CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

The first consumer right is to have a product of good quality and not constituting
any health hazard. Poultry meat products are highly desirable, palatable,
digestible and nutritious for all ages. Poultry meat is comprised of about 20–23%
protein, other are water and fat, phosphorus, iron and vitamins. Comminuted
products, such as frankfurters, bologna and sausages typically contain about 17–
20% protein, 0–20% fat, and 60–80% water (Smith,2001).Quality products are
those that meet some need or expectation of consumers and are safe and
wholesome as well. (Sahooet al., 1996).The microbiological safety and quality of
poultry meat are equally important to producers, retailers and consumers. Two
quite different groups of microorganisms are relevant: on the one hand certain
foodborne pathogens, and, on the other, organisms that are generally harmless to
human health, but, being psychrotrophic, are able to multiply on the product
during chill storage. Spoilage results mainly from off- odour development, and
product shelf-life is determined both by the number of spoilage organisms
present initially and the temperature history of the product at all stages of
production and subsequent storage and handling (Pooni and Mead, 1984). For
chill- stored poultry, Viehweget al. (1989) demonstrated that virtually all the
odorous substances found at spoilage could be attributed to microbial growth and
metabolism. Contamination of poultry meat with foodborne pathogens remains
an important public health issue, because it can lead to illness if there are
malpractices in handling, cooking or post-cooking storage of the product.

Chicken consumption has considerably increased with an annual growth

rate of 6 %. (Davies and Board, 1998) and the global production of broiler meat
increased from 73.1 million tons in 2008 to 83.1 million tons in 2012 (USDA,
2012), since it represents a major component of the human diet and chicken is an
important low cost source of animal protein (Cohen et al., 2007). It offers several
advantages over red meat that account for an increasing trend in chicken
consumption; cuts are easier to handle, the meat is associated with fewer
religious restrictions and has relatively low fat and cholesterol contents; it is
recognized as a healthier food option (Jaturasitha et al., 2008 and Liu et al., 2012).
Freezing is considered an excellent method for keeping quality of chicken meat
for long period (9-12month) at temperature below -180C, as during the freezing,
growth of many types of microorganisms will be ceased due to metabolic injury
while others especially psychrotrophic bacteria can grow until the medium
freezes (Davies and Board, 1998). Psychrotrophic bacteria are responsible for
many undesirable changes in flavor, odor, texture and color of the food products.

Fresh (uncooked) foods such as chicken carries natural microflora that may
contain organisms potentially harmful to humans. The microbial flora of table
poultry is largely confined to the skin surface or visceral cavity. Isolates from
poultry and poultry products could include members of the following general
Enterobacter, Alcaligenes, Escherichia,Bacillus, Flavobacterium, Micrococcus,
Proteus,Pseudomonas, Staphylococcus, Corynebacteriumand Salmonella. (Frazier
and Westhoff,1988).

Contamination of the skin and lining of the body cavity occurs during washing,
plucking and evisceration. Bacterial numbers vary considerably on the surface of
chickens. This variation however is greater between birds than is between
different areas of the same birds. The type of organisms isolated depends upon
where the samples were taken and upon the stage of processing (Frazier and
Westhoff, 1988). Fresh poultry products like meat are known to undergo
deterioration due to microbial action, chemical and physical changes. In normal
handling and storage of poultry meat, this deterioration changes are attributed to
micro biological contamination and activity.

Poultry and poultry products are frequently contaminated with several types of
microorganisms. This problem is even more severe under temperature-abused
conditions as well as improper or inefficient refrigeration commonly observed in
retail chicken sold in open markets. Poultry can be kept in good condition for
months if freezing is prompt and rapid and the storage temperature is low
enough. Poultry should freeze fast enough to retain most of the natural bloom or
external appearance of a freshly dressed fowl. The storage temperature should be
below 17.8oC and the relative humidity above 95 percent to reduce surface
drying. Most poultry is sharp-frozen at about 29oC or less in circulating air or on a
moving belt in a freezing tunnel. Other spoilage micro-organisms are introduced
into the poultry products by the workmen during cutting and evisceration,
through water, and air in the dressing, cooling and cutting room environment
(Allenet al., 2000). However, various methods are used in the preservation of
these poultry products in order to reduce the incidence of these organisms. These
include asepsis, use of heat, use of low temperature, chilling, freezing,
preservatives such as acetic, adipic, succinic etc. at pH 2.5 and use irradiation
(Frazier and Westhoff, 1988). Despite these methods of preservation,
contamination of poultry products remains the order of the day before it gets to
the final consumer.

