies mainly as the energy of vibration,
between tone and noise, that one is periodicand this is a function of the amplitude of
and the other non-periodic, in the light vibration,
of varying approximately as its
recent experiments, seems hardly adequate. square; loudness also varies with pitch,
Analysis clearly shows that many musical approximately as the square of the fre-
tones are non-periodic, at least in quency. the As regards the loudness of what
sense intended; and it is equally certain we hear, very much depends upon the in-
that noises are as nearly periodic asdividualare ear, and, as Professor Sabine
some tones. In some instances noises are has clearly shown, upon the surrounding
due to a rapidly changing period, causing objects, walls of rooms, etc.
non-periodicity; but by far the greater The third property of tone is much the
number of noises, which are continuous, most complicated; it is that characteristic
are merely complex and only apparently of sounds produced from some particular
instrument or voice, by which they are
irregular; their analysis is difficult or im-
possible. The ear, often because of lack distinguished from the sounds of the same
of training, or the absence of suitable loudness and pitch, produced from other
standards for comparison, or perhapsinstruments
on or voices. This character-
account of fatigue, fails to appreciate theistic is called timbre, clang-tint, klang-
farbe, or, best of all, the idea is expressed
relations between certain sounds, and, re-
signing its attention, classes the soundsby
as the simple English word quality; we
noises. The study of noises is essentialshall
to use the word quality in this specific
the understanding of the qualities of sense.

musical instruments, and especially of With comparatively little practise any

speech; but their study may well be passed one can acquire the ability to distinguish
till we more completely understand the with great ease any one of a long series of
nature of the apparently simpler, and musical instruments, even when they all
much more interesting, musical tones. sound tones of the same loudness and
While actual musical tones may be non- pitch. There is an almost infinite variet
periodic, containing incommensurable par- of tone quality; not only do different in-
tial tones, yet it is probable that the com- struments have characteristic qualities, but
ponents are individually periodic, and different individual instruments of the
often the entire tone is periodic. We may same family show more delicate shades of
proceed with the provisional definition that tone quality; and even notes of the same
the sensation of tone is caused by a periodic pitch can be sounded on a single instru-
vibration in the air, and to this we are ment with qualitative variations. The
mainly to confine our attention. bowed instruments, of the violin family,
The ear, further, receives three classes show this ability in a marked degree. But
of sensations from tones, and presumably no musical instrument equals the human
no more. One of these gives rise to the voice in the richness of qualitative va-

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JANUARY 29, 1909] SCIENCE 163

rieties and variations; speech employs
these very qualitative varieties to distin-
guish the letters and syllables.
When we inquire as to the cause of tone
quality, since pitch depends upon fre-
quency and loudness upon amplitude, we
conclude that quality must depend upon
the only remaining property of a periodic
vibration, namely, the peculiar kind or
form of the motion; or, if we represent
the vibration by a curve or wave line, the
quality is dependent upon the peculiarities
represented by the shape of the wave.
one period is entirely arbitrary, and may
indeed be infinitely various.
The method by which the ear proceeds
in its analysis of tone quality was first
definitely stated by Ohm, in Ohm's law of
acoustics. Helmholtz states this law in
the following forms:
All musical tones, however complex or peculiar
in quality, are periodic; the human ear perceives
pendular vibrations alone as simple tones, and it
resolves all other periodic motions of the air into
a series of pendular vibrations, hearing the series
of simple tones which correspond to these simple
vibrations.

There is possible an endless variety of Another rendering of this law is:

