pS a Zimbabwe % Africa's adventure playgroundLonely Planet books provide independent advice. Lonely Planet does not accept advertising in guidebooks, nor do we accept payment in exchange for listing or endorsing any place or business. Lonely Planet writers do not accept discounts or payments in exchange for positive coverage of any sort. ly Planet - ee travel guidebooks in-depth coverage with background and recommendations Download selected guidebook Upgrades at www.lonelyplanet.com shoestring guides for travellers with more time than money condensed guides highlight the best a destination has to offer citySyne digital city guides for Palm” OS outdoor guides walking, cycling, diving & watching wildlife series phrasebooks don't just stand there, say something! city maps & road atlases essential navigation tools world food for people who live to eat, drink & travel out to eat an insider's guide to a city's best places to eat & drink read this first invaluable predeparture guides healthy travel_ practical advice for staying well on the road journeys travel stories for armchair explorers Pictorial lavishly illustrated pictorial books ekno low-cost international phonecard with e-services TV series and videos on-the-road documentaries web site for chat, Upgrades, destination facts lonely planet images online photo library ISBN 1 - 74059 - 043 - 0 USA $19.99 UK £12.99 781740590433 4th Editionns lonely planet Zimbabwe Tione Chinula Vincent Talbot LONELY PLANET PUBLICATIONS Melbourne ¢ Oakland ¢ London * ParisZIMBABWE ZAMBIA BOTSWANA Tomaun a Gwelag rapa ELEVATION es 2100 ee 15¢0m | __} som 300m 004m ible YOR sober a EL Ne Seashell 2) Hovange NP Neayie a re KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS FA - Forest Area FL. Forest Land FR - Forest Reserve NP: National Park NR - Nature Reserve RP. Recreational Park SA. - Safari rea WA - Wilderness Area OSelbi-PhiaveZIMBABWE Dake Cahora Bassa MOZAMBIQUE “ ™ i — "6? crimoko Naas Nyamauwe @ Mutokoe ea ‘ewrizon Sayapay Sm re! 7 " ttt SEZ sdhukweChvhue. The Range | MS : ws mn) PANS Speer anicaland mura agin ~ Mutings eer) |Chimaniimant NP messin SOUTH ARNICS: 7, Nisha canZimbabwe 4th edition - March 2002 First published ~ February 1992 Published by Lonely Planet Publications Pty Ltd ABN 36 005 607 983 90 Maribyrnong St, Footscray, Victoria 3011, Australia Lonely Planet offices Australia Locked Bag 1, Footscray, Victoria 3011 USA 150 Linden St, Oakland, CA 94607 UK 10a Spring Place, London NW5 3BH France 1 rue du Dahomey, 75011 Paris Photographs Many of the images in this guide are available for licensing from Lonely Planet Images. email: Ipi@lonelyplanet.com.au Web site: www.lonelyplanetimages.com Front cover photograph Children playing soccer on farm pitch, Matepatepa (Daniel Birks) Wildlife Guide title page photograph White rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) grazing, Lake Mutirikwe (Kyle) Recreational Park (Joe Mann) ISBN 1 74059 043 0 text & maps © Lonely Planet Publications Pty Ltd 2002 photos © photographers as indicated 2002 Printed by Craft Print International Ltd, Singapore All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except brief extracts for the purpose of review, without the written permission of the publisher. Lonely Planet, the Lonely Planet logo, Lonely Planet Images, CitySync and eKno are trade marks of Lonely Planet Publications Pty Ltd. Other trade marks are the property of their respective owners, Although the authors and Lonely Planet try to make the informa- tion as accurate as possible, we accept no responsibility for any loss, injury or inconvenience sus- tained by anyone using this book.Contents —- Text THE AUTHORS by THIS BOOK 7 FOREWORD 8 INTRODUCTION 11 FACTS ABOUT ZIMBABWE History Geography Climate . ° Ecology & Environment Government & Polities .....: Economy Population & People Education Music in Zimbabwe Society & Conduct Religion Language Flora & Fauna 29 Arts .... FACTS FOR THE VISITOR Highlights ..... a 52 Radio & TV ..73 Emergencies .... Suggested Itineraries Entoeranis & Video 73 Business Hours Planning Time 73 Public Holidays & Responsible Tourism Electricity susie? — Special Events Tourist Offices .. Weights & Measures 74 Activities Visas & Documents Laundry Work... Embassies & Consulates 61 Toilets Accommodation . Customs eres Health . Food Money Women Travellers .. Drinks Post & Communications Digital Resources Books .... Films Gay & Lesbian Travellers... Disabled Travellers Senior Travellers Travel with Children Entertainment .. Spectator Sports Shopping. ........ Newspapers & Magazines ...72 Dangers & Annoyances .....90 GETTING THERE & AWAY 101 Air 101 Land .... 107 Organised Tours 109 GETTING AROUND 110 IPE caries sant10 Bicycle Local Transport 117 Bus .111 Hitchin Organised Tours tly TEM etary 411 Walking Car & Motorcycle 113 Boat ... SAFARIS 118 118 Overseas Agencies Overland Companies WILDLIFE GUIDE Local Operators Types of Safaris .... facing page 128 HARARE 129 History 129 Orientation ......c.:ecsserseeeee131 Information ee2 Contents - Text Activities Shopping ...us.sascnsnnn152 Harare to Lake Chivero ......157 Organised Tours Getting There & Away .....153 Lake Chivero Special Events ... Getting Around Recreational Park 157 Places to Stay Around Harare .. Chinamora Rock Places to Eat Chitungwiza . Paintings Entertainment ...... Epworth Balancing Rocks ..156 Chishawasha ... Spectator Sports Ewanrigg National Park ......157 NORTHERN ZIMBABWE 162 The North-East Chinhoyi ... 468 Middle Zambezi Nyamapanda Mazowe . Tengenenge Art Community ..... Mavuradonha Wilderness Area ...... Umfurudzi Safari Area Harare to Chirundu EASTERN HIGHLANDS Chinhoyi Caves National Park Karoi ... Makuti Marongora Chirundu Fz The Middle Zambezi .. Mana Pools National Park Canoe Safaris. Eastern Lake Kariba Kariba Zambian Shore Kuburi Wilderness Area ......189 Lake Kariba Resorts .... 189 Matusadona National Park .. 