School Psychology Review

ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/uspr20

The Association Between Child ADHD Symptoms

and Changes in Parental Involvement in
Kindergarten Children’s Learning During COVID-19

Moira Wendel , Tessa Ritchie , Maria A. Rogers , Julia A. Ogg , Alecia M.

Santuzzi , Elizabeth C. Shelleby & Kellie Menter

To cite this article: Moira Wendel , Tessa Ritchie , Maria A. Rogers , Julia A. Ogg , Alecia M.
Santuzzi , Elizabeth C. Shelleby & Kellie Menter (2020) The Association Between Child ADHD
Symptoms and Changes in Parental Involvement in Kindergarten Children’s Learning During
COVID-19, School Psychology Review, 49:4, 466-479, DOI: 10.1080/2372966X.2020.1838233

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/2372966X.2020.1838233

Published online: 31 Dec 2020.

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School Psychology Review
2020, VOL. 49, NO. 4, 466–479
https://doi.org/10.1080/2372966X.2020.1838233

SPECIAL SERIES

The Association Between Child ADHD Symptoms and Changes in Parental

Involvement in Kindergarten Children’s Learning During COVID-19
Moira Wendela, Tessa Ritchieb, Maria A. Rogersb, Julia A. Ogga, Alecia M. Santuzzia, Elizabeth C. Shellebya,
and Kellie Mentera
Northern Illinois University; bUniversity of Ottawa
a

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

The coronavirus pandemic 2019 (COVID-19) changed the context of schooling for both parents and Received July 31, 2020
their children. Learning at home presents new challenges for parents of young children and particularly Accepted October 12, 2020
for parents of children with behavior difficulties, such as inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity.
The current study examined changes to parent and child behavior due to COVID-19 among 4- and KEYWORDS
5-year-old children and their parents. Changes in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) ADHD, COVID-19, parent
symptoms and levels of parental involvement in children’s learning were examined. ADHD symptoms involvement, kindergarten
were also examined as a moderator of changes in parent involvement. Data were collected prior to
ASSOCIATE EDITOR
COVID-19 and several months after school closures. Results indicated that parents’ ratings of their
children’s ADHD symptoms increased from prior to COVID-19 to during COVID-19. There were few Dorothy Espelage
changes to parents’ educational involvement; however, parents’ beliefs about their responsibility to
be involved in their children’s learning changed differentially according to child gender.

IMPACT STATEMENT
The COVID-19 pandemic will likely have a profound impact on the development of young children
around the world. The current study highlights the concern of increasing attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder symptoms among kindergarteners, as rated by parents. On the other hand,
the findings from this study also demonstrate that the pandemic may not have a deleterious impact
on parents’ involvement in their children’s education.

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has
resulted in many new challenges for children and their
families. Of concern is the impact that the pandemic has
had on the development of young children. In many
regions, school closures resulted in education continuing
under the supervision and instruction of parents. This puts
new demands on parents, and childrens most proximal
environmenal influence on their development has shifted,
which may lead to changes in both child and parent behav-
iors. Prior research suggests that family stress and hardship
can lead to increases in child problem behaviors (e.g.,
Conger et al., 1994). One aim of the current study was to
examine whether parent-reported child attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms (i.e., inattention
and hyperactivity/impulsivity) may have changed from
prior to the COVID-19 school closures to several months
into remote learning. Another purpose of the current study
was to examine how beliefs and behaviors about parental
involvement in kindergarten children’s learning changed
from prior to COVID-19 school closures to following the
closures. Prior research has demonstrated significant chal-
lenges for parenting during crises (Cobham & McDermott,
2014; Neppl et al., 2016), but research has not explored how
parents’ involvement in their children’s learning has been
impacted by crises. The study examined changes to parents’
perceptions of key theoretically and empirically defined
constructs of parental involvement because of COVID-19.
Further, the purpose of the study was to examine
whether child ADHD symptoms—which have been shown
to relate to parental involvement in learning—moderate
changes in beliefs or behaviors. Prior research has found
that children’s ADHD symptoms are related to how parents
view and are involved in their child’s education (e.g.,
Musabelliu et al., 2018; Rogers et al., 2009a, 2009b).
Children’s behavior influences many aspects of parenting,
including parent involvement (Burke et al., 2008; Shelleby
& Ogg, 2020). Thus, this study examined whether chil-
dren’s ADHD symptoms affected changes in parental
involvement in young children’s learning before and
during the COVID-19 pandemic.

