COMPUTER HARDWARE

• What is Computer Hardware?

- It refers to the physical components that make up a
computer system.
- There are many different kinds of hardware that can be
installed inside, and also be connected to the outside
of a computer.
- The hardware can further be divided into three areas:
✓ The Central Processing Unit (CPU) or the Processor,
✓ The main memory, and
✓ The Peripheral units or electrical gadgets.

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 The Central Processing Unit
• It is responsible for interpreting
and executing instructions from theb.
computer’s hardware and
software. It supervises the
execution of the instructions of thec.
stored program in the correct
sequence.
• It is what distinguishes a computerd.
from a calculating machine.it could
be considered the “brains” of the
computer.
• It helps in fetching and decoding ofe.
instructions, and it requires a
number of special storage locations
of its own called Registers.
• Its operations are as follows:
a. Obtain the address to be obeyed
from the program counter.
Copy the instruction from its
location in memory into the
instruction register.
Increment the Program Counter
so that it will contain the address
of the next instruction in memory
The Instruction Decoder decodes
the instruction from its pattern of
binary digits to determine what
operation is to be carried out.
The Arithmetic and Logical Unit
(A.L.U.) then executes the
instruction.
CENTRAL PROCESSING
UNIT
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The Arithmetic and Logical Unit (A.L.U)
• It is the part of a computer
processor which contains
logical circuitries used to
perform arithmetic, logic,
and manipulation operation
in computer instruction
words.
• In some processors, the ALU
is divided into two units, an
arithmetic unit (AU) and a
logic unit (LU). Some
processors contain more than
one AU - for example, one for
fixed-point operations and
another for floating-point
operations. (In personal
computers floating point
operations are sometimes
done by a floating point unit
on a separate chip called a
numeric coprocessor).
• The operand could be in an
accumulator, memory word,
or general register.
• Its input are the operand,
information from the status
register, control signals from
the control section.
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 The A.L. U. Contd…
• In the arithmetic unit, multiplication and division are done by
a series of adding or subtracting and shifting operations.
There are several ways to represent negative numbers. In the
logic unit, one of 16 possible logic operations can be
performed - such as comparing two operands and identifying
where bits don't match
• Typically, the ALU has direct input and output access to the
processor controller, main memory (random access memory
or RAM in a personal computer), and input/output devices.
Inputs and outputs flow along an electronic path that is called
a bus.
• The input consists of an instruction word (sometimes called a
machine instruction word) that contains an operation code
(sometimes called an "op code"), one or more operands, and
sometimes a format code.
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 The A.L.U. Contd…
• The operation code tells the ALU what operation to perform and
the operands are used in the operation. (For example, two
operands might be added together or compared logically.) The
format may be combined with the op code and tells, for example,
whether this is a fixed-point or a floating-point instruction. The
output consists of a result that is placed in a storage register and
settings that indicate whether the operation was performed
successfully. (If it isn't, some sort of status will be stored in a
permanent place that is sometimes called the machine status
word).
• It produces two sets of output: one represents the results of the
operation performed on the operand, while the other is a set of
status which are sent to the status register to set and clear various
flag bits.

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A.L.U. SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

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 Main Memory
• It is also known as immediate
access memory or Random
Access Memory (RAM),which
holds both the program being
executed and the data to be
worked upon for quick access by
the computer’s processor.
• The terms main storage and
auxiliary storage originated in
the days of the mainframe
computer to distinguish the
more immediately accessible
data storage from storage that
required input/output
operations. An earlier term for
main storage was core in the
days when the main data
storage contained ferrite cores.
• It is constructed from integrated
circuits and needs to have
electrical power in order to
maintain its information. When
power is lost, the information is
lost too! It can be directly
accessed by the CPU. The access
time to read or write any
particular byte are independent
of whereabouts in the memory
that byte is, and currently is
approximately 50 nanoseconds
(a thousand millionth of a
second).
MAIN
MEMORY
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 Main Memory Contd…
• The memory is divided into large number of small parts. Each part is
called cell. Each location or cell has a unique address, which varies
from zero to memory size minus one.
• For example, if computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has
64 * 1024=65536 memory location. The address of these locations
varies from 0 to 65535.
• Memory is primarily of three types:
✓ Cache Memory
✓ Primary Memory/Main Memory
✓ Secondary Memory
• The Read Once Memory (ROM) is used for holding short programs
that help to start up the system. Its content is fixed and cannot be
altered due to the fact that the writing circuit was disconnected
during the manufacturing process. It is non-volatile in nature.