motion for the production of sound, and Every motion of the air which corresponds to a
quality is, therefore, almost infinitely com- composite mass of musical tones is capable of
plicated in its causes, as compared with being analyzed into a sum of simple pendular
the other two properties of sounds. vibrations, and to each such simple vibration
corresponds a simple tone, sensible to the ear, and
There can not be a simpler mode of vi-
having a pitch determined by the periodic time
bration than that known as simple har- of the corresponding motion of the air.
monic motion, which is represented by the
The separate component tones are called
wave line called the sine curve; such mo-
partial tones, or simply partials; that par-
tion is often referred to as pendular
tial having the lowest frequency is the
motion. Tuning forks properly con-
fundamental, while the others are over-
strueted and mounted on resonance boxes
tones. However, it sometimes happens
are shown by analysis to produce vibra-
that a partial not the lowest in frequency
tions in the air which are single simple
is so predominant as to give the main char-
harmonic motions; the resulting tones are
acter to the whole sound, and it may be
called simple tones, and their sensation mistaken
is for the fundamental. If the
markedly simple and pure. If several
overtones have frequencies which are
simple tones of different pitches, as from
exact multiples of the frequency of the
several tuning forks, are simultaneously
fundamental, they are often called har-
sounded, they simultaneously excite differ-
monics; otherwise they may be designated
ent systems of waves, which exist as varia-
as inharmonic partials.
tions in density of the air; the resulting
In stating his law, in 1843, Ohm says:
displacements, velocities, and changes in
Fourier spread light in our darkness when he
density of the air are each equal to the brought out (in 1822) his work "La Th4orie
algebraic sum of the corresponding dis-Analytique de la Chaleur," and so enabled the-
placements, velocities and changes in den- oretical mechanics to solve the most difficult prob-
sity which each system of waves wouldlems of physics with unparalleled ease.
have separately produced had it acted in- Fourier had shown in a purely mathe-
dependently. There must, therefore, bematical way, and with no idea of acoustical
peculiarities in the motion of a single application, that any given regular peri-
particle of air which differ for a singleodic function can always be expanded in
tone and for a combination of tones; anda trigonometric series of sines and cosines,
in fact the kind of motion during any and for each case in one single way only.

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164 SCIENCE [N. S. VOL. XXIX. No. 735.

Each sine or cosine term in the series may (1618) says:

Descartes
be considered as representing a single No musical sound can be heard which does not

vibration; then in Fourier's series, the suc- appear to the ear to be accompanied by the octave
above it.
cessive terms have frequencies which are
exact multiples of the first, but the ampli- Mersenne (1636) says of Aristotle:
tudes and phase differences are arbitrary He seems to have been ignorant of the fact that
and can always be found in every given every string produces five or more different sounds
at the same time, the strongest of which is called
case, by peculiar methods of calculation
the natural tone of the string, and alone is accus-
which Fourier has shown.
tomed to be taken notice of, for the others are so
So far as Fourier's theorem is concerned feeble that they are perceptible only to delicate
this method of analyzing sound vibrations ears.

might be merely a mathematical form, not Perrault (1680) says:

necessarily having any corresponding Every noise, although apparently simp
actual meaning in the sounds themselves. effect a system and an assemblage of an
Moreover, in actual musical sounds, many of partial noises that compose a total, in
of the important partials are not exact no confusion is remarked on account of the
that all these partial noises have together
multiples of the fundamental in frequency,
that is, they are inharmonic, and with these Sauver (1702) remarks that
Fourier's theorem has nothing whatever to The organ only imitates by the combin
its stops the natural harmony of sonorou
do, although Ohm's law still applies to
them. La Grange and Bernoulli (1760
Helmholtz fully demonstrates that the state clearly the cause of quality:
ear unaided can thus analyze tones; he also The same single sonorous ray may be m
the same time by many species of vibratio
developed several methods for assisting the
do not interfere with each other in any
ear, chiefly by the use of resonators. His in the place of a node with regard to one
monumental work, "Tonenempfindungen," a segment may be formed with regard to
was referred to by our chairman last year
Monge (1800) says that
as
Quality is due to the order and number
produced by a masterful knowledge of physiology,
vibrations of the aliquot parts of a strin
physics and mathematics, and a scholar'stheknowl-
vibrations of these aliquot parts could
edge of the literature of music, remarkable for its all strings, of whatever materia
pressed,
breadth, completeness and wealth of detail.
yield tones of the same quality.
A large part of this work is concerned
Young (1800), describing his e
with the demonstrations of Ohm's law thatments for rendering visible the vib
the quality of a musical sound is dependent
of a string by means of a ray of ligh
upon the particular combination of partialAccording to the various modes of apply
tones which make up the sound under ex- bow an immense variety of orbits are pr
amination. He held that more than enough to account for all the dif
of tone by different performers.
Differences in musical quality of tone depend
solely on the presence and strength of partialBiot (1817) says:
tones, and in no respect on the difference in All
phasesonorous bodies yield simultaneou
under which these partial tones enter into com-
infinite number of sounds of gradually d
position. intensity, but the law for the series of h
is different for bodies of different forms;
A few historical references may be inter- difference which produces the particular c
esting as showing how clearly these ideas of sound called timbre. And may not th
were perceived by the earliest investigators. of each particular substance, wood or met