CONTACT Moira Wendel Moira.Wendel@gmail.com Department of Psychology, Northern Illinois University, 1425 W LincolnHwy, DeKalb, IL 60115, USA.
© 2020 National Association of School Psychologists

Child Behavior and Parental Involvement in Crises
Bioecological theories of child development (e.g.,
Bronfenbrenner, 1992) maintain that the larger societal
context (in this case, the COVID-19 pandemic) can impact
child and parent behavior, as well as family interactions.
From the perspective of child behavior, new research from
China on COVID-19 suggests that there may be increased
levels of psychopathology in children resulting from the
pandemic (i.e., anxiety and depression; Xie et al., 2020),
and a recent survey from Canada found that 59% of par-
ents reported behavioral changes in their children, includ-
ing increases in outbursts and irritability (Children’s
Mental Health Ontario, 2020). However, to date, no studies
have looked at the role of the pandemic in the manifesta-
tion of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity in chil-
dren—symptoms that are highly prevalent in early
childhood (Dupaul et al., 2001) and that exert increased
stress on families (Theule et al., 2013).
When considering changes to the family system during
times of crisis, parents’ stress is a salient factor that is
directly related to the parenting system (Deater‐Deckard,
1998). Stressful life events and contexts are related to
poorer functioning and increased psychopathology
amongst parents (Anastopoulos et al., 1992). At times of
crisis, parents’ stress levels rise and parenting behaviors
change, resulting in poorer parent–child interactions
(Elder & Caspi, 1988; Kelley et al., 2010). Specific to the
COVID-19 pandemic, parents have reported that the
stress from financial strain and social isolation has
impacted their parenting, and parents reported that they
have increased yelling and disciplinary practices (Lee &
Ward, 2020). In times of crisis, changes in parenting prac-
tices can result in adverse child outcomes, such as impaired
cognitive development and increased problem behaviors
(Conger et al., 1994; Hidrobo, 2014).
Parental Involvement in Children’s Learning
One key aspect of parenting that has not yet received focus
in the literature during times of crisis is parental involve-
ment in children’s learning. This is particularly of interest
during the current crisis because of the widespread school
closures that resulted in the need for parents to support
virtual learning at home (“UNESCO” 2020). Parental
involvement in children’s learnings constitutes parents’
engagement beliefs and behaviors concerning their chil-
dren’s learning and education (Hoover-Dempsey &
Sandler, 2005). A large body of research has substantiated
the link between parental involvement and child out-
comes, including academic achievement (Fan & Chen,
2001) and social and behavioral outcomes (Barger et al.,
2019; Fantuzzo et  al., 2004). Although parental
COVID-19, ADHD Symptoms, and Parental Involvement 467
involvement has been stratified into several distinct types
of educational involvement (Epstein, 2010), parents’
home-based involvement in children’s learning is a type
of educational involvement that is particularly associated
with child academic outcomes (Fantuzzo et al., 2004;
Hoover-Dempsey et al., 2005) and is particularly relevant
during the at-home learning period. Home-based involve-
ment constitutes parents’ participation in their child’s
learning and parent behaviors that create an environment
at home that is conducive to learning (Hoover-Dempsey
& Sandler, 2005).
Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler’s (2005) model suggests
that home-based involvement is predicted by parents’
motivational beliefs and life contexts. Specifically, there
are four constructs within parents’ beliefs: self-efficacy,
role construction, time and energy, and knowledge and