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 Main Memory Contd…
• Primary Memory/ Main • Characteristic of Main Memory
Memory ✓ These are semiconductor
- Primary memory holds only memories.
those data and instructions on ✓ It is known as main memory.
which computer is currently
working. It has limited capacity ✓ Usually volatile memory.
and data gets lost when power ✓ Data is lost in case power is
is switched off. switched off.
- It is generally made up of
semiconductor device. These
memories are not as fast as
registers. The data and RANDOM
instructions required to be ACCESS
processed earlier reside in main MEMORY
memory. It is divided into two (RAM)
subcategories RAM and ROM.
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 Peripheral Units
• A computer peripheral is any external device
which provides input and output for the
computer.
• It can also be defined as electronic equipment
connected by cable to the CPU of a computer.
• It can be sub-divided into 3 devices:
1. Input devices
2. Output devices
3. Auxiliary Storage devices

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 Input Devices
• An input device is a device that can be used to
insert data into a computer or other
computational device.
• Examples of input devices include:
1. Document readers
2. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)
3. Optical Mark Recognition (OMR)
4. Optical Character Recognition (OCR)
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Examples of some Manual Input
Devices

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 Output Devices
• Output devices are electronic 2. Visual Display Unit (VDU)
or electromechanical 3. Computer Output in
equipment connected to a Microfilm (COM)
computer and used to 4. Graphics
transfer data out of the
computer in the form of text, 5. Magnetically encoded
images, sounds, or other 6. Voice Response (Audio
media. Response Unit)
• They help to bring out 7. Printer/Plotter
processed information from 8. Graph plotter
the processing unit to the 9. Mouse
outside world. 10. Graphic tables (sometimes
• Examples of Input/output called digitalising table)
devices include: 11. Light Pen
1. Printers
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Examples of some input/output
devices

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 Printers
• They are output devices that prints the results
of data processing
• They can be classified into two categories
1. Impact Printers
2. Non-Impact Printers

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 Impact Printers
• They are printers that print characters by
impact onto papers by means of an ink ribbon
and print wires of hammers.
• Examples include:
- Line printers
- Daisy Wheel Printers
- Dot Matrix Printers

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 Non-Impact Printers
• They are printers that work without the
impact of something hitting the piece of paper
held within it.
• Examples include:
1. Ink-Jet Printers
2. Thermal Printers
3. Laser Printers

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Examples of some Printers

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 Computer Graphics
• They are graphics created using computers and the
representation of image data by a computer specifically
using the specialised graphic hardware and software.
• Its development has had a very significant impact on
various types of media and have revolutionised animation,
movies, and the video game industry.
• From a business point of view, using of graphics to
represent information is often more useful and creates
higher impact than detailed printed reports.
• Images can be displayed on screens and also printed out on
devices such as graph plotters, printers/plotters, and
normal computer printers.

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 Auxiliary Storage Devices
• They are all addressable data storage devices that are not
currently in a computer’s main storage or memory. They are
also known as external storage or secondary storage devices.
• These storage devices hold data and programs for future use
and are considered non-volatile storage which retains
information even when power is not available. They trade
slower read/write rates for increased storage capacity.
• They are devices that store noncritical system data like
documents, multimedia and programs, which are used
whenever they are required. These files are invoked from the
auxiliary storage when needed and then transferred to the
primary storage so that the CPU can process them. The results
of the process can also be sent back to the auxiliary storage
for later retrieval or usage. They serve as safer means of data
storage though they are also susceptible to damage.
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 Auxiliary Storage Devices Contd…
• Its different types can be categorised as follows:
a. Hard disc
b. Soft disc, e.g. 5¼ inch floppy disk, 3½ inch floppy
disk, 8 inch floppy disk
c. Integrated disk
d. Optical disks
i. Compact Disk Read Only Memory (CD-ROM)
ii. Write Once/Read Many (WORM)
iii. Rewriteable magneto-optical disk
iv. Integrated discs
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Examples of some Auxiliary Storage
Devices

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 ASSIGNMENT FOUR

1. What is Cache Memory? Give 2 advantages and 2 disadvantages

of cache memory.
2. Mention 3 characteristics of Main Memory.
3. Mention 3 characteristics of the A.L.U.
4. In three sentences, explain how the CPU functions
5. What is the difference between the Random Access Memory
(RAM) and the Read Once Memory (ROM)?
6. Give 2 examples of secondary storage devices
7. What is the difference between CPU and Peripheral Unit?
8. Give 3 examples with explanation of auxiliary storage devices.
9. What is the difference between the Optical Pen and the Mouse?
10. Give 3 examples each of Laser printers and Desk-Jet printers.
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