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JANUARY 29, 1909] SCIENCE 165

instance, be due to the superior intensity of one but that phase is a factor too important to
or another harmonic?
be left out of account. If changes in the
Many other quotations might be given number and intensity of the partials give
of opinions expressed by Rameau, Chladni,rise to such differences in quality as we
Wheatstone and others; but enough observehas in instruments belonging to differ-
ent families, Koenig says the changes in
been said to show that the ideas as to qual-
ity were well understood before Ohm putthe difference of phase for the same par-
tials are competent to produce differences
forth his law, which is almost misnamed.
Helmholtz (1862) defended and devel- of quality at least as sensible as those
oped Ohm's theorem, and gave elaborate which are noticed in instruments of the
proof of it, chiefly by the use of resonators. same kind.
Melde (1864) made visible, by his beautiful Helmholtz says distinctly that if we dis-
tuning-fork monochord, the simultaneous regard the noise of rushing wind, the
proper musical quality of the tone pro-
existence of two or more harmonic vibra-
tions in a string. Koenig (1872) showedduced by blowing over the mouth of a
bottle is really the same as that produced
the simultaneous coexistence of two sets of
waves in the same organ pipe by means of by a tuning fork; and that the tone of a
his manometric flames. flute, which according to Helmholtz is
The theories of Ohm and Helmholtz seem practically devoid of over-tones, is the same
so simple that they have generally been as that of a tuning fork. Since we agree
accepted as expressing the whole physical to some extent with Seebeck, that tone qual-
condition, and few investigators have suc- ity must be decided by the ear, we hesitate
cessfully combated them. Seebeck (1844) to adopt the conclusion that the bottle and
argued that the quality of tone must be the fork both give simple tones of the same
decided by the ear, and he concluded that musical quality.
the definition of a simple tone given by When this address was first thought of,
Ohm is too limited; he believes that other it was hoped that some conclusions might
forms of vibration besides the pendular are be reached regarding this general question.
capable of giving the sensations of a single But, for reasons referred to later, it seems
simple tone, and that simple tones may best to limit our further consideration to
have different qualities among themselves. certain particular instances, about which
Seebeck greatly improved the siren, and it is believed some definite conclusions can
used it to produce the fundamental and be drawn.

partial tones with which he experimented. Perhaps the points to be investigated

Helmholtz admits the experimental results will be most clearly presented by a some-
of Seebeck, and after extended argument, what personal statement of the incidents
he claims that Seebeck did not give proper that led to this enquiry.
attention to the hearing of the partials. In connection with the study of the flute
Another investigator to oppose Helm- as a musical instrument there arose the
holtz was Koenig; he was not satisfied with question which may be specifically stated:
the statement as to the cause of tone-qual- Is the tone quality of a flute, the tube of which
ity. Koenig invented the wave siren, a is made of gold, superior to that of a similar flute
very beautiful piece of demonstration ap- having a tube of silver or of wood? If there is a
difference, what is its cause?
paratus, with which he showed that qual-
ity is not accounted for solely by the pres- Probably many will be inclined at once
ence and relative intensity of the partials; to dismiss the subject as not a question,

