Correlates of Support for Censorship of Sexual, Sexually Violent, and Violent Media

Author(s): Randy D. Fisher, Ida J. Cook and Edwin C. Shirkey

Source: The Journal of Sex Research, Vol. 31, No. 3 (1994), pp. 229-240
Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd.
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The Journal of Sex Research Vol. 31, No. 3,1994 pp. 229-240

Correlates of Support for of

Censorship Sexual,

Sexually Violent, and Violent Media

Randy D. Fisher
Department of Psychology, University of Central Florida

Ida J. Cook
Department of Sociology, University of Central Florida

Edwin C. Shirkey
Department of Psychology, University of Central Florida

Willingness to ban various forms of sexual, violent, and sexually violent media was assessed through a random digit
dialing survey of adults in Seminole County, FL. Of 1,291 eligible adults contacted, 304 (23.5%) completed the inter?
view. Substantial majorities (71-77%) supported censoring sexually violent media, about half (47-54%) supported cen?
soring nonsexual violent media, and about one third supported censoring nonviolent sexually explicit movies (32%)
and videotapes (28%). Principle components analysis of these items revealed two clear factors: support for banning
sexual media and support for banning violent and sexually violent media. Sexual conservatism, sex role stereotyping,
authoritarianism, age, gender, concern about pornography's effects, and support for a local anti-pornography cam?
paign were consistently more highly correlated with support for censoring sexual media than with support for censor?
ing violent media. Regression analysis showed that support for banning sexual media and concern about
pornography's effects both contributed to the prediction of support for anti-pornography campaigns. Contrary to
expectations, those low in sex role stereotyping showed low levels of support for censoring sexual media and low levels
of concern about pornography's effects, relative both to fundamentalists and other respondents.

of attitudes toward of self-defined feminists and funda? Researchers who have examined
Assessment
the acceptability of sexually mentalists using a structured inter? public opinion toward sexually
explicit materials has regularly view format. explicit materials and have made
occupied the attention of sex A limitation of most of these the distinction between violent and
researchers for two decades. Most studies is that researchers did not nonviolent examples have found
researchers attempting to assess systematically explore differences that public opinion is considerably
these attitudes have used a survey in attitudes toward sexually explicit harsher toward depictions of sexual
methodology that relies on verbal media and sexually violent media. violence (Gallup, 1985; Linz et al.,
descriptions of erotic materials The distinction between sexually 1991). In the Gallup poll, respon?
(Abelson, Cohen, Heaton, & Suder, explicit media and
sexually violent dents were told that the interviewer
1971; Athanasiou & Shaver, 1971; media has emerged as central in was going to read to them several
Diamond & Dannemiller, 1989; the literature on the effects of expo? descriptions of adult entertainment,
Eysenck, 1976; Gallup, 1985; Herr- sure to
sexually explicit media and the respondents were asked to
man & Bordner, 1983; Scott, Eitle, indicate whether
(Donnerstein, Linz, & Penrod, 1987; they thought
& Skovron, 1990). However, some Malamuth & Donnerstein, "laws should totally ban any of the
1984).
have supplemented survey method? forms of activity, allow
Indeed, in a recent review of experi? following
ology by showing participants spe? mental studies the anti? them so long as there is no public
examining
cific examples of erotic materials no restrictions
social effects of media exposures, display?or impose
and eliciting their reactions to these
Linz (1989) concluded that the evi?
exemplars (Linz et al., 1991; Wal? dence of harmful effects from expo?
lace & Wehmer, 1973). Employing a
sure to (nonviolent) sexually Some results on which this report is
field study methodology, Zurcher, based were presented at the National Meet?
explicit media is weak and inconsis?
Kirkpatrick, Cushing, and Bowman ing of the Society for the Scientific Study of
tent, whereas the evidence consis?
(1973) compared the attitudinal Sex, New Orleans, LA, November 1991. Cor?
tently shows that exposure to
and demographic characteristics of respondence should be addressed to Randy
depictions of violence toward D. Fisher, Ph.D., Department of Psychology,
ad hoc anti-pornography and anti-
women, whether sexually explicit, University of Central Florida, Box 25000,
censorship groups. Cowan, Chase,
produces acceptance of rape myths Orlando, FL 32816-1390.
and Stahly (1989) examined the We thank Wendy Stock and Kathleen
and desensitization to the suffering
similarities and differences in atti? Sheridan for their comments on an earlier
ofrape victims. draft of this article.
tudes toward pornography control
229