skills. Parent self-efficacy is parents’ beliefs in their ability
to assist their child in their education. Role construction is
parents’ beliefs about their responsibility to be involved in
their child’s education. Time and energy refers to parents’
perceptions of the amount of available time and energy
they have to be involved in their children’s education.
Finally, knowledge and skills concerns parents’ perceptions
of their knowledge of school-related topics and their skills
associated with involvement in their child’s education.
These determinants of parental involvement are found to
account for the variance in parents’ home-based involve-
ment (Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 2005).
Due to the changes to education during the COVID-19
crisis (Lee & Ward, 2020), it is important to consider how
parental involvement in children’s learning has changed.
For many families, school closures forced parents into a
more proximal position to their children’s learning as they
engaged in more educational activities with their children,
according to one survey (Lee & Ward, 2020). However,
prior research has demonstrated that parents’ stress levels
are associated with poorer parenting practices around
education (e.g., Rogers et al., 2009b). Parents who are faced
with financial burden, for example, introduce their chil-
dren to less cognitively stimulating materials and activities
(Naudeau et al., 2011), and Waanders et al. (2007) found
that economic stress experienced by parents is negatively
related to parents’ home-based involvement in their chil-
dren’s education. Given the stress associated with the
COVID-19, involvement behaviors have likely changed
for some parents, particularly as parents try to balance
working from home and homeschooling their children.
In terms of changes to parents’ motivational beliefs and
life contexts during a crisis, research in this area is sparse.
Some research suggests that parenting self-efficacy for
helping their children learn is lower for parents with more
neighborhood stressors, such as street crime and neigh-
borhood drug and alcohol use (Waanders et al., 2007), and
468 School Psychology Review, 2020, Volume 49, No. 4
family stressful life events are negatively related to general
parenting self-efficacy (Machida et al., 2002). Further, par-
ents’ beliefs about the importance of education are associ-
ated with parenting stress levels (Respler-Herman et al.,
2012). Given the novelty of the current remote learning
situation, the current study will provide helpful insight into
how a major global crisis relates to parents’ beliefs about
involvement in their children’s learning.
Understanding parent involvement is particularly
important for kindergarten children, given that young
children are at a particularly important developmental
period, and the quality of their environment and interac-
tions has a major impact on their development and edu-
cational trajectories (Knudsen et al., 2006). Research on
natural disasters has demonstrated profound effects of
crisis situations on development and academic growth in
young children (Peek & Richardson, 2010; Scott et al.,
2014). For example, younger children may be particularly
vulnerable to crisis events because they may be more sub-
stantially impacted by parental stress (Brock et al., 2016).
Because parents are the main sources of support for young
children, parental involvement during these formative
years of schooling is an important area of research.
Although parent involvement may change in a crisis
situation, family income often has a buffering effect on the
negative impact on parents and children (Silverman & La
Greca, 2002). Because family income is related to parents’
education level, their beliefs about their children’s school-
ing, and their involvement in their children’s schoolwork
(Davis-Kean, 2005), it is no surprise that higher parent
education is associated with greater involvement in chil-