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166 SCIENCE [N S. VOL. XXIX. No. 735

claiming that there can be no difference patented by Laurent, of Paris, the advan-
in such a case, due to material. The writer
tages claimed being, not tone-quality, but
was of this opinion at one time. When freedom from checking, changes of bore,
visiting the establishment of an eminentand leakage. Ivory has been used for
London flute maker, in 1900, he was shown small flutes, and parts of large flutes,
several flutes which were tested. One in- mainly for the sake of appearance. In
strument seemed of such unusual excellence 1847 Theobald Boehm, of Munich, a Royal
that the remark was made that it was cer- Bavarian court-musician, who had, in
tainly of the finest quality of any that 1832,
had invented a new system of fingering
ever been tried. After the instrument had
and key construction, made elaborate ex-
been returned to its case, the writer en-
periments on the bore, size of holes, and
quired whether it would be possible, atmaterial. These experiments had an aca-
some time in the visit to London, for him demic relationship, for they were carried
out under the guidance of Dr. Carl von
to see one of the few gold flutes which had
been made, and which were celebrated for Schafhautl, an eminent professor in the
quality. The reply was startlingly unex- University of Munich, who was a life-long
pected, for the maker said, with evident personal friend of Boehm. Boehm experi-
satisfaction, that the flute just played was
mented with hundreds of tubes, and our
of gold! It had been prepared for the interest lies in the fact that he introduced
Paris Exposition, but was not being ex- with great success cylindrical tubes of
hibited, as the English exhibits had beenhard-drawn silver, though wood tubes were
largely withdrawn because of some French also used. There at once arose a contro-
caricatures of Queen Victoria. It may be versy as to the relative merits of various
well, also, to add that the flute had been materials, which still rages.
examined in dim artificial light, the color Besides being one of the world's greatest
thus escaping notice. However, the inci- artists and a composer of ability, Boehm
dent carried conviction to the writer, as maintained one of the most celebrated flute
very few tests could have done. manufactories, and made hundreds of
As further justification for considering flutes of the highest excellence; instruments
this question, several quotations will be made in his lifetime are to-day valued
given showing the great difference of opin- above all others, as the old Italian violins
ion among those who should speak with au- are valued above modern instruments.
thority. Near the end of his career, in 1871, he
Each kind of wind instrument, except published a book giving the results of his
the flute, has always been made of its own sixty years of experience, in which he
proper kind of material; there are two says:
large classes, the wood-wind and the brass- The greater or less hardness and brittleness of
wind of the orchestra. Each group has its the material has a very great effect upon the
quality of tone. Upon this point much experience
distinct tone quality, which is generally is at hand. Tubes of pewter give the softest, and
considered as due to the method of tone at the same time the weakest, tones; those made of
production, while the material is regarded
very hard and brittle German silver have, on the
as a matter of mechanical convenience. contrary, the most brilliant, but also the shrillest,
tones; the silver flute is preferable because of its
The flute is classified as a wood-wind in-
great ability for tone modulation and for its un-
strument.
surpassed brilliancy and sonorousness; compared
Formerly flutes were usually made of with these the tones of flutes made of wood, sound
wood, though in 1806 flutes of glass were
literally wooden.

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JANUARY 29, 1909] SCIENCE -167