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230 Support for Censorship

at all for adult audiences." The per? would react negatively to the combi? 1986), their cognitive representa?
centages of respondents willing to nation of sexual explicitness and tions of sexually explicit materials
ban "magazines that show sexual violence than to violence in a non? would be of nonviolent exemplars.
violence" (73%), "theaters showing sexual context, and thus there Thus, their responses to questions
movies that depict sexual violence" would be moresupport for censor? about the acceptabiUty of sexual
(68%), and "sale or rental of video ing sexually violent materials than media were probably based on their
cassettes featuring sexual violence" violent materials. No firm empirical reactions to nonviolent sexually
(63%) were much higher than the or theoretical basis could be found explicit materials, either exclu?
percentages of respondents willing for predicting a difference in will? sively or to a greater extent than
to ban "magazines that show adults ingness to censor sexually explicit their reactions to sexually violent
having sexual relations" (47%), versus violent materials, although ones.
"theaters showing X-rated movies" it was noted that Diamond and Previous surveys (Abelson et al.,
(42%), "sale or rental of X-rated Dannemiller (1989) concluded that 1971; Athanasiou & Shaver, 1971;
video cassettes for home viewing" considerable permissiveness exists Diamond & Dannemiller, 1989;
(32%), and even more so "maga? in U. S. samples regarding sexually Herrman & Bordner, 1983), which
zines that show nudity" (21%). Also, explicit materials. have not distinguished sexually vio?
Linz et al. (1991) found that, among We examined a second set of lent and sexual media, have consis?
those respondents willing to report questions concerning the relation? tently indicated that older
to the laboratory and view various ships among the response to these respondents, those who are more
materials, those who viewed violent various items. Based on still unpub? religious, and women have more
materials became more negative lished results we obtained from negative attitudes toward sexually
toward the materials they viewed. another sample (Fisher, Cook, & explicit materials. Based on these
Those who first viewed nonviolent Shirkey, 1994), we anticipated that findings, we predicted that willing?
erotic materials became less nega? all items dealing with sexually ness to censor both sexual media
tive after viewing them. explicit media would form one fac? and violent media would be corre?
The purpose of the current tor, and the remaining items that lated positively with age, religiosity,
research was to explore further the dealt either with sexually violent and gender (women would be more
consequences of the distinction media or nonsexual violence would supportive of censorship), but that
between sexually explicit media form another. A principle compo? the correlations would be higher for
and sexually violent media on the nents analysis of these responses the former relationships than the
willingness of persons to support was planned to explore these possi? latter. We also included several
the censorship of these media. We bilities. items taken from Batson (1976) to
used survey methods and employed Another set
of questions con? assess three religious orientations:
questions patterned closely after cerned the correlates of willingness means, end, and quest. As origi?
those developed by the Gallup orga? to censor sexual, violent, and sexu? nally conceptualized by Batson
nization for the Newsweek (1985) ally violent media. the
Assuming (1976), persons with a means orien?
poll. We added items to assess emergence of two factors, willing? tation were seen as attempting to
respondents' willingness to censor ness to censor sexual materials and satisfy social and other extrinsic
violent but nonsexually explicit willingness to censor violent ones, needs through religious practice,
films: "R-rated slasher films that what are the correlates of willing? whereas persons with an ends ori?
show violence toward women, but ness to censor these two classes of entation were seen as valuing reli?
are not sexually explicit" and "films media? Generally, we anticipated gious experiences and beliefs for
that are not sexually explicit, but that the demographic and attitudi? their own sake. The quest orienta?
show graphic violence." nal correlates of attitudes toward tion was seen by Batson (1976) as
After willingness to ban sexually sexually explicit materials found in an open-ended and open-minded
explicit, violent, and sexually vio? previous surveys would be corre? search for answers to religious
lent materials has been distin? lated more highly with willingness questions. Based on these descrip?
guished, several questions can be to censor sexual media than will? tions and results using similar
addressed. Because of the strength ingness to censor sexually violent scales as correlates of attitudes
and consistency of previous results media. This prediction was based toward gays and lesbians
(Fisher,
(Gallup, 1985; Linz et al., 1991), we on the assumption that most Derison, Polley, Cadman, & John?
predicted that substantially more respondents would have had some ston, 1994), we predicted that the
respondents would support the cen? experience with sexual media, and, means and ends orientations would
sorship of sexually violent than of reflecting the generally nonviolent correlate positively both with sup?
sexually explicit materials. We also nature of these materials (Cowan, port for censoring sexual media and
predicted that more respondents Lee, Levy, & Snyder, 1988; Palys, support for censoring violent media,

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 Fisher, Cook, and Shirkey 231