1.2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

Various bacteria are associated with poultry products; this project is aimed at
achieving the following objectives:

i. To isolate the various microbial isolates associated with frozen chicken

purchased from different sellers in Umungasi market Aba, Abia State.

ii. To characterize and identify these micro-organisms.

iii. To speculate on the significance of these isolates.

iv. To compare the level of contamination of the samples (frozen chicken)

collected from different parts of the market

1.3 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Fresh (uncooked) foods such as chicken carries natural microflora that may
contain organisms potentially harmful to humans. The microbial flora of table
poultry is largely confined to the skin surface or visceral cavity that could cause
severe health hazard to the skin and body as a whole.

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

3The significance of this project is to throw more light on the bacteriological

quality and chemical criteria of frozen chicken meat sold in Umungasi market and
its suitability for human consumption.

1.5 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

In carrying this research work, a number of constraints were encountered:

• Firstly, insufficient data posed hindrance due to shortage of textbooks and

journals as the few text book available in the library where borrowed and not
returned by the respondents. This limited the number of responses which the
researchers had hoped to work within the project .

• Financial constraint: insufficient fund tends to impede the efficiency of the

researcher in sourcing for the relevant materials, literature of information and in
the process of data collection.

• Time constraints: The researcher will simultaneously engage in the study

with other academic work. This consequently will cut down on the time devoted
for the research work.
1.6 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

This work will be limited to the maximum inhibitory concentration and to know
the organisms sensitive to the spoilagea of frozen chicken sold in different parts
of the market under certain temperature.

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Poultry meat and levels of consumption

According to FAO data, the consumption of poultry meat, like all other types of
meat, has progressively increased from the past century to today in Europe and in
the USA and has generally remained stable over the past years.

European behavior with regard to dietary consumption in general and poultry

consumption, in particular, is considerably different than that of the United
States. The NHANES results (19) confirm that in the USA, the shift in consumption
from red meat to white meat was higher than in any other country. Nonetheless,
red meat still represents the majority of meat consumed in the USA (58%), while
processed meats occupy about 22% of the market. According to the study, in
2003–2004, the total intake of meat in the American diet was equivalent to an
average of 128 g per day, with a large variability in type and quantity of meat, also
based on education, age, and gender. This survey has shown that meat
consumption in the United States is therefore around three times higher
compared to the global mean: this aspect should be taken into proper
consideration when defining the sanitary policies oriented toward the reduction
of the prevalence of chronic diseases.( Markenson et al, 1976)

In Europe, data on poultry meat consumption originating from the European

Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) study (20) provide
values which differ across several geographical areas: total meat

consumption reaches a maximum in Spain (126.9 g per day in San Sebastian) and
a minimum in Greece (45.6 g per day), while daily intakes of poultry meat vary
from 7.6 g in Umea (Sweden) to 29.2 g in San Sebastian. In Italian population
groups, the average daily intake of poultry meat is of about 20 g (chicken
representing 65% of total poultry meat), with a peak of 23.4 g for subjects
recruited in the Center (Florence), and the lowest levels (14.6 g) for residents in
the South (Naples). (Roland, 2002).
Similar consumption levels of poultry meat have been registered in the
representative sample of the Italian population recruited for the INRAN-SCAI
2005–2006 survey (21).

As reported in the FAO database, poultry meat represents less than 30% of the
meat in the Italian diet, which is more abundant in cured meats, sausages, and
other processed products.

2.2 Poultry consumption and human health

Epidemiological studies conducted across various parts of the world, in highly

diverse populations, with different food preferences and nutritional habits,
provide solid information on the association between diet and health. Several
prospective studies support the association between poultry consumption, within
a balanced diet, and a reduction in the risk of developing cardiovascular (CV)
diseases and their risk factors, such as overweight and insulin resistance, and
tumors.(Dery et al, 2004)

2.3 SPOILAGE IN FROZEN CHICKEN

Understanding how poultry products become spoiled is critical to finding ways to

detect and prevent spoilage. ( Dery et al, 2004).