dren’s schoolwork during the COVID-19 pandemic
(Brossard et al., 2020). Also notable is that economic inse-
curity is associated with negative parenting behaviors and
child ADHD symptoms among Canadian parents of young
children (2 to 5 years old; Kong & Phipps, 2016). Thus,
family income presents as a potential moderator to the
changes in parent involvement beliefs and child behaviors
during a pandemic.
Parental Involvement and Child ADHD
Though overall levels of involvement beliefs and behaviors
may change during a crisis, child factors may predict the
degree of this change. In other words, stress may not have
a ubiquitous influence on parenting; rather, some families
may be more at risk than others for adverse outcomes for
a variety of reasons. Namely, child ADHD symptoms, even
at subclinical levels, can be particularly challenging for
parents. Symptoms of ADHD—a neurodevelopmental
disorder marked by symptoms of inattention, hyperactiv-
ity, and impulsivity (American Psychiatric Association,
2013)—are associated with both social and academic
DOI:10.1080/2372966X.2020.1838233
deficits in early childhood (Bussing et al., 2010; Dupaul
et al., 2001). Difficulties such as organizing, paying atten-
tion, sitting still, taking turns, and following directions
make schooling is particularly challenging for this popu-
lation of children, even at subthreshold levels and in young
children (Frazier et al., 2007; Polderman et al., 2010). Due
to the difficulty in managing child behaviors, parents of
children with ADHD experience more stress (Anastopoulos
et al., 1992; Johnston & Mash, 2001), and child problem
behaviors are associated with negative interactions
(Dupaul et al., 2001; Wymbs et al., 2015). Specific to
involvement in learning, research has indicated that par-
ents of children with ADHD have lower self-efficacy and
perceptions of available time and energy than parents of
children without ADHD (Ferretti et al., 2019; Rogers et al.,
2009a), and child ADHD symptoms are associated with
lower parental involvement in education (Fantuzzo et al.,
2004; Musabelliu et al., 2018; Rogers et al., 2009b). Given
that child ADHD symptoms are shown to negatively
impact parenting (Wymbs et al., 2015) and parents of chil-
dren with ADHD are less involved in their children’s edu-
cation than parents of children without ADHD, parents
of children with higher ADHD symptoms facing addi-
tional stress during the pandemic may engage in worse
parenting practices.
When considering possible changes to parental involve-
ment during a crisis in relation to children’s behavior, it is
important to consider how gender might moderate these
changes. Despite research suggesting the similarities in
parental involvement across gender (Garbacz et al., 2015),
differences in parenting and child behavior between boys
and girls should not be ignored. From a young age, parents
interact with their children differently and have different
expectations according to the child’s gender (Snow et al.,
1983). Thus, increases in parent stress result in differential
reactions according to child gender, eliciting differing
behaviors from boys versus girls. This is consistent with
some research suggesting that family stress has a greater
impact on male externalizing behavior than female behav-
ior. For example, Stone et al. (2016) found that for young
children (ages 4 through 9), the bidirectional relationship
between parenting stress and externalizing problems was
stronger for males than that for females. Related to this, a
large body of work has demonstrated a higher impact of
interparental conflict on externalizing problems for boys
compared to girls (Reid & Crisafulli, 1990).
Contributions of the Current Study
The purpose of the current study was to examine the
changes in child ADHD symptoms from before COVID-
19 to during the pandemic, when schools have closed and
students are learning remotely. Another purpose was to