but more highly with the former scored higher on his measure of by anti-pornography activists, it
than the latter. We predicted that the gender equality had higher circula? was of interest to determine
quest orientation would not corre? tion rates of softcore pornographic whether support for their positions
late positively with either measure. magazines, such as Playboy and was associated more strongly with
The original conception of the Hustler. He interpreted this correla? the support for censorship of sexual
authoritarian personality (Adorno, tion as a result of variation across media or sexually violent media.
Frenkel-Brunswik, Levinson, & states in levels of political toler? Because these movements were
Sanford, 1950) portrayed authori? ance, with high political tolerance rooted in politically and religiously
tarians as
overly concerned with being associated with both
gender conservative segments of the com?
sexual matters and supportive of equality and greater support for munity who are quite sexually con?
censorship of sexual materials. Sub? free speech rights, including sexu? servative, we predicted that support
sequent studies in which reactions ally explicit speech. for their movement would be associ?
to sexual materials were assessed To examine this relationship in ated more strongly with support for
have supported this view (Byrne, the current research, we included the censorship of sexual media than
Cherry, Lamberth, & Mitchell, items taken from three scales devel? with support for censorship of sexu?
1973; Kelley, 1985). Thus, we again oped by Burt (1980): sexual conser? ally violent media.
predicted that authoritarianism vatism, sex role stereotyping, and It is still possible that some per?
would be positively correlated with acceptance of interpersonal vio? sons who support the censorship of
willingness to censor both sexual lence. Burt found all three scales sexual media and sexually violent
media and violent media, but that were positively correlated with her media do so because of a genuine
the magnitude of the correlation measure of rape myths. Applying concern for the effects of pornog?
would be greater for sexual media Baron's interpretation to individu? raphy. As previously noted, feminist
than for violent media. als rather than states, we predicted anti-pornography theorists posit
Anti-pornography feminists that willingness to censor both sex? negative effects on women of both
(Dworkin & MacKinnon, 1988; ual media and sexually violent violent and nonviolent forms of
Longino, 1980; MacKinnon, 1989) media would be positively corre? pornography. Further, national sur?
have argued that pornography pro? lated with sexual
conservatism, sex veys (Abelson et al., 1971; Gallup,
motes a sexist ideology and discrim- role stereotyping, and acceptance of 1985) showed that substantial pro?
inatory practices against women interpersonal violence, and that the portions of their respondents
(Baron, 1990). In support of this correlations with these variables believe that pornography has nega?
view, Zillmann and Bryant (1982) would be of greater magnitude for tive effects, such as causing sex
found that exposure to nonviolent willingness to censor sexual media crimes or reducing respect for
pornography promoted sexually cal- than willingness to censor violent women, or at least, deny that
loused attitudes and lowered sup? media. pornography has positive effects,
port for the "women's liberation At the time the survey was done such as improving the sex lives of
movement." Similarly, Check and (December 1990),
public debate couples. From these suggestions, we
Guloien (1989) found that high con? over sexually explicit materials was anticipated that concern for the
sumption of nonviolent, dehumaniz? quite active in Seminole County. effects of pornography should be
ing pornography was associated The State Attorney in an adjoining positively correlated with support
with greater acceptance of rape county had launched a highly publi- for both the censorship of sexual
myths and sex-calloused attitudes. cized and controversial campaign media and sexually violent media.
However, other experimental against adult videotapes, and some Cowan et al. (1989) conducted
studies (Linz, Donnerstein, & Pen? Seminole County officials had pub? intensive interviews with self-iden?
rod, 1988; Padgett, Brislin-Slutz, & licly suggested similar initiatives. tified fundamentalist and feminist
Neal, 1989) failed to support the Also, a recently formed local anti? women. They found that both
view that using pornography pornography group was advocating groups were uniform in their nega?
results in
changes in attitudes stricter enforcement of obscenity tive attitudes toward pornography
toward women. Also, researchers in laws in Central Florida to rid the and their belief that pornography is
correlational studies (Demare, community of "illegal, hard-core related to violence toward women.
Briere, & Lips, 1988; Garcia, 1986) pornography." The rhetoric of these Fundamentalist women
were also
found no relationship between the anti-pornography activists
tended uniform in their support of pornog?
use of nonviolent pornography and to characterize "pornography" as raphy control. Feminist women
conservative attitudes toward consisting mostly of depictions of were split, however, with some
women. In contradiction of the fem? the torture and sexual abuse of opposing pornography control. Anti-
inist anti-pornography hypothesis, women and children. Given this control feminists tended to have a
Baron (1990) found that states that emphasis on violent pornography greater concern for individual

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232 Support for Censorship

rights and freedom, whereas pro- paigns, showing less support than After an eligible, willing respon?
control feminists and fundamental? fundamentalists. However, we pre? dent was contacted, the interviewer
ists were more concerned with dicted that they would resemble read the interview schedule verba-
responsibility for the welfare of oth? fundamentalists in their support for tim and recorded the respondent's
ers. Summarizing the responses of the censorship of violent media and answers on the interview schedule.
the 119 recipients of the National their concern about the effects of Interviewers were instructed to
Organization for Women (NOW) pornography, following Cowan's answer any questions asked by the
newsletter, Cowan (1992) concluded (1992) interpretation. respondent, and respondents' com?
that virtually all feminists have ments were solicited at the comple?
Method
negative attitudes toward "pornog? tion of the interview.
raphy," but many do not support
Sampling Interview Schedule
control of pornography through leg?
islation, because they also are con? Seminole County, FL, is part of A four-part interview schedule
cerned about the harm of the Orlando standard
metropolitan was developed for the study. Part I
censorship, and they associate sup? statistical area and
has a popula? contained nine items concentrating
port for censorship with right wing tion of approximately 300,000 on public display of, availability of,
groups. The results of the Cowan (Shermyen, 1991). A cross reference and legal restrictions on sexually
(1992) study are limited to some directory was used to estimate the explicit, sexually violent, and vio?
extent by her procedure of asking number of respondents in the sam? lent materials. This section con?
respondents "to use only degrading ple who should be selected from sisted of a set of questions adapted
or sexually violent material as each of the 46 Seminole County from those developed for the
the(ir) definition of pornography" phone exchanges. Randomly gener? Newsweek poll by Gallup (1985).
when responding to questions con? ated numbers consisting of the The respondents were given nine
cerning pornography control (p. exchange plus a randomly gener? examples of "adult entertainment"
170). Also, sampling only men and ated block of four digits were called, and were asked theywhether
women identified as "feminist" by until the quota was reached for thought "the law should totally ban
their membership in NOW does not each exchange (Frye, 1989). Inter? this form of activity, should allow it
allow a comparison between the viewers were provided with a stan? so long as there is no public display,
attitudes of feminists and other dard opening script to read, in or should allow it with no restric?
members of the population. If these which they gave their first name tions at all for adult audiences."
respondents had been asked about and announced that they were Responses to these items formed
the control of sexual media that are doing a survey under the supervi? the measures of support for sexual,
neither violent nor degrading, it is sion of the first two authors. They violent, and sexually violent media.
possible that this generally politi? stated that the survey was con? Part II contained 11 items, all
cally liberal group would have cerned with "controversial issues focusing specifically on "adult"
voiced attitudes similar to or even facing the
County," it would take videotapes. This section began with
more permissive than the rest of only a few minutes, participants a description of "adult or X-rated
the members of their community. could decline to answer any ques? videotapes," which were described
The current research allows the tions they liked, and all responses as being kept in special sections of
attitudes of "feminists" and "funda? would be held in strictest confi? the videostore and as showing
mentalists" to be compared to the dence. (In fact, responses were "naked human bodies and all forms
remaining respondents'. Respon? anonymous.) If respondents indi? of sexual activity, including sexual
dents were partitioned into these cated a willingness to continue, the intercourse, oral sex, group sex, and
three groups by selecting those with interviewer screened them for age variations of the above by adult
very low scores on the sex role and county of residence. If they did performers." This introduction was
stereotyping scale ("feminists") and not live in Seminole County, the call followed by questions that dealt
those who scored high on several was terminated. If the respondent with the
respondents' personal
measures of religious beliefs ("fun? was under 18, the interviewer acceptance of adult videotapes,
damentalists") and comparing these asked whether there was an adult their perception of the community
groups to all other respondents. present in the household who could acceptance of such tapes, their
Based on the logic of Baron's (1990) come to the phone. If so, the inter? beliefs about positive or negative
interpretation, we predicted that viewer began the introduction again effects of adult videotapes, whether
"feminists" would resemble other with that adult. If no adult was they had ever viewed "an X-rated
respondents in their support for the present, an attempt was made to videotape or an X-rated film," and
censorship of sexual media and sup? schedule a callback when one would their support of or opposition to
port for anti-pornography cam- be present. local anti-pornography campaigns.