The primary causes of poultry products spoilage are as follows:

 Prolonged distribution or storage time

 Inappropriate storage temperature
 High initial bacterial counts
 High post-rigor meat pH
1. Prolonged distribution or storage time

Companies are able to prevent prolonged storage times by properly rotating their
stock. Product that is to be sold in locations far from the processing plant should
be transported at temperatures that are below freezing (i.e. 26 F), but not
sufficient to freeze the muscle tissue (deep chill) (Byun et al., 2003).

2. Inappropriate storage temperature

Inappropriate storage temperatures or fluctuations in storage temperature are

the most avoidable causes of spoilage. Temperature abuse can occur during
distribution, storage, retail display or handling of the product by the consumer.
Processors can determine whether product has been temperature abused by
monitoring temperature or evaluating bacterial populations throughout the
distribution system Aberle et al., 2001).

3. High initial bacterial counts

Initial bacterial counts on broiler carcasses may have a direct effect on the shelf-
life of fresh product as well. The initial number of bacteria on poultry is generally
a function of grow-out procedures, production practices, and plant and
processing sanitation. Higher numbers of spoilage bacteria on the chicken
immediately after processing, translates to more rapid spoilage (El Marrakchi et
al., 1990).

4. High post-rigor meat pH

High post-rigor meat pH is often caused by stress on the birds during grow-out or
transportation. This reduces the shelf-life of the meat by up to six days and is due
to the fact that spoilage bacteria multiply much more rapidly on meat that is at a
pH of 6.2 than on meat that is at a normal post-rigor pH of 5.4-5.6 (Hathout-Amal
and Aly –Soher, 2010).

2.4 Bacteria responsible for spoilage in frozen chicken

Research demonstrates that the populations of bacteria high in number on the

carcass immediately after processing are not the ones that grow under
refrigeration and spoil carcasses. Instead, the bacteria found after carcasses spoil
are very difficult to find on carcasses at the time of processing. Just after
processing, the spoilage bacteria are present in very low numbers, but they can
multiply rapidly to cause spoilage odors and slime.

These spoilage bacteria are called psychrotrophic bacteria (psychro=cold;

trophic=able to grow) because they are able to multiply under cold conditions.
Fresh poultry products held long enough at refrigerator temperatures will spoil as
a result of the growth of psychrotrophic bacteria.

In contrast, the bacteria that exist in higher numbers at the time of processing on
the skin of chickens and in their intestinal tracts are primarily mesophiles
(meso=middle; phile=love). These bacteria do not multiply to an appreciable
degree at refrigerator temperatures. Salmonella, E. coli and other bacteria found
on chickens are mesophiles. When a company conducts an “Aerobic Plate Count”
or “Total Plate Count” on a chicken carcass, it is measuring the mesophiles.

The figure “Mesophilic and psychrotropic bacterial growth during cold storage at
4 C on fresh poultry” shows how these populations of bacteria behave on
carcasses during refrigeration.

2.5 Origin of spoilage bacteria in frozen chicken

Spoilage bacteria on the carcass immediately after processing come from the
feathers and feet of the live bird, the water supply in the processing plant, the
chill tanks and processing equipment. These spoilage bacteria are not usually
found in the intestines of the live bird. High populations of Acinetobacter
(108cfu/g) have been found on the feathers of the bird and may originate from
the deep litter. Other spoilage bacteria, such as Cytophaga and Flavobacterium,
are often found in chill tanks but are rarely found on carcasses.

The psychrotrophic spoilage bacteria on chicken carcasses immediately after

slaughter are generally Acinetobacter and pigmented pseudomonads. Although
strains of nonpigmented Pseudomonas produce off-odors and off-flavors on
spoiled poultry, initially, they are difficult to find on carcasses and P. putrefaciens
(Shewanella putrefaciens) is rarely found.

2.5.1 Spoilage species of bacteria in frozen chicken

Russell et al. (1995) conducted a study to identify the bacterial species

responsible for spoilage of poultry from various locations around the U.S. The
species isolated are presented in the figures. The bacterial genera most isolated in
high numbers on spoiled poultry was Pseudomonas fluorescens, putida, or fragi or
Shewanella (formerly a Pseudomonas) putrefaciens. Identification of the genus
and species most responsible for spoiling poultry is important because, once
identified, it is easier to understand the mechanisms by which they produce
spoilage.