Directly against these opinions of Boehm same brilliancy were produced by an instrument
constructed wholly of wood, that this error whose
we may place the equally authoritative one
existence we regret, would disappear forever. But
of Victor C. Mahillon, of Brussels, the it is not so. For more than ten years, we have
head of the celebrated musical instrument
had occasion to make heard, almost every day, an
manufactory, and the Curator of the Mu-instrument constructed by Mr. C. Mahillon; it
seum of Instruments of the Belgian Royalpossesses the exact proportions of a cavalry
Conservatory of Music-containing one of trumpet, and gives exactly the same brilliancy as
the most celebrated collections of musical the instrument of brass, so that it is impossible
to distinguish the one from the other. HIow much
instruments in the world. Mahillon has
trouble professors might spare their pupils, if,
devoted his life to the study of musical
being inspired by the revelations of science, they
instruments, and is recognized the world would content themselves with teaching principles,
over as an eminent authority. In his and abandon the prejudices which pass every day
from master to pupil.
treatise, "Elements d'Acoustique, musicale
et instrumentale," one of the best works Albert Lavignac, professor in the Paris
on the acoustics of musical instruments, Conservatory of Music, in his book, "Music
he says: and Musicians," published in New York
Theobald Boehm was the first, we believe, to try1899, says:
in
to construct a flute upon scientific principles,First we have to notice that the sonorous body
using a cylindrical tube, with rationally placed is the column of air contained inside the tube,
holes; it was he who first tried to explain the whose metal, wood, or other material, has no
division of the air column of the tube. ... It is office whatever, except that of determining the
to be regretted that this celebrated reformerform of and dimensions of the mass of air imprisoned
the flute was not able to grasp the principle, within it, which is itself, and itself alone, the
resulting moreover from his own theory, that the
vibrating body. The recognition of this fact is of
air is the only vibrating body in the flute, as thewell
highest importance in understanding the sub-
as in all other wind-instruments. It would have ject.
been better had he not written the following lines,
Lavignac then describes the experiments
which in our opinion, disfigure all of his work.
of Mahillon with the wood trumpet, and
Mahillon then quotes Boehm's opinions
other experiments of the same import by
given above, and continues:
Sax, the instrument maker of Paris, with
One would almost refuse to believe, if it were
brass clarionets; he also refers to paste-
not written, that a man of the standing of Boehm,
who had revolutionized, from the foundation,boardthe organ pipes and other instances,
principles which had existed for ages in the which
con- support his theory.
The gentlemen quoted are by no means
struction of flutes, was not able to release himself
completely from such prejudices; nevertheless,alone
he in their opinions. The writer has
held to this one blunder.
occasionally mentioned to some of his
In another place, Mahillon says: scientific friends that he sometimes won-
This error is shared in by nearly all artists dered
who whether the tone of a flute is affected
play wind instruments. The one who playsby a the material of its tube. Many times
brass instrument will say that the thinner the
walls the more easy will be the production of the answer has been: "Of course, you
think it is not."
tone; the bassoonist is persuaded that all the
vibrations of his instrument exist in the material In direct opposition to the experiments
of the mouth piece. of Mahillon and Sax are those of Schaf-
He describes the opinion of the clario- hiutl (of the University of Munich), who
netist and flutist at length, and continues: throughout his life made many researches
Who does not know the brilliant sound of the on acoustical subjects, being influenced, no
cavalry trumpet? It would seem that if this doubt, by the problems which his friend

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168 SCIENCE [ . S. VOL. XXIX. No. 735