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 Fisher, Cook, and Shirkey 233

Responses to three items (Do you vatism scale (Men have a biologi? dents valuedreligious doubts and
think that adult videotapes provide cally stronger sex drive than were open to change. Although Bat?
useful information about sex? Do women. The primary goal of sexual son, Schoenrade, and Ventis (1993)
you think these
videotapes can intercourse should be to have chil? have questioned the distinctiveness
improve the sex lives of some cou? dren. A nice woman will be offended of the means and ends scales,
ples? Do you think they appeal or embarrassed by dirty jokes. A responses to the items were summed
mostly to sick or morbid interest in woman shouldn't give in too easily for the means orientation (On reli?
sex?) were summed to form a mea? to a man, or he'll think she's loose.) gious issues, I find the opinions of
sure of concern about pornography's had a moderate level of internal others irrelevant. A major factor in
effects (a = .64). Responses to three consistency (a = .57), as did those my religious development has been
other items that asked about sup? assessing acceptance of interper? the religion of my parents. My reli?
port of the nearby State Attorney's sonal violence (A man is never justi? gion tends to serve my needs for
campaign against adult videotapes, fied in hitting his wife. Being fellowship and
security.), ends ori?
whether the respondent would sup? roughed up is sexually stimulating entation (I have found it essential
port a similar campaign in his or to many women. People today to have faith. God's will should
her county, and whether he or she should not use an eye for an eye shape my life. When it comes to
would vote to convict in an obscen? and a tooth for a tooth as a rule for religious questions, I feel driven to
ity case were summed to form an living. Sometimes the only way a know the truth.). The ends orienta?
index of support for anti-pornog? man can get a cold woman turned tion had acceptable internal consis?
raphy campaigns (a = .84). on is to use force.) (a = .49) and sex tency (a = .61), but the means
Part III consisted of 18 Likert role stereotyping (A man should orientation did not (a = .28). The
scale items assessing several other fight when the women he's with is quest orientation (It might be said
attitudes. Four items were taken insulted. A woman should be a vir? that I value my religious doubts
from the work of Altemeyer (1988) gin when she marries. A woman and uncertainties. I find my every?
to measure Right Wing Authoritari? should never contradict her hus? day experiences severely test my
anism (RWA) (Some of the worst band in public. It is acceptable for a religious convictions. I do not expect
people today are those who do not woman to have a career, but mar? my religious beliefs to change in the
respect the flag, our leaders and the riage and family should come first.) next few years.) also had low inter?
American way of life. Obedience (a = .55). nal consistency (a = .22).
and respect for authority are the Part IV contained author-gener-
Procedure
most important virtues children ated sociodemographic questions
should learn. In these troubled that addressed therespondents' Five male and three female
times, laws have to be enforced age, level of education, occupation, interviewers participated in data
without mercy, especially when number of children, military experi? collection. The first two authors
dealing with agitators and revolu? ence, voter registration, religiosity, recruited, trained, and supervised
tionaries who are stirring things frequency of church attendance, the interviewers and served occa?
up. Spanking a child only teaches and ethnic identification. Except sionally as interviewers. The
him resentment and fear and does those who professed to be "not at all remaining interviewers were all
nothing to teach him right from religious," respondents were also graduate and undergraduate stu?
wrong.) (a = .60). These items were asked to respond to nine Likert dents from the University of Cen?
selected on a rational basis to items, taken from the work of Bat? tral Florida. They were
employed
reflect the diversity of the item con? son (1976). These items were origi? and paid by a private consulting
tent of the RWA scale, while also nally intended by Batson (1976) to firm, and no mention was made of
avoiding items that dealt specifi? assess three religious orientations. the University in the interview.
cally with sexual issues. Four items Persons with a means-extrinsic ori? Research assistants were instructed
were selected from each of the fol? entation were believed to value reli? in the proper use of the random
lowing scales
developed by Burt gion as a means to other ends, such number sampling procedure,
(1980) and shown to be correlates of as social acceptance and economic screening procedures, use of the
rape myth acceptance: sexual con? success, whereas those with an interview schedule, recording of
servatism, acceptance of interper? ends-intrinsic orientation were responses, and telephone survey
sonal violence, and sex role assumed to value the religious ethics. They were provided a stan?
stereotyping. The items combined a experience as an end in itself. Per? dard opening statement to read and
high factor loading with a wording sons with a quest orientation were a list of tips on telephone interview?
judged to be appropriate for presen? seen as having an open-ended and ing. Inexperienced interviewers
tation over the telephone. The four open-minded approach to spiritual were asked to role play at least one
items forming the sexual conser- questions that showed that respon- call and were given feedback on