192 194 Marondera .. North of Nyanga Haroni & Rusitu Rusape Nyanga National Park Forest Reserves . Odzi ... Mtarazi Falls Chipinge Mutare i Honde Valley Mt Selinda i Around Mutare ... Cashel Valley Birchenough Bridge 232 Bvumba Mountains . Chimanimani . Nyanyadzi Hot Juliasdale Chimanimani Springs Resort ...-.ccseseenr233 Nyanga National Park... 226 THE MIDLANDS Manyame Kwe Kwe . Serima Mission Recreational Park 1.234 Gweru Masvingo Chegutu 234 Around Gweru Great Zimbabwe Kadoma 235 Shurugwi Lake Mutirikwe (Kyle) Sebakwe & Ngezi National Chivhu Area... sein 259 Recreation Parks ....cca-...236 Myuma .. Mushandike Sanctuary ......262 SOUTHERN ZIMBABWE 264 Manjirenji Dam Chiredzi_... Mg Gwanda & Recreational Park 264 Gonarezhou National Park 267 West Nicholson 274 Runde River 1.264 Save Conservancy 270 Thuli Circle .. Triangle 264 Beitbridge 271 BULAWAYO History ..275 Special Events .. ....283 Shopping i Orientation .. ..277 Places to Stay "283 Getting There & Away Information 277 Places to Eat 288 Getting Around Activities 281 Entertainment 1.290 Around Organised Tours 282 Spectator Sports 291 Bulawayo ..Tshabalala Wildlife Cyrene Mission ...... Contents — Text 3 Matobo National Park 297 Sanctuary .....- 293 Diana's Pool Plumtree Chipangali Wildlife Khami Ruins . Orphanage 294 Mazwi Reserve WESTERN ZIMBABWE Gwaai River : Hwange National Park ......310 Binga Mzola Forest Reserve 307 Kazuma Pan Miibizi Dete National Park .. Deka Drum .. Hwange VICTORIA FALLS Western Kariba Chizatira National Park Victoria Falls Town . Zambezi Nature Getting Around ..... History Sanctuary ..... 333 Around Victoria Falls .. Orientation ... Organised Tours Zambezi National Park Information ... & Activities .... 1.333 Kazungula & Kasane Victoria Falls Special Events 339 Zambia National Park... 329 Places to Stay... .339 Information ........ The Big Tree 333 Places to Eat .. 343 Mosi-oa-Tunya Falls Craft Village .. ..333 Entertainment 344 National Park Curio Row & Shopping Livingstone Snake Park Getting There & Away .....345 Upper Zambezi .. LANGUAGE GLOSSARY 361 THANKS 364 INDEX 371 MAP LEGEND back page METRIC CONVERSION inside back coverContents - Maps INTRODUCTION Zimbabwe 11 FACTS ABOUT ZIMBABWE Zimbabwe Tribal GONE iin ssieicsies carrie 35 GETTING THERE & AWAY Zimbabwe Air Fares ........102 HARARE Harare... +130 Around Harare ................156 Lake Chivero Central Harare. 140-1 Recreational Park 158 NORTHERN ZIMBABWE Northern Chinhoyi Caves Lake Kariba......... Zimbabwe 164-5 National Park .... .170 Kariba Dam Area. Mavuradonha Mana Pools Wilderness Area ..............166 National Park 173 EASTERN HIGHLANDS Eastern pata Bvumba Mountains Chimanimani Village ......224 Mutare Nyanga National Park Around Chimanimani ......227 THE MIDLANDS The Midlands ...... ..235 Masvingo Lake Mutirikwe Gweru .. 240 Great (Kyle) Area ..260 Around Gweru ..243 Zimbabwe 251 SOUTHERN ZIMBABWE Southern Gonarezhou Zimbabwe ...... 265 National Park 268 BULAWAYO Bulawayo sau.276 Around Bulawayo Matobo National Park ....298 Central Bulawayo .......284-5 khami Ruins WESTERN ZIMBABWE Western Zimbabwe.........308 Binga 0. 7 320) Hwange National Park ....311.Chizarira National Park ...323 VICTORIA FALLS Victoria Falls Zambezi River Around Victoria Falls........348 Town . Gorges & Rapids ..........330-1 Livingstone... 352The Authors Tione Chinula Tione was born and raised in Malawi. At 16, she swapped the warm shores of Lake Malawi for the rugged Wellington coast of New Zealand. After studying languages, she got a scholarship to Tahiti, where she fell in love with the Pacific lifestyle. She returned to New Zealand to study journalism and now lives on the Pacific island of New Caledonia, where she works as a freelance journalist. Vincent Talbot At the age of 15, Vincent left the shores of his native France for the tropical islands of French Polynesia. Since then, the Pacific has been his second home. His decision to study marine biology was heavily influenced by the promise of three oceanographic exped- itions to Antarctica. Armed with his doctorate, he then headed back to Tahiti, where he spent time officially carrying out research into lagoon ecosystems and unofficially searching for the best surfing spots. He then changed tack and headed for New Cale- donia, where he now works as an engineering consultant and as a freelance photographer. Deanna Swaney After her university studies, Deanna made a tour of Europe and has been addicted to travel ever since. She has written a number of guidebooks for Lonely Planet, including Bolivia; Iceland, Green- land & the Faroe Islands, Norway, Samoa; The Arctic, Tonga; and Zimbabwe, Botswana & Namibia, on which this book is based. Deanna has also updated numerous other titles for Lonely Planet. Her latest guidebook is the first edition of Namibia, a FROM TIONE & VINCENT A big thank you to Tony and Heather Freeman for their bound- less hospitality and introducing us to all the right people; Andrew Curling, who had an answer for every query; Pios Dzembe for the Mbare tour and all the little things that counted; Peter and Alex Sheppard for their suggestions and infectious enthusiasm; Georgina Godwin and Jeremy Summerfield for providing so many contacts; Mike Scott for his generosity and enthusiasm; Keith Goddard for excellent reviews on music and gay and lesbian issues; Amelia Arsenault for information on the film industry. Thanks to the dedicated staff at the Publicity Associations around the country, whose patience and expertise made our job easier: Spiwe Matema in Nyanga; Brian Ratcliffe and Shirley Lander in Mutare; Daniel Mumpande in Masvingo; Val Bell and James Hadebe in Bulawayo; Serena Panas, Alec Simakani and Paul Matsika in Kariba; and Anna Othitis in Gweru6 The Authors Thanks to: Karien Kermer-Joosten and Fiona Jobling at Wild Side Tours & Safaris in Livingstone; Mags, Lorrie and Tsitsi at Backpack- ers Bazaar for the tonnes of information on Victoria Falls and Lorrie for