Boehm was trying to solve. He is the plete vibrations-this is violin G, below

author of many papers, which appeared middle
in C; the pipe is 5.8 cm. wide, 7 cm.
the Annalen der Physik, and in variousdeep, 78 cm. long and has walls 1 cm. thick.
scientific and musical journals. One of his
Four pipes having exactly the same in-
papers, published in 1879, is entitled: "Is
ternal dimensions as this wood pipe were
the dogma of the effect of the material made of common sheet zinc, the metal being
out of which a wind-instrument is made,about 0.5 mm. thick. Upon blowing one of
upon the tone of the same, a fable " the zinc pipes, the unexpected result was
Schafhautl quotes at length a sarcastic obtained that its pitch is more than two
statement which begins by saying: semi-tones of the musical scale lower than
A fable, the more remarkable since it is always that of the wood pipe of the same dimen-
discussed, is that the material of which a wind- sions; its pitch was found to be 164, and
instrument is made, has an influence upon the
that of the other zinc pipes was nearly the
material of the same; that this is not so rests
upon incontrovertible acoustical laws, about which
sam-e. The pipes are always blown on a
there should be absolutely no more discussion. windchest, under moderate pressure--2 to
3? inches by the water gauge-which is
Schafhxiutl then says:
automatically controlled.
From the student of nature, such an oracular
speech in the name of science would certainly While the zinc pipe is clearly sounding
win a laugh. its fundamental tone, if it is very lightly
touched on opposite sides by the thumb and
He proposes to allow nature to speak for
finger, it immediately speaks the first over-
herself upon this interesting question. He
tone very clearly with no perceptible ad-
then describes with great detail how he
mixture of the fundamental; upon removal
'had made seven cavalry trumpets with in-
of the fingers the sound returns to the fun-
ternal dimensions all exactly alike; of thick
damental. The overtone thus obtained is
brass, thin brass, lead, gypsum, and three
not harmonic, its frequency being 2.06
of paper of different thicknesses; they were
placed side by side on a convenient stand,
times that of the fundamental; however,
the pitch of both the fundamental and the
and were blown by a most skillful profes-
overtone can be varied several vibrations
sional trumpeter. He says:
per second by grasping the pipe in the hand
What a difference in the tone quality! The
and varying the pressure of the grasp.
most brilliant tone was given by the trumpet of
brass 0.85 mnm. thick. The tone of the trumpet of If the pipe is firmly grasped in both
lead was heavy and dull, while the tone of the hands, just above the mouth, it speaks a
paper trumpets was papery and excited general mixture of the fundamental and the second
laughter.
partial, just mentioned and also a third
He describes many other experiments and partial whose frequency is 2.66 times that
opinions about reed instruments, violins, of the fundamental. By increasing the
flutes, organs, the human voice, etc. The pressure of the hands on the outside of the
study of this work led the writer to repeat pipe, the first and second partials become
some of Schafhautl's experiments and to weaker, while the third becomes stronger
try others with organ pipes, the results of till it is the real tone of the pipe; it is
which will be given in some detail. approximately the tone Bb, a fourth above
For a model an open organ pipe of wood the octave of the fundamental. These re-
was chosen, of the style usually supplied sults are so conspicuous as to be almost
by Koenig for acoustical experiments. startling, caused by the unmusical sound
This pipe gives the tone G2 192 com- of the inharmonic partials; the tone quality

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JANUARY 29, 1909] SCIENCE 169

varies as much as from a flute to a tin horn. pitch of 160, the overtone 400, the ratio is
One of the zinc pipes was placed inside 2: 5, or the tones, instead of being an octave
of a large pipe of zinc to form a double- apart, are an octave and a third. The
walled pipe, with spaces 2 cm. wide between actual sounds are E2 and G3,# and the two
the walls; the outer wall was attached to sounds from the one pipe are each as clear
the inner one only at the extreme bottom and distinct as the souhds from two sep-
on three sides, but just above the upper liparate pipes, as actual comparison has many
plate on the front side. Attaching the times proved to various observers. As the
outer pipe did not alter the pitch or qualitywater rises through the remaining 9 cm.,
in any noticeable degree. The double- there are several changes in quality; when
walled pipe gives a full fundamental tone, the space is full of water the overtone,
F2 = 164, without conspicuous overtones.though present, is less intense and is not in
While the pipe is sounding continuously, such good tune.
water, at room temperature, is allowed This pipe, which has the dimensions of a
slowly to run into the space between thewood pipe giving the tone G, has, when
walls. As this space is filling, the tone of empty, the pitch F, and when filled with
the pipe changes conspicuously thirty orwater the pitch is E; during the filling the
forty times; a few of these changes will bepitch varies more than a semi-tone, first
noted. When the water is 5 cm. above the rising and then falling, while the changes
lower lip, the pitch rises by 2 vibrations in the quality of the tone are so astonishing
per second; when the water is 10 cm. high, that they must be heard to be appreciated.
the fundamental tone breaks, and the first The pipe has been filled with sand, and
overtone is clearly heard; at 11 cm. the it shows the same series of changes, though
fundamental is almost inaudible, the first some of the tones seem to be more deadened
overtone being loud; at 14 cm. the funda- than with the water filling, and it does not
mental alone is heard, but with a pitchseem 6 to be quite so sensitive to slight varia-
vibrations sharper than at first. As the tions.
water rises the pitch begins to fall, and (Some photographic records of the varia-
the overtone reappears, till, at a height of tions in the sound waves coming from this
water of 28 cm., the two tones are both pipe, and the pipe itself will be exhibited
very distinctly heard, the fundamental in another communication to the program
having a pitch of 164 F,, the same as at of this meeting. The photographs show
the distinctness of the changes that occur.)'
the beginning, and the overtone a pitch 2.13
times as great, about that of the tone Fft;. It is, of course, well known that the pitch
At a height of water of 29.5 cm. the over-and even the quality of a pipe are influ-
tone is heard alone, at 31.5 cm. the funda-
enced by the thickness of wall and condi-
tion of the inner surface; but that the
mental only is heard; while at 33.5 cm. the
two tones are mixed and are both clearlyproperties of the pipe should be so pro-
sounded. These alternations are again re-foundly altered by even slight changes
peated, and as the water rises to a height
entirely outside of the pipe was wholly
of 46 cm. the fundamental begins to flatten,unexpected, even with a pipe of the con-
struction described. After the demonstra-
till, at 57 cm., its pitch is 158, that of the
tone E2, a semi-tone lower than at first. tion
As of these effects, one will surely admit
the pitch of the fundamental falls, that of
that the quality of a wind-instrument may
the overtone rises, and when the water be affected by the material of its body to
stands 69 cm. high, the fundamental has a the comparatively limited extent claimed