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234 Support for Censorship

their performance. At least one of Seminole County residents to be ally violent videotapes than sexu?
supervisor was present during all White. Thus, the sample seems to ally explicit videotapes, Z(295) =
interviewing. parallel closely the population of 10.73, p < .0001. Similar tests
Calls were made between 6:00 the county on the demographic showed less support for censorship
and 9:30 p.m., weekdays, 11:00 a.m. dimensions of age, sex, and race. of sexually explicit videotapes than
and 6:30 p.m. on Saturdays, and Further, the vast majority ofthe eli? for either slasher films, Z(296) =
noon and 6:30 p.m. on Sundays. gible respondents who refused to 5.98, p < .0001, or graphically vio?
The survey was conducted during participate did so before learning lent films, Z(296) = 5.11, p < .0001,
December 1990. the content of the Only questions. and less support for censorship of
1% terminated after
beginning and sexually explicit films than for
Results = 4.97,
thus becoming aware of the topic, either slasher films, Z(295)
and many of these attributed their p < .0001, or graphically violent
Sample Characteristics = 3.87,
termination to practical concerns, films, Z(295) p < .001.
Out of 4,387 calls, 1,291 eligible such as an incoming call or some? Finally, sign tests revealed greater
households were reached. Of those one at the door. It seems unlikely willingness to censor sexually vio?
calls to eligible households, 278 that a self-selection bias based on lent films than either slasher films,
(21.5%) yielded contact with an the content of the survey affected Z(296) = 5.78, p < .0001, or other
answering machine, 9 (0.7%) were these results. graphically violent films, Z(296) =
terminated because of the respon? 7.42, p < .0001. Thus, respondents
dent's deafness or language Support for Censorship were not only less accepting of sex?
prob?
lems, 141 (10.9%) respondents Table 1 shows the distribution of ually violent media than they were
asked to be called at another time, responses concerning willingness to sexual media, but they were also
546 (42.3%) respondents refused to censor various forms of entertain? less accepting of violent media than
participate immediately after or ment. Respondents were consis? they were sexual media (sexually
during the introductory statement, tently more accepting of sexual explicit videotapes and movies).
and 13 (1%) terminated the inter? media than they were of violent or
view after answering some violent media. Principal Components Analysis
ques? sexually Nonpara?
tions. Interviews were completed by metric Sign tests (Norusis, 1988) For subsequent analyses, numeri?
304 respondents, yielding a comple? were used to compare sexual media cal values were assigned to
tion rate of 23.5%. This rate of com- with their sexually violent counter? responses to questions about support
pletions among eligible households parts. There wasgreater support for censoring various media; a score
is quite similar to the completion for censoring sexually violent maga? of three was assigned for "totally
rate (22.4%) obtained by Linz et al. zines than sexually explicit ones, ban," two for "no display," and one
(1991) in a similar survey. Z(300) = 9.23, p < .0001; greater for "no restrictions." These nine vari?
Comparison of the obtained sam? support for censoring theaters ables were then submitted to a prin?
ple characteristics for age, gender, showing sexual violence than the? cipal components analysis with
and ethnicity showed a very close aters showing sexually explicit varimax rotation. Two very clear fac?
match to the April 1990 census data films, Z(295) = 10.65, p < .0001; and tors emerged, willingness to censor
available for Seminole County greater support for censoring sexu- sexual materials and willingness to
(Shermyen, 1991). Ofthe total, 49%
were male and 51% female, an Table 1
exact match to the latest census fig?
ures. Fourteen were Percentages of Respondents Who Favor Various Levels of Restriction of Different Forms of Adult
percent Entertainment
between 24 years old; 44%
18 and
were between 25 and
44; 28% were
between 45 and 64; the remaining
12% were over 65. These figures
deviated from the census figures for
the same age groups (13%, 48%,
26%, and 14%, respectively) by a
maximum of 4%. Finally, 90% ofthe
obtained sample were White, 4%
Black, 4% Hispanic, 1% Asian, and
2% gave another ethnic identifica?
tion. This too was a close match to
census figures, which reported 89% Note: N = 304

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 Fisher, Cook, and Shirkey 235

Table 2 Table 3

Factor Loadings of Individual Items on Correlations Between Factor Scores and Demographic Characteristics and Attitudes
Rotated Factor Matrix