examine parenting beliefs and behaviors related to involve-
ment in education prior to and following the spread of a
global pandemic that led to school closures and remote
learning in a sample of kindergarten students. An import-
ant contribution of this study is the comparison of parental
beliefs and behaviors before and after school closures. This
allows a careful look at what initial changes in involvement
may have emerged as a result of the unprecedented event.
In addition, the examination of how child behavior, spe-
cifically ADHD symptoms, relates to any potential changes
provides insight into which families may be at particular
risk during the pandemic and specifically during remote
learning. Because child gender and family socioeconomic
levels are also important considerations for both parent
involvement in education and child ADHD symptoms,
these variables were also considered.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1. Have parent perceptions of child ADHD symptoms
changed from before COVID-19 to during remote
learning?
2. Given the prior research demonstrating increased
behavior problems during crises and family stress
(Conger et al., 1994), along with research demon-
strating increases in child psychopathology and
problem behaviors during COVID-19 (Children’s
Mental Health Ontario, 2020; Xie et al., 2020), it was
predicted that parent-rated child ADHD symptoms
will increase.
3. Have parents’ motivational beliefs and involvement
behaviors in their children’s education changed from
before COVID-19 to during remote learning?
Although research shows that higher levels of family stress
are associated with lower parental involvement beliefs
(Machida et al., 2002; Respler-Herman et al., 2012; Waanders
et al., 2007) and lower educational involvement behaviors
(Naudeau et al., 2011; Rogers et al., 2009b; Waanders et al.,
2007), one survey suggests that remote learning might
increase parent engagement in educational activities (Lee &
Ward, 2020). Because of the the novelty of the current situ-
ation, we considered the examination of changes to parent
involvement beliefs and behaviors to be exploratory.
Do child ADHD symptom levels moderate changes in
involvement motivational beliefs and behaviors?
We hypothesized that child ADHD symptoms will mod-
erate the changes in parent involvement such that parents
of children with higher ADHD symptoms will show
decreases in involvement from before COVID-19 to during
remote learning. This prediction is based on the research
demonstrating that parents of children with ADHD are
COVID-19, ADHD Symptoms, and Parental Involvement 469
less involved in their children’s education, coupled with
increased exposure to child behavior because of remote
learning and the stress associated with managing children
with ADHD, which can lead to worsening parenting prac-
tices (Anastopoulos et al., 1992; Wymbs et al., 2015).
METHOD
The current project is part of a larger longitudinal research
study examining the impact of parent engagement on child
development. Data were collected prior to COVID-19 in
December 2019 and January 2020 and again several
months into remote learning in May and June of 2020.
Kindergarten Context
The parents in this study had children enrolled in a public
kindergarten program in a large Canadian city. The pro-
gram, which is implemented across all four public districts
in the province, is a 2-year, full-day, play-based model,
which is delivered 50% in English and 50% in French. The
classrooms were composed of children in junior kinder-
garten (age 4) and senior kindergarten (age 5), with the
age cutoff being December 31st of each school year. This
model of kindergarten is a typical representation of the
education system in this region of Canada.
Worth noting, just weeks before the first parent surveys
were distributed in the winter, labor negotiations were
occurring between the elementary teachers’ union and the
province, and the unions—which included both the kinder-
garten teachers and the Early Childhood Educators—began
work-to-rule action. Although the work-to-rule had no
impact on the curriculum implementation or any direct
interactions with students, the teachers were instructed to
no longer complete administrative tasks or work activities
outside of school hours. Between the winter and spring time
points, the labor negotiations continued, with further work-
to-rule action and several strike days where school was
canceled for students. In mid-March, the schools were
closed because of the COVID-19 pandemic and remained
closed for the remainder of the school year while teachers
switched to virtual teaching. The extent of virtual instruc-
tion the students received varied significantly depending
on the school, the teacher, and the resources of the family
to support online learning. For instance, though some
teachers hosted online meetings with their students with
some regularity, it was not mandatory for students to attend.
Other teachers opted for supplying parents with age-appro-
priate educational materials (e.g., apps or games) that could
be completed by the students in their own time. The spring
2020 data collection occurred approximately 2 months after
in-person classes had ended.
470 School Psychology Review, 2020, Volume 49, No. 4
Participants