being chauffeur; Stanley Banda and Jeffrey Manjengwa at the Zimbabwe Tourism Authority in Harare and Debra Malandu in Vic- toria Falls for their support and enthusiasm; Irene Staunton and Chirikure Chirikure for their input on literature; Alois Mlambo for help with the history section; Juliette Dzembe for her Shona exper- tise; Bernard Sibanda for reviewing the Ndebele section; Dave Parkinson for the extra information on Bulawayo; Tammi, Janet, Bobby, Chris and Liz for the fun at Antelope Park; Clive Woodworth for his quick action in averting a vehicular catastrophe; David Else for swapping his notes on Livingstone and Siavonga; Hayley Rogers for the backup; and William Brandt for his literary guidance. And thank you to all the lovely people we met along the way in remote villages, towns and cities for their hospitality and valuable inputTHANKS Many thanks to the travellers who used the last edition and wrote to us with helpful hints, advice and interesting anec- dotes. Your names appear on pages 364 and 365 of this book. This Book This first edition of Zimbabwe was based on the Zimbabwe chapter of Zimbabwe, Botswana & Namibia, which was written by Deanna Swaney and Myra Shackley and subsequently updated (twice) by Deanna. Tione Chinula and Vincent Talbot expanded and updated the text for this new edition. FROM THE PUBLISHER This edition of Zimbabwe was produced in Lonely Planet's Mel- bourne office. Nancy lanni coordinated the editing, with assistance from Bridget Blair, Kerryn Burgess, Adrienne Costanza, Justin Flynn, Jennifer Garrett, John Hinman, Susan Holtham, Hilary Rogers and Gina Tsarouhas. The mapping and design were co- ordinated by Hunor Csutoros, with assistance from Shahara ‘Ahmed, Katie Butterworth, Heath Comrie, Lachlan Ross and Jody Whiteoak. Sean Pywell compiled the Wildlife Guide, based on text by Luke Hunter and Andy MacColl. The index was compiled by Justin Flynn and Evan Jones. Daniel New designed the cover and Hunor Csutoros drew the decorative borders. Thanks to Emma Koch for compiling the Language chapter, Hunor Csutoros for the climate charts, Anna Judd for the map legend and David Else for his part in the Victoria Falls chapter. Thanks also to Annie Horner and Ryan Evans from Lonely Planet Images for organising the photographs and Mark Germanchis for helping with all things Quark. Finally, thanks to our ‘seniors’, Hilary Ericksen, Kim Hutchins and Vince Patton, for their hard work, early mornings and late nights.. 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Although inclusion in a guidebook usually implies a recommen- dation we cannot list every good place. Exclusion does not necessarily imply criticism. In fact there are a number of reasons why we might exclude a place — sometimes it is simply inappropriate to encourage an influx of travellers.Introduction Zimbabwe offers an incredibly rich diversity of tours, activities and landscapes. With four Unesco World Heritage sites — at Victoria Falls, Mana Pools National Park and the Great Zimbabwe and Khami ruins — it has developed a strong cultural and ecological image. Zimbabwe has received international acclaim for its strong stance on wildlife con- servation and has been particularly success- ful with its rhinoceros protection program. It ra NS AZORES (Portes ATLANTIC portucaL ) SPAIN OchAN Petes), Psi "MSA Madmen ISLANDS, Goal) ALGERIA niGeR eunanat ae vee) Dail SissAU, NIGERIA SERA Foameroon Toco. Rcuoueaga ae LieeRva ‘GABON § SAOTOME Sh. Graeme” pad ATLANTIC OCEAN NAMIBIA Sa —— sorswana, TRISTAN aa ‘CUNHA iconco is one of the few places where the rhinoceros population is increasing. Zimbabwe's national parks and private wildlife ranches, with their miombo wood- lands and thorny acacia or kopje-studded landscapes, offer magnificent opportunities for wildlife viewing and bird-watching. Ani- mals including antelopes, zebras and giraffes roam the plains and there is a very good chance of seeing at least a few of the Big TURKEY svaia) ISRAEL thee 97 IRAQ PALESTINIANLS O74, TERRITORIES |< i reece KUWAIT ~Sa001 ARABIA ‘Seo REA’ } ed ‘EMM BOUT! ALIA a ETHIOPIA 7 REPUBLIC UGANDA TWAROA FENYA : SEYCHELLES INDIAN OCEAN COMOROS: \ MOZAMBIQUE BURUNDI, TANZANIA MAYOTTE(erance) . a— ZAMBIA Mozambique = Channel MAURITIUS France) south SWAZIUANO) ‘FRICA ~ LESOTHO12 Introduction Five (buffaloes, elephants, leopards, lions and rhinos). You can spot wildlife from a ve- hicle, on foot, on horseback, or even from the back of an elephant. Walking and backpack- ing safaris let you get closer, not only to the animals, but to the rich and interesting flora of the bush. In wilderness areas, attractive thatched cottages and luxury lodges, inspired by traditional designs and the surrounding nature, blend in harmoniously with their natural settings. Fishing and boating are popular on Lake Kariba; below the lake, the Zambezi, one of Africa’s largest rivers, provides an ideal course for long-distance canoeing. The cool, green Eastern Highlands, with their spectacu- lar views over the plains of Mozambique, are an excellent hiking region, especially the Chimanimani Mountains, with their caves and scenic plateau. Another unique land- scape, created by three thousand million years of erosion, is Matobo National Park, with its balancing boulders coloured red and gold by lichen. The calm of the wilderness areas contrasts with the buzz of the popular tourist play- ground of Victoria Falls. With its daring ac- tivities based around the mighty waterfall and its dramatic gorge, the adrenaline-sports cap- ital of Africa attracts people from all over the world. As well as more sedate options, Vic- toria Falls has an impressive line-up of ad- venture activities, including white-water rafting, canoeing, kayaking, riverboarding, microlighting and bungee jumping. For travellers keen to learn about the everyday lives of rural and urban Zimbab- weans, tours to remote villages and high- density city