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170 SCIENCB [N. S. VoL. XXIX. No. 735

by the player. That the flute is more sus- A tube of pure platinum would best fulfill
ceptible to this influence than other instru- these conditions; a report upon the influ-
ments is due to the fact that its tube is only ence of such a tube may be made later.
from 0.2 to 0.3 mm. thick, that is, half as The gold flute tube and the organ pipe
thick as the zinc walls of the experimental surrounded with water are, no doubt, sim-
pipe. The cylindrical shape of the tube ilar to the longer strings of the pianoforte
gives a mechanical stiffness which largely which have such rich quality; these strings
prevents the transmission of influences are wound or loaded, making them massive,
through the walls; nevertheless, it is con- while the flexibility or "softness" is un-
ceivable that the presence or absence of a impaired. The organ pipe partly filled
ferrule or of some support for a key might with water is like a string unequally loaded,
cause the appearance or disappearance of its partials are out of tune and give a freak
a partial tone, or put a harmonic partial tone. The flute, unfortunately of neces-
slightly out of tune. (The idea of experi- sity, is unequally loaded by its key mechan-
menting with a flute of rectangular cross- ism, and this no doubt accounts for the fact
section occurred too late to be made use of always noticed by players, that certain
at this time.) tones are full while others are poor or dull
The traditional influences of the different in quality, or are liable to shrillness; the
metals on the flute are consistent with theskillful player covers these defects by his
experimental results obtained from the art. This opinion is confirmed by the fact
organ pipe. Brass and German silver are that the tone of flute tubes having no holes
usually so hard, brittle and stiff as to have
or keys is influenced by the manner of hold-
but little influence upon the air column, ing the tube in the hands; certain overtones
and the tone is said to be hard and trumpet-
are difficult to produce till the points of
like. Silver is heavier and softer, and support of the tube have been shifted.
adds to the mellowness of the tone. The (The question has been answered to the
much greater softness and density ofwriter's gold complete satisfaction by actual
adds still more to the soft-massiveness of musical trials, extending over four years,
the walls, giving an approach to the organ with flutes of wood, hard rubber, glass,
pipe surrounded by water, and permitting brass, German silver, silver and gold. The
a greater influence of the walls upon the gold flute is, beyond all doubt, distinctly
tone, and increasing the richness of tone by
superior; its tone may be described as full,
augmenting the fullness of the partials, rich,
as less shrill when sounded loudly, and
was the case with the organ pipe. That the more liquid; the silver flute is more deli-
partials from the gold flute are actually
cate, and certainly simpler in quality,
fuller than from other, is proved by thewhich manifests itself as shrillness in the
photographic comparisons of wave forms loud and high tones.)
which are referred to in another communi- The quantitative and photographic inves-
cation. tigation of this question is not complete,
Mere massiveness of the walls does not but one result of general application seems
conclusive. Perhaps the theory of Helm-
fulfill the desired condition; a heavy tube,
obtained from thick walls of brass, hasholtz
such has been very generally accepted, that
increased rigidity as to produce an unde-
all tones of the same quality, that is, belong-
sirable result. The walls must be thin,ing
soft
to the same register of any given instru-
ment, have a characteristic set of har-
and flexible, and be made relatively massive
monics, the proportional intensities of
by increasing the density of the material.