The parents who participated were recruited from 32 kin-
dergarten classrooms across six schools from a large city
in Eastern Canada. A total of 238 parents consented to
participate; however, not all parents completed the surveys
in the winter or spring. One hundred fifty-two parents
completed the survey in the winter, and 184 completed the
spring survey.
Demographic data were collected at the first data point
and are presented for all participants who had inattention
and hyperactivity/impulsivity scores at winter and spring
(n = 113). The kindergarten classrooms are blended rooms
with students in the first and second years of the program.
At the time of data collection, 45 children were in their
first year of the program (40%), and 68 were in their sec-
ond year of kindergarten (60%). The average age was 4.66
(SD = 0.54, range 4–6 years). Approximately half of the
children were boys (n = 54; 47%). The parents identified
their children’s backgrounds as White, 81%; South Asian,
6% (e.g., East Indian, Pakistani, Sri Lankan etc.); Chinese,
3%; Black or African Canadian, 3%; Arab, 3%; West Asian,
1% (e.g., Iranian, Afghan, etc.), and 2% identified as other.
Thirteen percent of parents completing the surveys
were male (n = 15) and 87% were female (n = 98). The aver-
age age was 38.28 years (SD = 4.25, range 27–46 years). The
families primarily spoke English at home (90%), with a
large majority of parents having at minimum of a bache-
lor’s degree (82%). The majority of parents were married
(85%). The lowest income range participants reported was
the CA$20,000–$26,999 range, and the highest was more
than CA$400,000 with a median income range of
CA$146,000–CA$198,999. For comparison, the median
income in this Canadian region for families with children
under 17 is CA$110,851 and for two-parent households it
is CA$134,794 (Statistics Canada, 2016).
Measures
A parent survey was used to capture parent reports of their
beliefs about involvement in their children’s learning, their
behaviors of involvement in their children’s learning, and
their children’s ADHD symptoms. Parents completed the
same survey in the winter before COVID-19 school clo-
sures and again several months after schools closed due
to COVID-19.
Parent Beliefs About Involvement
Parents’ beliefs about involvement in their children’s edu-
cation was measured with the Parent Involvement Project
Questionnaire (Hoover-Dempsey et al., 2005). Four sub-
scales were used to assess the various dimensions of par-
ents’ underlying motivation and perceived ability to be
DOI:10.1080/2372966X.2020.1838233
involved. Parents indicated their agreement with state-
ments related to motivational beliefs (i.e., Self-Efficacy and
Role Construction subscales) and life context (i.e., Time
and Energy and Knowledge and Skills subscales) on a
6-point Likert scale (1 = disagree very strongly to 6 = agree
very strongly). The Self-Efficacy subscale consists of five
items, such as “I know how to help my child do well in
school.” The Role Construction subscale consists of 10
items, including “I believe it is my responsibility to explain
tough assignments to my child.” The Time and Energy
subscale consists of five items, such as “I have enough time
and energy to communicate effectively with my child’s
teacher.” The Knowledge and Skills subscale has 5 items,
including, “I know enough about the subjects of my child’s
schoolwork to help him or her.” Good reliability has been
demonstrated in prior samples for each of these subscales:
Self-Efficacy (α = .78), Role Construction (α =.80), Time
and Energy (α = .84), and Knowledge and Skills (α = .83;
Hoover-Dempsey et al., 2005).
Home-Based Involvement
The Family Involvement Questionnaire (Fantuzzo et al.,
2000) Home-Based Involvement subscale was used to
measure parents’ involvement in their children’s education.
The Home-Based Involvement subscale consists of 13
items asking parents about the frequency of their behav-
iors regarding their child’s learning and schooling (e.g., “I
spend time working with my child on number skills,” “I
keep a regular morning and bedtime schedule for my
child”). Parents indicate the frequency of their involve-
ment on a 4-point Likert scale (1 = rarely to 4 = always).
The Home-Based Involvement subscale has demonstrated
good reliability (α = .85; Fantuzzo et al., 2000).
Child ADHD Symptoms
The ADHD Rating Scale–5 for Children and Adolescents,
Home Version (ADHD RS-5; DuPaul et al., 2016) was used
to measure children’s ADHD symptom levels, as rated by
a parent. The ADHD RS-5 is an 18-item parent report mea-
sure developed from the symptom criteria of the Diagnostic
and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition.
The scale consists of an Inattention subscale (nine items)
and a Hyperactivity/Impulsivity subscale (nine items), for
a total of 18 items. Parents indicate the frequency with
which their child displayed the symptomatic behaviors of
ADHD over the past 6 months based on a 4-point Likert
scale (1 = never or rarely to 4 = very often). Examples of child
behaviors include “easily distracted” and “‘on the go’ acts
as if ‘driven by a motor.’” The ADHD RS-5 has demon-
strated good reliability for both the Inattention (α = .95)
and Hyperactivity/Impulsivity (α = .83; DuPaul et al., 2016)
subscales. Good construct validity for the ADHD RS-5 has