suburbs offer a rich cultural ex- perience. Visitors interested in art can dis- cover the country’s traditional crafts, stone sculpture and the traditional and contempor- ary music found all over Zimbabwe. Histor- ical sites — such as ancient cave paintings depicting scenes of bygone hunts, and the Great Zimbabwe National Monument, the old stone walls of which echo with the sound of forgotten voices — reveal a glimpse of earlier times. Unfortunately, Zimbabwe’s remarkable assets are often overshadowed by its polit- ical and economic crises, which have re- cently led to a dramatic decline in tourist numbers. However, although visitors should take precautions, the alarming stories painted in the international press only por- tray part of the situation, so they do not give a completely realistic impression of the country. On the surface, life goes on as usual and, aside from long queues outside petrol stations, most visitors will not see evidence of a country in crisis. Zimbabwe has good road and rail networks, and a wide range of accommodation, from backpacker hostels to luxury lodges. On a financial level, the low value of the Zimbabwe dollar makes travel here inexpensive. The beautiful landscapes and wildlife are still there, and, despite the hardships, the warmth and friendliness of the Zimbabwean people have not diminished. The population is optimistic about the outcome of the presi- dential elections in 2002. If Zimbabweans get their way, and change comes about, they can once again call their country ‘Africa's paradise’.Facts about Zimbabwe HISTORY The first organised society in Zimbabwe is believed to have been made up of ancestors of today’s Khoisan people, who now live mainly in Botswana and Namibia. From about 8000 BC these peaceful hunter-gatherers began producing pottery and occupying rock shel- ters and caves throughout Southern Africa. The first farming techniques appeared during the early Iron Age around 2300 years ago. It’s believed the first farmers were Bantu- speaking migrants from further north. Their arrival marked the beginning of tribal society in the region. By the 11th century the site known as Great Zimbabwe had been settled and foundations and stonework had been constructed (today, only ruins remain). Shona Kingdoms & the Portuguese It’s generally believed that in the 11th cen- tury, the developing Shona society at Great Zimbabwe encountered the Swahili traders who'd been plying the Mozambique coast for over four centuries. They traded gold and ivory for glass, porcelain and cloth from Asia, and Great Zimbabwe became the capital of Southern Africa’s wealthiest and most powerful society. By the 15th century, Great Zimbabwe's influence had begun to decline. Although the cause of its downfall in the 16th century remains a mystery to historians, possibil- ities include overpopulation, overgrazing by cattle, popular tribal uprisings and political fragmentation. During Great Zimbabwe’s twilight period, Shona dynasties scattered into autonomous states. The most prominent was the Mutapa dynasty, which, after a series of raids on Zambezi Valley tribes, took in most of north- ern and eastern Zimbabwe and much of Mozambique. Their powerful mambo (king), Mutota, came to be known as Mwene Mu- tapa (Great Raider), and his Mutapa empire grew wealthy by policing and taxing the trade routes between Zimbabwe and the 13 Zimbabwe at a Glance ‘Area: 390,580 sq km Population: 13,079,000 Annual Population Growth Rate: 2.5% Capital: Harare Head of State: Robert Gabriel Mugabe Official Language: English Currency: Zimbabwe dollar (ZW$) Exchange Rate: US$1 = ZW$55 Gross National Product (GNP) Per Capita: US$710 Inflation: 65% Time: GMT/UTC + 2 International Dialling Co coast. All subsequent kings then became known as Mwene Mutapa. Upon Mutota’s death in 1450, his son and successor, Matope, moved the empire to Fura Mountain, 50km north of present-day Zimbabwe’s capital, Harare. Matope’s suc- cessor, a weak character called Nyahuma, lost the southern two-thirds of Mutapa terri- tory (and his life) to Matope’s son, Changa, who later founded the Changamire dynasty that would subsequently spawn the Rozwi dynasty in the late 17th century. Another Shona kingdom, the Torwa, emerged in 1480 in south-western Zim- babwe, with its capital at Khami. This king- dom is generally considered the successor to the Great Zimbabwe state, and its ruling class amassed considerable wealth from cattle and the ongoing gold trade. In 1502 Portuguese voyager Vasco da Gama landed at Sofala on the Mozambique coast and heard tales from Swahili traders of great wealth and golden cities on the plateau. The Portuguese were also told of the vast empire of Mwene Mutapa (Monomatapa to the Europeans), whom they assumed to be the custodian of King Solomon’s mines and the mysterious land of Ophir. In 1512 the Portuguese government sent the exiled An- tonio Fernandez on a fact-finding mission.14 Facts about Zimbabwe - History EVENTS IN ZIMBABWE'S HISTORY 5th-10th centuries CUPL) es 11th-15th centuries pre-1450 1480 ‘SARAH JOLLY 1512 To) 1629 1684 } 1834 1859 MARTIN HARA 1868 1888 1889 1893 (MARTIN HARRIS 1895 1896-97 KATE NOUN Zimbabwe's earliest inhabitants, the peaceful hunter-gatherer Khoisan people, retreat south-east to Namibia and Botswana after the arrival of Bantu groups Great Zimbabwe dynasty ~ the Shona civilisation that built the great stone city - rules Mwene Mutapa dynasty Torwa dynasty is established at Khami, trading gold and breeding livestock Portuguese Antonio Fernandez explores areas of Zimbabwe; beginning of trade and exploitation by Europeans Catholic Portuguese influence Mwene Mutapa Mavura Rozwi state takes over the Torwa dynasty Nguni from the south conquer the Rozwi ‘Mazilikazi establishes a Ndebele capital north of Bulawayo Lobengula becomes Ndebele king; Thomas Baines discovers gold in Mashonaland; Adam Renders discovers Great Zimbabwe Cecil John Rhodes