High numbers (105 cfu/cm2) of psychrotrophic spoilage bacteria are required on

poultry surfaces before off-flavors, off-odors and appearance defects are able to
be detected organoleptically. Researchers have reported that higher numbers of
bacteria (3.2x107 to 1x109 cfu/cm2) were required to produce slime than were
needed for odor to become noticeable.

Factors Affecting Poultry Meat Quality

1. Appearance (Colour)

Poultry meat colour is affected by factors such as bird age, sex, strain, diet,
intramuscular fat, meat moisture content, pre-slaughter conditions and
processing variables. Colour of meat depends upon the presence of the muscle
pigments myoglobin and haemoglobin.

Discoloration of poultry can be related to the amount of these pigments that are
present in the meat, the chemical state of the pigments, or the way in which light
is reflected off of the meat. The discoloration can occur in an entire muscle, or it
can be limited to a specific area, such as a bruise or a broken blood vessel. When
an entire muscle is discolored, it is frequently the breast muscle. This occurs
because breast muscle accounts for a large portion of the live weight (about 5 per
cent), it is more sensitive to factors that contribute to discoloration, and the
already light appearance makes small changes in colour more noticeable.

Extreme environmental temperatures or stress due to live handling before

processing can cause broiler and turkey breast meat to be discolored. The extent
of the discoloration is related to each bird's individual response to the conditions.

Table 1. Colour changes in a bruise over time for broiler muscle

(Gregory, 1992)

Age Colour

2 minutes Red

12 hours Dark Red-Purple

24 hours Light Green-Purple

36 hours Yellow-Green-Purple

48 hours Yellow-Green (Orange)

72 hours Yellow-Orange

96 hours Slightly Yellow

120 hours Normal, Flesh Colour

2. Texture (Tenderness)

After consumers buy a poultry product, they relate the quality of that product to
its texture and flavour when they are eating it. Whether or not poultry meat is
tender depends upon the rate and extent of the chemical and physical changes
occurring in the muscle as it becomes meat. When an animal dies, blood stops
circulating, and there is no new supply of oxygen or nutrients to the muscles.
Without oxygen and nutrients, muscles run out of energy, and they contract and
become stiff. This stiffening is called rigor mortis. Eventually, muscles become soft
again, which means that they are tender when cooked.

Anything that interferes with the formation of rigor mortis, or the softening
process that follows it, will affect meat tenderness. For example, birds that
struggle before or during slaughter cause their muscles to run out of energy
quicker, and rigor mortis forms much faster than normal. The texture of these
muscles tends to be tough because energy was reduced in the live bird. A similar
pattern occurs when birds are exposed to environmental stress (hot or cold
temperatures) before slaughter. High pre-slaughter stunning, high scalding
temperatures, longer scalding times and machine picking can also cause poultry
meat to be tough

3. Flavour

Flavour is another quality attribute that consumers use to determine the

acceptability of poultry meat. Both taste and odour contribute to the flavour of
poultry, and it is generally difficult to distinguish between the two during
consumption.

When poultry is cooked, flavour develops from sugar and amino acid interactions,
lipid and thermal oxidation and thiamin degradation. These chemical changes are
not unique to poultry but the lipids and fats in poultry are unique and combine
with odour to account for the characteristic 'poultry' flavour.

Few factors during production and processing affect poultry meat flavour. This
means that it is not only difficult to produce a flavour defect but it is difficult to
enhance flavour during production and processing.

Age of the bird at slaughter (young or mature birds) affect the flavour of the
meat. Minor effects on meat flavour are related to bird strain, diet, environmental
conditions (litter, ventilation, etc.), scalding temperatures, chilling, product
packaging and storage. However, these effects are too small for consumers to
notice.

2.6 Disinfectants used in chicken slaughter houses and companies

Cleansing and hygiene are very important issues in food industry. Food corruption
caused by microorganisms with prevention of microbial contamination and
diffusion, abolishing the food-borne toxicities and infections are actualized with
cleaning and disinfection processes.

The important issue while choosing disinfection is sort of microorganism. Amount

and type of microorganisms can differ from company to company. Particular
microorganism for company must be determined just because microorganism
reflect different sensations for disinfectant.

Infections and poisonings caused by consumption of chicken products still happen

commonly in developed countries such as Australia, Canada, UK and Wales. It has
on 1st or 2nd place of food-borne diseases in Wales and 3rd place with 8% of
diseases in USA. Epidemiological studies in these countries pointed that 95% of
food-borne diseases are caused by chicken meats which are given to the p
Theazara (Conner et al., 2000).