aHigh factor scores indicate high support for

censorship.
Note: Factor loadings less than .45 are not aHigh factor scores indicate greater support for censorship.
shown. bMale = 1, Female = 2.
*p < .05 **p < .01
censor violent and sexually violent
materials. Four nonviolent sexual ence was nonsignificant. Thus, the the other significant predictors.
items formed the sexual materials sex factor was significantly corre? Table 4, which summarizes the
factor. Three sexually violent items lated with age, gender (women were results of these analyses, shows
and two violent items formed the more willing to censor), religiosity that concern about pornography's
violent materials factor. The rotated and church attendance, the means effects made the largest contribu?
factor structure is shown in Table 2. and ends religious orientations, tion to prediction of scores on the
The correlation between these two right wing authoritarianism, sexual sex factor, but sex role stereotyping,
factors, r(296) = .14, p < .01, is sta? conservatism, sex role stereotyping, gender, age, and religiosity all
tistically significant, but low. and concern about the effects of added significantly to the ability to
pornography. Scores on the violence predict this variable. Concern about
Correlates of Support for factor were significantly correlated the pornography's effects was also
Censorship of Sexual and
with gender, religiosity, right wing the best single predictor of scores
Violent Media
authoritarianism, and concern on the violence factor, but gender
To test the hypotheses regarding about the effects of pornography. and right wing authoritarianism
the correlates of the sex and vio? However, these latter correlations also added significantly to the
lence factors, both factor scores were significantly lower than the regression equation.
were correlated with all predictor former, except for those involving
and Fisher's r to z trans? Support for Anti-pornography
variables, respondent's gender.
formation was used to test the sig? To explore further the relation? Campaigns
nificance of the differences between ships between the predictor vari? To test the hypotheses about sup?
the correlations with the sex factor ables and the sex and violence port for anti-pornography cam?
and the correlation with the vio? factors, separate forward stepwise paigns, the sex and violence factors
lence factor for each predictor vari? regression analyses were performed from the principle components
able. Table 3 shows the results of for each factor. All variables that analysis were then entered into a
these analyses. As expected, all were shown to be significantly stepwise regression analysis, with
these variables were significantly related to each factor were used in support for anti-pornography cam?
correlated with the sex factor, with the analysis, with one exception. paigns as the dependent variable.
the exception of the quest religious Because of the theoretical and sta? Support for censoring sexual materi?
orientation and acceptance of inter? tistical redundancy of the religious als entered on the first
step and
personal violence. Also as expected, orientation measures, church atten? made a significant contribution,
the magnitude of the correlations dance and self-rated religiosity, the Multiple R = .69, F(l,303) = 281.11,
between the predictor variables and religious orientation measures were p < .001. Support for censoring vio?
the sex factor were significantly dropped from the analysis, and lent media made no additional con?
greater than the magnitude of the church attendance and religiosity tribution (Beta = .04). However,
correlations between the corre? were summed to form a single mea? when gender of respondents and
sponding variable and the violence sure of total religiosity. This total concern about the effects of pornog?
factor, except in the case of respon? religiosity measure was entered raphy were added to the regression
dent's gender, for which this differ- into the regression analyses with equation, concern about the effects

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236 Support for Censorship

Table 4 To test the

hypotheses, one-way
Results of Stepwise Regression on Sex and Violence Factors analyses of variance were per?
formed comparing the three groups,
and significant main effects were
followed by post hoc comparisons
among the three means using the
LSD test. Table 5 shows the means
for dimensions on which these three
groups differed significantly. The
three groups of respondents differed
significantly in support for the cen?
sorship of sexual media, F(2,269) =
87.55, p < .001; support for censor?
ship of violent F(2,274)
media, =
4.79, p = .009; support for anti?
pornography campaigns, F(2,274) =
of pornography entered
also the variable was also correlated with 14.87, p < .001; and concern about
equation, Multiple R = .72, F(2,302) having viewed adult
videotapes, pornography's effects, F(2,274) =
= 24.48, p < .001. Gender did not K298) = -.36, p < .001. Thus, those 14.65, p < .001. The comparison of
provide a significant increase in R2. who expressed greater concern group means yielded no support for
With both variables in the regres? about the effects of pornography the predictions, however. In the
sion equation, both support for cen? were older,
female, more religious, case of support for censoring sexual
soring sexual media (part correlation more authoritarian, more support? media and support for anti-pornog?
= .45) and concern about the effects ive of sex role stereotypes, and less raphy campaigns, we expected that
of pornography (part correlation = likely to have ever viewed an X- fundamentalists would score higher
.20) were associated with support for rated videotape. than both feminists and all others
anti-pornography campaigns. and that latter
the groups would
Feminists, Fundamentalists, and
Although support for the censorship not differ
significantly from each
of sexual violence made no indepen? Support for Censorship other. However, for both variables,
dent contribution to support for anti? To create groups that could rea? all three groups differed signifi?
pornography campaigns, concern sonably be seen as "feminists" and cantly from each other, with funda?
about pornography's effects did. "fundamentalists," the sample was mentalists scoring highest and
partitioned into three
groups based feminists scoring lowest. With regard
Correlates of Concern About
on their responses to several ques? to support of anti-pornography cam-
Pornography's Effects tions. Women and men whose scores fundamentalists showed
paigns,
In view of the
emergence of the on the sex role stereotyping scale more support (M = 8.17) than did
concern the effects of pornog?
about placed them in the lowest 11.8% other respondents (M = 7.55), and
of were designated "feminists" (n = feminists = 5.70) showed the
raphy as an important predictor (M
support for anti-pornography cam? 29). Gender was not used as a part least. The same pattern emerged
paigns, an exploratory analysis was of the definition of "feminists," with support for censoring sexual
performed to determine the corre? because doing so would imply that media, with fundamentalists show?
lates of this variable. Correlations men cannot support feminist ideals, ing more support (M = 9.89) than
were performed between concern and also to match more closely the other respondents (Af = 8.53) and
about pornography's effects and all methods of Cowan (1992), who feminists (M = 7.17) showing the
variables that were predicted to cor? included men in her sample of least. We also predicted that femi?
relate with support for censoring NOW members. Those who either nists would be similar to fundamen?
sexual media. Concern about described themselves as very reli? talists in supporting the censorship
pornography's effects was found to gious or attended church at least of violent media and expressing
be significantly correlated with age, weekly and scored at 10 or above concern about the effects of pornog?
r(299) = .28, p < .001; gender (in the top 42.7% of the distribu? raphy. In contrast to these expecta?
(females expressed greater con? tion) on the ends religious orienta? tions, the feminist group (M = 5.85)
cern), r(293) = .30, p < . 001; total tion scale were designated was found to express significantly
religiosity, r(292) = .42, p < .001; "fundamentalists" (n = 71). These less concern about pornography's
right wing authoritarianism, r(262) groups were then compared to the effects than fundamentalists (Af =
= .27, p < .001; and sex role stereo? remaining respondents (n = 204) on 7.59) and not to differ from the
typing, K262) = .34, p < .001. This several dimensions. other respondents (M = 6.31). The