colonises Zimbabwe and starts mining activities British South Africa Company (BSAC) established Ndebele defeated by British forces and their king Lobengula flees; rumours circulate about his death near Hwange The colony becomes Rhodesia Combined Ndebele and Shona forces attack the British pioneers in the first Chimurenga or Umvukela (War for Liberation); Africans eventually defeated White legislative council established and British settlers start arriving in droves Whites choose self-government in referendum over the Union of South Africa British Crown becomes the sovereign of Rhodesia Land Apportionment Act secures all fertile land for whites Labour law excludes blacks from skilled professions and bans them from white areas First active African resistance, with the formation of the Africa Voice Association Native Land Husbandry Act creates tension; land is divided up among blacks, including those evicted from white farmsFacts about Zimbabwe - History 15 1953 Federation of Southern Rhodesia and Nyasaland, comprising Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe), Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) and Nyasaland (Malawi), is declared 1957 African National Congress (ANC) formed under = the leadership of Joshua Nkomo Fa 1961 Zimbabwe African People’s Union (ZAPU), headed ey by Joshua Nkomo formed; a rift in ZAPU sees the creation of Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) 1964 lan Smith takes over leadership of the Rhodesian Front party and begins pushing for independence from Britain 1965 Smith institutes Unilateral Declaration of Indepen- dence (UDI) from Britain 1966 ZANU guerrillas attack Rhodesian forces at Chin- z hoyi and the Second Chimurenga begins g 1979 Lancaster House meeting in London launches 8 independence talks 1980 Zimbabwe gains independence; ZANU's Robert Mugabe elected prime minister 1983 Resurgence of rivalry between ZANU (mostly Shona) and ZAPU (mostly Ndebele) escalates into armed conflict (an estimated 20,000 people die) but ends in a ZANU-ZAPU confederation in 1987 1988 Government corruption is exposed and students protest 1990 ‘Mugabe begins scare tactics; during the election, a Zimbabwe Unity Movement (ZUM) candidate is seriously wounded in an assassination attempt; hy 2 other opposition candidates withdraw Ki 1996-98 Economic and political tension grows and taxes NY increase N, 2 1998 Government announces seizure of 1503 white- fF 5 owned farms { ey 5 1999 A popular multiracial opposition party, Movement [ie™ 3 for Democratic Change (MDC), led by Morgan Tsvangirai, is established 2000 Population votes ‘no’ in referendum on rewriting the constitution; violent farm invasions by war veterans; farmers and their workers murdered; Mugabe wins legislative elections; fuel is short and inflation is high 2001 War veterans continue harassment, closing down businesses and beating people; MDC gains support and becomes a serious contender against Mugabe for 2002 presidential elections STHAVH NILE16 Facts about Zimbabwe - History Ancient Rock Art Examples of ancient rock art - usually paintings on the inside walls of caves and overhangs - can be found all over Southern Africa. Their origins are unclear; however, deposits found in the caves and the scenes depicted in the paintings indicate that the artists were nomadic hunter-gatherers without knowledge of agriculture or pottery. For that reason, ancient rock art is thought to be the work of the early San people. Some rock paintings are stylised representations of the region's people and animals, but most are remarkably realistic - all in rich colours of red, yellow, brown and ochre. Common themes include the roles of men and women, hunting and gathering, and natural medicine. There are even exam- ples of trance dancing and spiritual healing using the San life force, known as nxum. This life force was invoked to control aspects of the natural world, including climate and disease, and it still features in San tradition. Animals portrayed in rock art include giraffes, elephants, rhinos, lions and antelopes. Despite the earliest works having long faded into oblivion, in many areas the dry climate and sheltered position have helped to preserve more recent paintings. Although no reliable dating method has been de- vised, anthropological studies have used the content, skill level and superposition of the paintings to identify three distinct stages in the development of the art. The earliest paintings seem to reflect a period of gentle nomadism during which people were occupied primarily with hunting. Later works, revealing great artistic improvement, suggest peaceful incursions by outside groups, perhaps Bantu-speaking peoples. The final stage indicates a decline; either a loss of interest in the genre, or imitation of earlier works by subsequently arriving peoples. The pigments used by these ancient artists were applied to the rock using animal-hair brushes, sticks and the artist's fingers. Reds were ground mainly from iron oxides, then powdered and mixed with animal fat to form an adhesive paste. Whites came from silica, powdered quartz and clays, and were less adhesive than the red pigments. For this reason, paintings in white have survived only in sheltered locations, such as well-protected caves, The most important thing about rock art is that it remains in the spot where it was originally cre- ated. Viewing the work in a ‘wilderness art gallery’ is so much more poignant than seeing it in a museum, and as well as enjoying the paintings, keen observers may catch a glimpse of what inspired them. The best place to see rock art in Zimbabwe is undoubtedly Matobo National Park Almost as good are the paintings at Domboshawa and Ngomakurira, both of which are north of Harare. There are also several sites around Mutoko, Lake Mutirikwe and Lake Chivero, and you'll find paintings scattered in rock overhangs all around the country. During the following