Ozone slows the growth of microorganisms and sensory quality of the surface
provides protection at carcasses cold storaged. A study cunducted showed that
ozone used low concentrations on chicken meat decrease the number of
Pseudomonas sp. and C. scotti, extends the lagphases of Thamnidium and
Penicillium (Kim et al., 1999).

2.7 Contamination of frozen chicken

Microbial contamination started during incubation, raise and transportation keep

growing after entrance to the facility. Processing phases after admission and
slaughtering are generally designed to decrease microbial content. However,
microorganisms on carcass can not be totally eliminated. Furthermore, at
different processing phases further contaminations can occur on carcass. Tools
and equipments used, each ground contacted, staff and aerosols and
environment are remarkable soruces of contaminations (Pope and Cherry, 2000).

2.7.1 Types of contamination in frozen chicken

Chemical Contamination

Chemical contamination is when the food becomes contaminated by some form

of chemical. It is the most difficult type of contamination to control, and it could
potentially result in acute poisoning and long-term diseases. Symptoms of
chemical contamination can range drastically. In most cases, the consumer will
experience some form of mild gastroenteritis, but in some situations, chemicals in
food can be lethal.

Physical Contamination

Physical contamination refers to food that has been contaminated by a foreign

object. Finding random objects in our food is certainly off-putting, and it is
definitely something that causes concern for consumers. Food that has been
contaminated by a physical object could directly pose as a choking risk and cause
serious injury. Furthermore, the object may also carry bacteria, which could cause
microbial contamination at the same time.

Microbial Contamination
Microbial contamination, also known as biological, is the most common cause of
food poisoning. It is basically the existence of harmful pathogens in food, like
microorganisms, bacteria, viruses, mould, fungi, and toxins. This is the leading
cause of food-borne illness and food poisoning, and food spoilage or waste is the
most common cause of it. Chilling food causes the pathogens to become dormant
but does not necessarily prevent the growth of bacteria. To ensure bacteria are
destroyed during the cooking process, foods should be cooked thoroughly to the
right temperature. However, it is noted that many microbial toxins are heat
resistant and spoiled food should not be cooked and consumed. The most
common food-borne illnesses include norovirus, salmonella, listeria, e.coli, and
campylobacter, and symptoms can range from mild gastro issues to fatal and
long-term diseases.

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 MATERIALS

3.1.1 Sampling Technique

Firstly, wholesale cold stores with frozen chicken meats from the three locations
(Karlsson frozen stor, Brazli frozen chicken and the Nki cold stor) were purposively
selected. Five newly arrived cartons of frozen chicken parts (chicken thighs, wings,
backs) were then purchased from each stor for the study (table 1). These were
transported under the ice to the laboratory for analysis.

Table 1: Sample size from major cold stores

stors chicken parts

Stors Wings Backs Thighs Total

Karlsson 5 5 5 15
frozen store

Brazli frozen 5 5 5 15
 Chicken

Nkicold store 5 5 5 15

Total 15 15 15 45

3.1.2 Sampling Procedures

Aseptic sampling techniques were used to sample one kilogram of frozen chicken
parts (thighs, wings and back) from each carton into sterile plastic envelope bags,
sealed, and stored under the ice for the microbiological analysis.

3.2 Laboratory Methods and Analysis

3.2.1 Media and Reagent for Bacteriological Study

Media used for microbial analysis were Plate Count Agar , MacConkey Agar
(MCA), Mannitol Salt Agar (MSA), Desoxycholate Citrate Agar (DCA) and
Sabouraud Dextrose Agar (SDA). All commercial media were prepared as
previously described by the manufacturer.

3.2.2 Sample Preparation

A 25g portion of each chicken parts were excised aseptically into a sterile
stomacher bag containing 225ml of sterile buffered peptone water and
homogenized. Each homogenate was then used for serial dilution.

3.3.3 Serial Dilution and Culturing

A ten-fold serial dilution was performed on each homogenate for cultivation and
identification of microbial contaminants as previously described by (linkage et al
2000). Meanwhile, fungal isolates were enumerated and identified by
morphological characteristics on Sabouraud Dextrose Agar (SDA) incubated at
room temperature.