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 Fisher, Cook, and Shirkey 237

Table 5 Cowan et al. (1988) included an

even wider circle of elements that
Comparisons Among Fundamentalists, Feminists, and All Others
they believed indicate dominance
Group
and exploitation of women, includ?
Variables Fundamentalists All others Feminists
= = = 29 ing differentials in the status of
_/2 71_n 204_7i
9.89a 8.53b 7.17c men and women, the amount of
Support for censoring sexual media
Support for censoring violent media 13.44a 12.39b 12.40b clothing worn, the frequency of
Support for anti-pornography campaigns 8.17a 7.55b 5.70c close ups of female versus male gen?
Concern about effects of pornography 7.59a 6.31b 5.85b of mastur-
italia, and the frequency
Note: Means that do not share a superscript are significantly different from each other at p < bation scenes involving women
.05 by the LSD test. versus as well as the ubiqui-
men,
tous practice of male ejaculation on
same pattern emerged with
support made by sex and violence were the surface of the woman's body.
for censorship of violent
media, additive. The results of the princi? Both definitions are multidimen-
with the feminist group (M = 12.40) ple components analysis suggested sional, involving several elements
not differing from other respon? that support for censorship of vio? of both the sexual interactions
dents (M = 12.39), but both groups lent media and support for censor? between male and female perform?
differing from the fundamentalists ship of sexual media are clearly ers and the broader social context
(Af =13.44). distinguishable attitudes, although in which sexual activity occurs.
the two components are somewhat Further, both involve elements that
Discussion
correlated. Most notable was the are potentially subjective and about
Although respondents repre? finding that "slasher" films and which reasonable persons could dis?
sented, demographically, only the graphically violent films loaded on agree. For example, at what point is
population of one large Florida the violence factor. a woman "treated as nothing more
county, the results of this survey Some researchers might argue than a plaything with no more
suggested that public opinion is that attempts to assess attitudes human qualities other than her
more favorable to the censorship of toward sexual media should also physical attributes"?
violent media than it is to censor? distinguish degrading or dehuman? To complicate further the distinc?
ship of sexual media. These results izing sexual media from sexual tion between degrading or dehu?
showed generally lower levels of media that are nonexploitive and manizing portrayals and egalitarian
support for censorship, but the rela? egalitarian (i.e., erotica). The differ? and nonexploitive ones, Check and
tive levels of support for sexual and ential effects found by Check and Guloien (1989) used individual sex
sexually violent materials were Guloien (1989) of these types of sex? scenes in their experiment rather
quite similar to the patterns found ual media suggest that this distinc? than full-length videotapes, because
in the Newsweek poll (1985): when tion may be important. At present, degrading and dehumanizing scenes
violent and nonviolent forms of there are problems with such a dis? tend to be found in the same full-
pornography were distinguished, tinction, however. It is not clear length videotape as egalitarian and
respondents were much less likely that researchers in this area can nonexploitive scenes.
to support censorship of nonviolent agree upon a single operational def? Even if researchers can agree
sexual media than
they were of inition for this distinction. Check upon the set of elements that
those depicting sexual violence. In a and Guloien (1989), for example, clearly distinguishes degrading and
comparison not available in the described the scenes that they used dehumanizing portrayals from erot?
Newsweek poll, fewer than one in the nonviolent, dehumanizing ica, it still remains to be seen
third would censor nonviolent, sex? condition of their experiment as whether public opinion will be more
ually explicit films or videotapes, containing "portrayals of sexual accepting of one type of portrayal
whereas nearly half would censor interactions in which the woman than the other. If persons are asked
graphically violent or slasher films. was portrayed as
hysterically about their reactions to "degrading
At the same time, more respon? responsive to male sexual demands, and dehumanizing pornography," it
dents would ban sexually violent was verbally abused, dominated, seems obvious that their attitudes
media than would ban nonsexual and degraded, and in general will be more negative than if they
depictions of violence. A combina? treated as
nothing more than a were asked about their reactions to
tion of sexual and violent content plaything with no more human "sexually explicit materials" or
contributed to the willingness of qualities other than her physical "erotica." However, an empirical
persons to ban particular media. attributes" (p. 163). In their content question worth asking is whether
Violent content alone made a larger analysis of "dominance and inequal? the public will judge more harshly
contribution, and the contributions ity" in sexually explicit videotapes, those media, either actually