century, both Por- tuguese and Swahili traders exploited inter- nal African squabbles to collect as much gold as they could. In 1565 the Shona mambo of Manyika (a state in the Eastern Highlands) challenged the incumbent Mwene Mutapa. Subsequently, Portuguese forces under the command of Francisco Barreto, the governor of loosely defined Portuguese East Africa, attempted to help the Mwene Mutapa seize control of Manyika. The mission failed, however, and the Portuguese resorted to bribery and manipulation of the African rul- ing classes to gain influence over the interior. In 1629 Mwene Mutapa Kapararidze tried but failed to drive the Portuguese out for good, and was summarily replaced by Mwene Mutapa Mavura, a catholicised Portuguese vassal. Portuguese interests were thereby given free rein until the southern state of Guruhuswa and the Changamire dynasty attacked Mutapa’s empire and deposed his puppet leader. The new Mwene Mutapa formed an alliance with the Changamire and forced the Por- tuguese to retreat to Mozambique. Meanwhile, in 1684, the Torwa dynasty in the south-west was conquered by theChangamire (the clan that first conquered southern Mutapa in the late 15th century). The resulting Rozwi state took in over half of present-day Zimbabwe and based its cap- ital at Danangombe (Dhlo-Dhlo). Its power and influence continued until 1834 when Nguni forces from the south, under the leadership of Soshangane and Zwangen- daba, stormed the Shona fortifications and assassinated the Rozwi leader. Rise of the Ndebele After Portuguese influence withered, most of Zimbabwe was controlled by various Shona groups. South of the Limpopo River, how- ever, the Nguni, several loosely associated Sotho-speaking tribes, competed for territory and power. In 1780, Dingiswayo, chief of the Mtetwa (a clan of the Nguni), forcibly con- federated these dispersed groups into a larger and mote respectable force. However, in 1818, an ambitious youngster called Shaka, from a minor clan, engineered Dingiswayo’s death and took control of the Mtetwa. He re- named the tribe Zulu, after his own humble clan, and launched into a campaign of mili- tary despotism and expansionism that would reverberate across Southern Africa. As the Zulu plundered their way across Natal, some conquered Nguni tribes fled northward on a difagane or mfecane (forced migration), which can be described as an African version of the Israelite Exodus. These tribes ploughed their way through existing political entities and by the 1820s the Soshangane tribe had reached southern Mozambique and eastern Manyika. They es- tablished the Gaza state, installed a ruthless and oppressive military government and en- slaved the local population. (In the late 19th century, Gaza was reined in by the Por- tuguese, whose rule of Mozambique had by then been internationally recognised.) In 1834, the Rozwi government was dis- mantled by the Nguni chief Zwangendaba, who was aiming for greener pastures further north in central Africa. However, the Rozwi’s final knockout punch was deliv- ered by the Ndebele (Those Who Carry Long Shields) under the command of Xu- malo clan chief Mzilikazi, whose father had Facts about Zimbabwe - History 17 alienated the clan (and brought about his own execution) by failing to hand over the spoils of a cattle raid to Shaka. As Mzilikazi fled northwards, he peace- fully encountered the missionary Robert Moffat and also took several beatings from northbound Boer trekking parties. Upon reaching the Matobo (Matopos) Hills, he established a settlement and attempted to confederate all the Nguni tribes within his sphere of influence. After a foray north- wards to assess the country beyond the Zam- bezi River, he discovered that his indunas (captains or councillors) had elected his son to take his place. Legend has it that those involved in the treason were promptly exe- cuted on a hill north-east of Bulawayo, thereby cementing the Ndebele state. Mzilikazi set up his capital at Inyati, 60km north of Bulawayo, and in 1859 he allowed Robert Moffat and his son John to establish a London Missionary Society mission. Although Mzilikazi never con- verted to Christianity, he initially extended to the missionaries the full measure of Nde- bele hospitality. He did take exception, however, to the Christian notion that even the lowliest individual had access to God’s personal attention, and relations began to break down. As a result, the Ndebele re- ception to Christianity was only lukewarm and in 1864 Moffat left Inyati. During the 1850s, missionary and geog- rapher David Livingstone and his wife, Mary Moffat (the daughter of Robert Mof- fat), briefly made their home in Inyati. Whether it was religious fervour or simply wanderlust that drew Livingstone north to- wards the Congo Basin and the Nile source remains a matter of dispute, but he eventu- ally left his family in the care of the Lon- don Missionary Society and set off towards his ‘presumptuous’ meeting with Henry Stanley in Ujiji, Tanzania. When Mzilikazi died in 1868, he was mourned with the words ‘intaba yadilika’ (‘a mountain has fallen’). His son Loben- gula ascended to the throne and shifted the Ndebele capital to Bulawayo. Meanwhile, European gold seekers and ivory hunters from the Cape were moving into Shona and18 Facts about Zimbabwe - History Ndebele territory. The events that followed — Frederick Courteney Selous’ reports of abandoned gold workings; artist Thomas Baines’ gold find in Mashonaland; and Adam Renders’ 1868 ‘discovery’ of Great Zimbabwe — launched a wholesale Euro- pean grab for the region’s presumed wealth. Enter the British The best known of the British opportunists was Cecil John Rhodes, who made his for- tune in the Kimberley diamond fields. Keen to take Queen Victoria’s interests — and his own enterprise — into the exploitable country north of the Limpopo River, he envisioned a great corridor of British-style civilisation and a