3.4 Microbial Analysis

Total Viable Counts (TVC), Total Coliform Counts (TCC), Salmonella species counts,
Staphylococcus species counts were determined using 1ml dilution of each
sample on suitable media and incubated at 37°C for 24 hours as previously
described [18, 19]. Bacterial isolates on the different media were identified using
standard microbiological methods [21]. Using representative colonies, isolates
were sub-cultured and identified using morphological characteristics and standard
biochemical tests previously described.

3.5 Identification of Fungi

The fungal isolates were identified by their morphological characteristics on

Sabouraud Dextrose Agar (SDA) and microscopic examination using lactophenol
cotton blue staining technique as previously described [20, 22].

3.6 Statistical Analysis

Data obtained from the microbial analysis were entered into Microsoft excel 2007
spreadsheet. The means microbial counts were computed (cfu/g) and
transformed into log10cfu/g. The data was subsequently imported into IBM-SPSS
software version 16.0 and analyzed. Descriptive statistics were used to summarize
the distribution of various variables into tables and figures. The mean counts of
the three chicken parts and the stores were compared using one-way analysis of
variance (ANOVA) at a 95% confidence interval (P<0.05).
CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Results

4.2 Mean Bacterial Counts of frozen Chicken parts

Table 2 shows the mean log cfu/g counts of TCC, TVC, and Salmonella and
Staphylococcus aureus for chicken meats from the three cold stores. . Chicken
meat parts from Brazli frozen chicken had means TCC of 6.14 mean log10cfu/g
whereas the Nki cold stores was 5.98 mean log10cfu/g. Chicken meats from
Brazli frozen chicken recorded TVC of 6.14 mean log10cfu/g whereas the least
was from the karlesson frozen store. The highest counts for Salmonella species
and Staphylococcus aureus were from the Karlsson frozenstore. There were no
significant differences (P > 0.05) in mean counts for chicken parts in the Karlsson
frozenstore , the Nki cold store and Brazli frozen chicken.

Table 2: Mean bacterial load log count of chicken meat per store

Stores TVC (cfu/g) TCC( cfu/g) Salmonella S. Aureus

cfu/g cfu/g

Sample Mean log Mean log Mean log Mean log Mean log
 Brazli 8.5 x 10^5 4.0 x 10^5
frozen
5.92 (0.32) 4.7 x 10^5
chicken

Karlsson
frozenstore

Nkicold
stores

4.3 Discussion

4.4 Microbiological Quality

In this study, means total aerobic plate count of >5 log10cfu/g were reported for
imported frozen chicken parts from the USA, the Netherlands and Brazil
consistent with previous studies in Ghana and the Czech Republic. Meanwhile,
Kunadu et al. (2020) and Pesewu et al., (2018) reported higher bacteria counts for
chicken meats at informal live bird markets and supermarkets in Aba. On the
other hand, higher counts of 8.44 log10cfu/g and 10.17 log10cfu/g were reported
for market chicken meats in Aba Abia State.

Mean total coliform counts and Salmonella counts of >4log10cfu/g were reported
in this study consistent with 4.97 log10cfu/g and 6.5 log10cfu/g reported in
previous studies. The means counts in our study were higher than 3.14 to 3.80
log10cfu/g reported for chicken meat products from supermarkets stores. .
Higher coliform counts of 7.0 log10cfu/g and 32.2 log10cfu/g were also reported
in previous studies contrary to this study. In this study, total Staphylococci spp. of
>4log10cfu/g were reported in agreement with previous studie.] but higher than
1.99 log10cfu/g reported in market meat elsewhere.
We suspect that the differences in bacteria counts for chicken meats in this study
and previous studies might be linked to technologies used, hygienic conditions
during slaughtering, processing,

4.5. Bacteria isolates

Klebsiella spp., Salmonella spp., Staphylococcus aureus, and Escherichia coli were
microbial contaminants isolated in this study. These bacteria are common
contaminants of poultry meats. Microbial contaminations occurred largely at
evisceration due to faecal material from the cloaca of chicken carcasses.
Moreover, frozen chicken meat products imported into Ghana are subjected to
several freeze-thaw cycles during transportation over long distances, through
transit from ports to cold storage facilities providing favourable conditions for
microbial proliferation. The presence of these bacteria is an index of the hygiene
quality of the chicken meat. Several studies also reported similar microbial
contaminants consistent with this study. Chicken products from Brazli stores
recorded the highest bacterial isolates relative to the Nki coldstore and
Karlssonstore.. We suspect the differences could result from differences in
technologies employed in poultry husbandry and processing of the meats. Also,
the animal health, rearing conditions, quality of slaughtering, processing,
packaging and storage conditions. Although largescale slaughterhouses is a rapid
and highly automated process, notwithstanding, considerable opportunities exist
for contamination. Hence, the performance of the slaughter process is very
critical and has a direct consequence on the microbial quality of the chicken meat
products. This could have accounted for the observed differences in numbers of
the bacteria isolates.