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JANUARY 29, 1909] SCIENCE 171

which
whichremain
remainconstant.
constant.
Visual
Visual and photo- The
and photo- Thecommittee
committee originally
originally
was appointed
was appointed
at at
graphic
graphicobservation
observation
of the
of the
wavewave
formsforms aa session
from from sessionof of
thisthis
association
association
in Washington,
in Washington,
many
manyinstruments
instrumentsshows
shows
thatthat
the overtones D.
D. C.,
the overtones C.,November
November 13, 1905,
13, 1905,
and consisted
and consisted
of of
are certainly not harmonic in the sense Presidents
Presidents Bryan,
Bryan,of Indiana,
of Indiana,
James, of
James, of
commonly understood, and, moreover, the Illinois,
Illinois, andand
MacLean,
MacLean,
of Iowa,
of Chairman.
Iowa, Chairman.
The resolution under which the committee
different notes in the scale of any one in-
was appointed reads:
strument are not similar in their composi-
tion. While a tone is being given with no That a committee be appointed that shall report
later to this body upon standards for the recogni-
variation that the ear detects, the partials
tion of American universities and upon standards
are seen to be rapidly varying in phase, or for the recognition of the A.B. degree and higher
intensity, or both. A slight change in the degrees.
manner of blowing a wind instrument, The committee was unable to meet in
which to the ear results merely in a change 1905-6. The chairman presented a memoran-
of loudness, completely alters the form of dum for a partial report at the session of the
the wave. Instead of a characteristic series
association, November 12-13, 1906, in Baton
of harmonics, it seems that each instrument
Rouge, La., and the committee was continued.
possesses rather a characteristic tone or At a meeting of the association in 1907, the
tones, which is of constant pitch for all committee asked for further time. The re-
notes of its scale. This theory has been re- quest was granted and at the special meeting
cently advanced by Meissner, from experi- of the association in Chicago in February,
ments with the phonograph. Such a char- 1908, President Baker, of Colorado, was added
acteristic tone for the flute would seem to to the committee. The committee has had
be consistent with the rather anomalous several extended sittings and unites in the
following statements and recommendations:
conditions imposed by the stopper in the
Your committee believes that there are cer-
head-joint of the instrument. tain clearly marked tendencies or forces at
The inadequacy of the former theory is in our American society toward a de-
work
clearly shown by the failure of many velopment,
at- at no distant date, of a typical
tempts to synthetically reproduce the char-
institution of learning, which we may not im-
acteristic tones of orchestral instruments,
properly call the Standard American Uni-
such as those by Helmholtz, Koenig versity.
and
more recently by the Telharmonium. This institution will, for an indefinite time,
A complete reply to the second part, include as an important part of its organiza-
"Why," of the question propounded forwhat we may call a Standard American
tion
College, with a four-year curriculum, with a
consideration has, by no means been given;
tendency
but the first part of the question, we feel, to differentiate its parts in such a
way that the first two years shall be looked
has been conclusively answered: the effect
of material upon tone quality of wind upon as a continuation of, and a supplement
to, the work of secondary instruction, as given
instruments certainly is not a fable.
DAYTON C. MILLER in the high school, while the last two years
CASE SCHOOL OF APPLIED SCIENCE shall be shaped more and more distinctly in
the direction of special, advanced or uni-
REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON STANDARDS versity instruction, rising gradually into the
OF AMERICAN UNIVERSITIES - advanced work of the graduate school.
THE Committee on Standards of American The Standard American University will
Universities begs leave to report as follows: also include as a distinct department the
'Amended and adopted by the National Asso- graduate school or philosophical faculty.
ciation of State Universities, Washington, D. C.,It will also include as organic parts of the
November 17, 1908. institution in its fully developed form, vari-

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