railway stretching from the Cape to Cairo. In 1888 Rhodes tricked the Ndebele king Lobengula into agreeing to the Rudd Con- cession by presenting to him a deliberately mistranslated version. This agreement per- mitted British mining and colonisation of the lands between the Limpopo and the Zambezi Rivers, while also prohibiting Boer activity in Matabeleland. In exchange, the king would receive £100 monthly, 10,000 rifles, 100,000 rounds of ammunition and a river gunboat. Lobengula had apparently hoped the agreement would eliminate European competition for minerals, and limit the num- ber of prospectors and other itinerants enter- ing his territory. In fact, it had just the opposite effect. Soon after signing the agree- ment, Lobengula realised he had been duped and tried to retrieve the document from Rhodes. He even sent two envoys to London to inform the queen that the document had been obtained fraudulently. Rhodes still managed to obtain his charter, however, even though the British government was aware of the nature of the Rudd Concession. Rhodes formed the British South Africa Company (BSAC) in 1899 and received a royal charter allocating the power to ‘make treaties, promulgate laws, maintain a police force...make land grants and carry on any lawful trade’. Rhodes installed on his board such heavyweights as the Dukes of Fife and Abercorn, and Earl Grey. In 1890 Rhodes mustered an army of 500, the “Pioneer Column’, and a contingency of settlers who marched northwards into Mashonaland. On 27 June, they hoisted the Union Jack over Fort Victoria (Masvingo) and on 12 September they established Fort Salisbury. Their next target was Manyika, which was still occupied by the Portuguese, but they were able to coerce the African people to join their efforts and, after a skir- mish resulting in a border shift, BSAC es- tablished Umtali (Mutare) as its eastern headquarters on the new frontier. Finding little gold, the colonists appro- priated farmlands on the Mashonaland plateau. In 1893 Lobengula sent Ndebele raiders to Fort Victoria to put down a band of Shona attempting to drive a wedge be- tween the Ndebele and the British by sabo- taging colonial telegraph lines. Although Lobengula made it clear to Dr Leander Starr Jameson, commander of Fort Victoria, that his argument was with the Shona, Jameson and the settlers used it as an excuse to des- troy Ndebele power so that they could gain access to Matabeleland, where they ex- pected to find significant gold resources. For the Ndebele it was an unequal contest against superior arms, and, anticipating de- feat, Lobengula burned his capital at Bula- wayo and fled. Although nobody knows exactly where, when or how Lobengula died, it is believed he did so soon after. The Nde- bele simply say ‘inkosi yanyamalala’ (‘the king vanished’). The Ndebele continued to resist BSAC forces, but their leader’s death had caused a drop in morale and their resis- tance foundered. By 1895 the spoils of the defeat had been divided among white set- tlers, and native Africans had been relegated to marginal scrubby and tsetse fly—infested lands. Not surprisingly, this provided an in- centive for them to remain on white lands as indentured workers. Those who failed to work for the landowner for at least four months per year were required to pay a sub- stantial “hut tax’ to be allowed to remain. By 1895 the new country was known as Rhodesia, after its heavy-handed founder. Shortly thereafter, Mark Twain wrote in More Tramps Abroad: ‘Rhodesia is the right name for that land of piracy and pillage, and puts the right stain upon it’,First Chimurenga The new European government of Rhodesia was set up for and by the whites. Although the Ndebele had been conquered, the Shona continued trading with the Europeans until it became apparent that the Europeans intended to control the entire country. In 1896, the Ndebele and Shona rose up against the white settlers and gathered forces to drive the enemy from their land. This up- rising was a reaction against the abuse and excesses of the settlers, who had appropri- ated the land, imposed taxes and physically abused men during conscription of labour. This crusade — called Chimurenga in Shona and Umvukela in Ndebele — or *War for Liberation’, was led by Shona mhondoro (a spirit; the word means ‘lion’) and Nde- bele spirit mediums including Nehanda Charwe Nyakasikana (thought to be a fe- male incarnation of oracle spirit Nehanda), Sekuru Kaguvi, Mkwati and Umlugulgu. The spiritualists coordinated and inspired the uprising by preaching solidarity and co- operation among the Shona and Ndebele peoples. Although the revolt gained some momentum, it effectively stalled in 1897 when the leaders of the Chimurenga were captured and hanged. Nehanda’s parting words, ‘my bones will rise again’, prophes- ied the Second Chimurenga, which in turn culminated in Zimbabwean independence. The Ndebele indunas came to a tenuous peace agreement with BSAC, but the frag- mented Shona groups were quelled only after violent BSAC persuasion. In 1899 a white legislative council was installed and European immigration began in earnest. By 1904 there were about 12,000 European settlers in the country and this number doubled by 1911. Conflicts between black and white came into sharp focus after the 1922 referendum in which the whites chose to become self-governing rather than part of the Union of South Africa (the Cape and Natal combined with the conquered Boer Republics of Transvaal and Orange Free State). The following year, Rhodesian profits were not meeting expectations, so BSAC happily handed Southern Rhodesia over to the British Crown. Facts about Zimbabwe - History 19 Although Rhodesia’s constitution was in theory nonracial, suffrage was based on British citizenship and annual income, and only a few blacks qualified. White su- premacy was legislated in 1930 in the form of the Land Apportionment Act, which ex- cluded