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238 Support for Censorship

displayed to them or described ver? scores suggested that a person's ori? rooted in rational
processes.
bally in more objective terms, that entation to religion is also impor? Otherinterpretations are also
contain some themes said to distin? tant in understanding attitudes possible. Byrne, Fisher, Lambert,
guish degrading and dehumanizing toward censorship. As predicted, and Mitchell (1974) found that
materials from their more egalitarian among those who professed to be at affective responses to sexual mate?
and less exploitive counterparts. least somewhat religious, those who rials were related to judgments
The current results also sup? scored more highly on the items about whether such materials
ported the distinction between reac? assessing a means orientation or an should be restricted. Applying an
tions to sexual and violent media ends orientation to religion showed affective-reinforcement model of
with the
finding that the correlates more support for censorship of sex? evaluative responses, they argued
of the two factors differ consistently ual media but not for the censor? that persons attribute their own
in magnitude. Support for the cen? ship of violent media. On the other positive or negative affective reac?
sorship of the sexual media factor hand, scores on the quest religious tions to a stimulus to the intrinsic
showed substantial correlations orientation measure, which properties of the stimulus and fur?
with age, religiosity, gender, ends assesses the extent to which reli? ther "attempt to justify such judg?
religious orientation, authoritarian? gion represents an open-ended ments and to vindicate them by
ism, sexual conservatism, sex role quest for the answers to existential attributing a general benefit or
stereotyping, and concern about questions, were not significantly harm to the object" (p. 115).
pornography's effects. Only four of correlated with support for the cen? Another interpretation of concern
these variables correlated signifi? sorship of either sexual or violent about pornography's effects comes
cantly with scores on the violent media. In
religious persons for from Wood and Hughes (1984).
materials factor, and all four corre? whom religion is a means to an end, They interpreted belief that pornog?
lations were of less magnitude. One such as approval from others, iden? raphy has harmful effects as one
variable that was predicted to cor? tification with admired models, or manifestation of "cultural funda?
relate significantly with support for satisfaction of other social needs mentalism," a world view that
the censorship of violent
media, (Batson,1976), support for the cen? favors adherence to traditional
acceptance of interpersonal vio? sorship of sexual media may be norms, respect for family and reli?
lence, failed to correlate with sup? more a result of social influence gious authorities, an ascetic
port for the censorship of either processes than personal convictions lifestyle, and a moral outlook on
sexual or violent media. It is possi? opposing pornography. However, for life. In theirview, cultural funda?
ble that most persons who oppose those religious persons with a high mentalism, and in turn belief in the
censoring sexually violent and vio? ends orientation, support for the harm of pornography, results from a
lent media are those who value free censorship of sexual media may be set of socialization processes and
speech and oppose censorship of based more on the value they place represents the expression of
any speech, no matter how much it on the religious experience and feel? strongly held cultural values. Both
offends their personal standards. ings of virtue and doing good deeds interpretations are consistent with
This possibility must remain specu? (Batson, 1976). our findings that concern about
lation, because no measure of sup? The variable that emerged as the pornography's harms is greater in
port for free speech was included in best single predictor of support for older, more religious, more sexually
current survey. censorship of sexual and violent conservative, and female respon?
The current results are consis? media was concern about pornogra? dents.
tent with the finding of many previ? phy's effects. This is consistent with The finding that concern about
ous researchers that those who are Cowan's (1992) results and with pornography's effects bestwas the
more religious are less positive in Ajzen and Fishbein's (1980) theory predictor of support for censorship
their reactions to erotic materials. of reasoned action, which suggests of sexual media and violent media
Both self-reported religiosity and that attitudes toward particular might also be taken as evidence
church attendance were related to actions (i.e., banning sexual media) that there is widespread support for
support for censorship of sexual are more related to beliefs about feminist anti-pornography theory.
media, and an index formed by the consequences of those actions However, belief that pornography
summing these two variables than to attitudes toward the atti? has harmful effects is not unique to
emerged as one of the variables tude object (sexual media). The feminist thinking. It is shared with
making an independent contribu? finding that concern about pornog? the religiously based opponents of
tion to prediction of this variable in raphy's effects is the best predictor pornography. (See American Family
the regression analysis. However, of support for censorship of sexual Association, 1989.) That concern
the results from the analysis of the media might be seen as showing about pornography's effects was
correlates of religious orientation that support for censorship is greater in older, more religious, and

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 Fisher, Cook, and Shirkey 239

more sexually conservative respon? tion. Thus, the concept of "pornog? politically and religiously conserva?
dents suggests that most
respon? raphy" for Cowan's respondents was tive community. The differences
dents who expressed this concern more negative than was likely between our results and those of
were religious conservatives, rather adopted by therespondents in our Cowan and her colleagues might
than feminists. Even more damag- study. It is possible that some femi? simply reflect the different political
ing to the notion that a feminist nists in Cowan's studies had rela? and religious characteristics of the
world view informs concerns about tively positive attitudes toward two communities.
pornography's effects was the fail? some sexually explicit media that However the differences between
ure of hypotheses derived from went largely undetected because of these studies are
explained, it is
Cowan et al. (1989) to be supported. the verbal referents
employed. very clear that
our findings are con?
Based on Cowan et al.'s interpreta? Indeed, when Cowan's (1992) sistent with those of Baron (1990),
tions of attitudes toward pornogra? respondents were asked to indicate who found that states with greater
phy control in feminists and their definitions of "pornography," gender equality also had higher cir?
fundamentalists, we expected that only 33% labeled "sexually explicit culation rates of sex magazines and
feminists would not differ from fun? activity" as "pornography." interpreted this correlation as
damentalists in concern about The populations of feminists from these states
resulting having a
pornography's effects or support for studied by Cowan and her col? climate of greater political toler?
the censorship of violence. However, leagues were also highly self ance. The current research suggests
the results showed that "feminists," selected. The 29 feminists inter? that of sex role stereotyp?
rejection
defined in our research by a very viewed by Cowan et al. were mostly ing is found in the same individuals
low score on the sex role stereotyp? graduate students or faculty and who reject the censorship of sexual
ing scale, scored significantly lower were contacted through a network media. The overall of the
pattern
than fundamentalists on both of associates. Although the sample results from this southern commu?
dimensions, and expressed signifi? of NOW members studied by Cowan little support for the
nity provides
cantly less concern about pornogra? (1992) was larger, it too contained view that for
support censoring
phy's effects than even the other only persons who were committed derives from a femi?
pornography
(nonfundamentalist) members of enough to join the organization and
nist perspective.
the sample. Also contrary to expec? to complete and mail back the ques?
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