We obtained 26.2% and 24.6% prevalence for E. coli and Salmonella of which
more than 50% were recorded for frozen chicken meat products from Brazli
stores. . These values in consistent with 27.82% and 13.64% obtained for
Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp. but inconsistent with 18.52% and 1.84% for
Staphylococcus aureus and Klebsiella spp. reported in Nigeria The presence of
35.4% S. aureus in chicken meat products of this study is inconsistent with 17.9%
obtained by Kozačinski and colleagues in Croatia. . The presence of 24.6%
Salmonella of this study is fairly similar to 20% reported in broiler chicken, but
much lower than 91.7% in chicken drumstick.

The presence of S. aureus, E. coli and Salmonella points to possible contamination

at the plants coupled with transportation and storage challenges and raises
microbial safety standard credibility. The mere presence of these bacteria in raw
meat may not necessarily pose a health threat to consumers since the meats
would be subjected to cooking. Compared with the permissible limits stipulated
by [23-25] for coliforms counts, S. aureus, E. coli and Salmonella spp. counts for
chicken breast, backs and thigh samples examined were slightly higher and
unacceptable.

4.6 Fungal Isolates

Fungal contaminants, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Cladosporium and Rhizopus were

isolated, consistent with previous studies. The presence of 33.3 % Aspergillus spp.
and 24.2 % of Penicillin spp. in our study are in agreement with 35.7 % and 21.4%
reported for Aspergillus spp. and Penicillin spp. for processed chicken meat
retailed in Abakaliki, Ebonyi State, Nigeria]. However, Neocosmospora spp. and
Mucor spp. reported by [53] were not found in this study.

Fungal contaminations in chicken meat products may occur due to improper

processing and temperature fluctuation during storage and transportation. The
presence of fungal contaminants in chicken meat products poses a health threat
to consumers. Some fungi under certain environmental conditions release
secondary metabolites such as mycotoxins which could cause serious disorders in
humans and animals. Mycotoxins such as aflatoxins, ochratoxins, etc. produced
by fungi like Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium in food could cause severe
health problems such as allergic reactions, cancer, and organ damage. Although,
there is a paucity of information on the acceptable limits for fungal contaminants
in water and food, the presence of mycotoxigenic fungi pose public health
concerns.
CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 CONCLUSION

From the result achieved in the present study, one may conclude that examined
frozen chicken samples collected from different stores had unsatisfactory
condition which may be attributed to various factors among which transportation,
handling, distribution and storage. There is no doubt that the contamination of
examined chicken meat with different types of coliform, staphylococci, E. coli and
salmonella spp constitute a public health hazard besides being responsible for
undesirable changes in these chickens which render them unfit for human
consumption. All poultry establishments develop and implement a system of
preventive control designed to reduce the bacterial load of poultry intended for
freezing to a great extent and so improve the safety of their products, known as
HACCP (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points).

5.2 RECOMMENDATION

I suggest that frozen chicken should not be sold in open markets but rather in
neat and organized shops in order to reduce the risk of contamination as a result
of exposure to spores or poor hygiene. Materials such as tables, knives, chopping
boards used in the processing of the chicken should be thoroughly cleaned with
disinfectants and kept under aseptic conditions. Handlers should also wear hand
gloves when processing and wrappers should be sterile before being used to
package the chickens. Frozen chicken should be well packaged and sold whole
rather than selling in bits. This is because microorganisms can be introduced
through contaminated surfaces such as tables and chopping boards, and knives in
the process of chopping/cutting/slicing it. Proper storage of frozen chicken in cold
rooms and freezers is very important for adequate preservation and also to
prevent contamination from the presence of microorganisms. Government can
also set up agencies that will be responsible in making sure that handlers abide by
the proper methods of processing frozen chicken in order to protect the public
from food-borne diseases.
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