Africans from ownership of the best farmland, and in 1934 by a labour law which excluded them from skilled trades and professions and from settling in white areas (including all towns and cities). The effect was to force Africans to work on white farms and in mines and factories. Rumbles of Nationalism The first resistance to the unequal status of blacks surfaced in the 1920s and 1930s with the formation of the Rhodesia Bantu Voters” Association, the Southern Rhodesia Native Association and the Southern Rhodesia African National Congress. These repre- sented only middle-class Africans (the only group able to vote), and sought to reform the system rather than dismantle it. They were effectual only in that they raised black con- sciousness of the realities of inequality. The 1928 Shamva mine strike, and the emer- gence of African independent churches in protest against the continued marginalisa- tion of Africans in white-led denominations, were other signs of early protest activity. Abysmally poor wages and conditions led to the gradual radicalisation of the African labour force. During the 1940s, ac- tive resistance surfaced in the form of the African Voice Association, headed by Ben- jamin Burombo. Nationalistic fervour was fanned with the passage of the Native Land Husbandry Act of 1951, in which common pasture land on native reserves was divided into tiny plots and allocated to individual families, some of whom were recent evic- tees from white lands. Herd sizes had to be reduced to reflect the amount of grazing land available. By 1953, when the countries of Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland were politically joined into the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, mining and in- dustrial concerns favoured a more racially mixed middle class as a counterweight to20 Facts about Zimbabwe — History the increasingly dissatisfied labour force. Pressure from the British government elimin- ated several of the economic segregation policies and allowed blacks to enter skilled professions and to work in city centres, but no concessions were made to the sort of democracy envisioned by the nationalist movements. At the same time, white farmers, business- people and skilled workers perceived that growing nationalistic sentiments posed a threat to their privileged status. When Garfield Todd, the federation’s prime min- ister, attempted to satisfy some moderate African demands, he was thrown out of of- fice. In 1962, the same thing happened to his successor, Sir Edward Whitehead, who had approved a new constitution which en- visaged African-European parity sometime in the distant future. In Salisbury in 1955, adamant nationalist leaders formed the City Youth League, which merged two years later with the Southern Rhodesian African National Con- gress to form a new African National Congress (ANC) under labour activist Joshua Nkomo. Although the organisation was banned in 1959, it continued briefly under the guise of the National Democratic Party (NDP). In response to the state of emergency de- clared on 26 February 1959, resistance took the form of zhii (annihilation of the enemy) and turned violent. As a result of the protests, labour strikes and sabotage, the government banned the party and violently repressed one Bulawayo rally. Unfazed, the NDP re-emerged on 17 December 1961 as the Zimbabwe African People’s Union (ZAPU), with Joshua Nkomo steering the ship. ZAPU was banned after just a few months. In 1962 the newly elected right-wing gov- ernment of Winston Field’s Rhodesian Front Party also banned all black assemblies and political debates, and instituted a mandatory death sentence for arson. Nkomo bandied about the possibility of setting up a government in exile, but internal disputes caused a rift in ZAPU and the dissident members were ousted. These in- cluded Ndabaningi Sithole, Robert Mugabe and Leopold Takawira, who shortly there- after formed the Zimbabwe A frican National Union (ZANU). After squabbles between the two groups in the aftermath of the feder- ation’s 1963 break-up — which later resulted in the independence of Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) and Nyasaland (Malawi) — both ZAPU and ZANU were banned by the gov- ernment and most of their leaders were imprisoned. lan Smith & UDI In April 1964, Ian Smith took over both the Rhodesian Front Party and the presidency, and began actively pressing for Rhodesian independence. The British prime minister, Harold Wilson, countered by outlining a se- ties of conditions which had to be met be- fore Britain would even consider cutting the tether. These conditions included guaran- tees of internal racial equality, evidence of a charted course towards majority rule and majority sanction of the prospect of inde- pendence. In 1965, realising that he had no chance of securing such concessions from the white constituency, Smith pressed for a Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) from Britain. In the election of May 1965, Smith’s party picked up all 50 seats in government and declared independence in November. Britain reacted by declaring Smith’s action illegal and imposing economic sanctions in an attempt to bring him to heel. The United Nations eventually (1968) voted to make these sanctions mandatory, but with South Africa openly assisting Smith, and Mozam- bique still under colonial rule, the loopholes were enormous. The sanctions were ignored by most Western countries and even by some British companies (including British Petro- leum), and the action that had been intended to force Smith to the negotiating table failed miserably. The Rhodesian economy actually prospered; sanctions provided an incentive to increase and diversify domestic production. In fact, laws were passed to restrict the export of profits and to control imports. Smith re- fused to support any concessions; he consid- ered the revocation of the UDI and especially