also been demonstrated, with high correlations with the
Conner’s Parent Rating Scale (DuPaul et al., 2016).
Procedure
Ethics approval was given from the university’s ethics
review board as well as the local school district’s research
review committee. All students in kindergarten at the six
participating schools were sent home with a research con-
sent package, which included detailed information about
the longitudinal research study. The consent packages
requested permission not only for the parent surveys but
for academic testing to be completed in school, as well as
teacher surveys to be completed about the child. The con-
sent package informed parents that the study was collect-
ing information twice a year, from kindergarten to Grade
2. The exclusionary criteria of a previous diagnosis of an
intellectual disability or autism spectrum disorder was
outlined, as well as a request that all participants be profi-
cient in English.
As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, the only data
collected during the winter and the spring were the parent
surveys. Child academic testing was completed in the win-
ter, but because of COVID-19, no spring testing was
administered. The child academic testing data were not
used in the current study. Surveys were either complete
online or on paper. Two reminder emails were sent to par-
ents who had not yet completed the survey.
Analyses
A repeated measures general linear model was analyzed
to examine within-person changes in parents’ ratings of
child inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity from win-
ter (pre-pandemic) to spring (during the pandemic and
remote learning). In addition, a repeated measures general
linear model was analyzed to examine within-parent
changes in parent involvement variables in the winter and
spring. Child symptoms of inattention and hyperactivity/
impulsivity, child gender, and family income were exam-
ined as moderators of changes in parent involvement. We
report the eta squared as an estimate of the size of effects.
We used Cohen’s (1988) benchmarks to define small (η2
= .01), medium (η2 = .06), and large (η2 = .14) effects.
Only participants with parental involvement data on
for both winter and spring on the parent involvement vari-
ables were retained for the primary analyses given the
focus on within-person change from before and following
the pandemic. There were 106 to 107 parents who com-
pleted the parent involvement beliefs and behaviors at both
time points, and 113 parents completed both the inatten-
tion and hyperactivity/impulsivity ratings (see Table 1).
COVID-19, ADHD Symptoms, and Parental Involvement 471
All participants were nested in classrooms and schools;
thus, intraclass correlations (ICCs) were examined for
classrooms and schools. The ICCs at the classroom level
ranged from 0% to 24.0% (most under 10%); however, no
ICCs were significant. In addition, no design effects sur-
passed the threshold of 2 (Peugh, 2010). At the school level,
ICCs ranged from 0% to 11.2%, and none were significant.
There were two design effects at the school level greater
than 2. Thus, to account for the nested structure of the
data, school was included in all analyses as a covariate.
RESULTS
Descriptive statistics displayed in Table 1 show the mean
and standard deviation of each measure from the winter
data collection. The mean levels of ADHD symptoms fell
at the midpoint between never (1) and sometimes (2). To
gain insight into the frequency of clinical levels of ADHD
symptoms, we also examined the number of child partic-
ipants at each time point who had parent-rated ADHD
symptoms above the 90th percentile. In the winter, 8 par-
ticipants (7%) were above the 90th percentile for ADHD
scores, and in the spring, 13 participants (12%) were above
the 90th percentile for ADHD scores.
Correlations between key variables in the spring showed
that parent beliefs were positively associated with each
other. Home-based involvement was also associated with
all parental involvement beliefs. Child levels of inattention
showed a significant and negative association with paren-
tal self-efficacy and knowledge and skills. Child levels of
hyperactivity/impulsivity were negatively associated with
all parental involvement beliefs.
Changes in Child ADHD Symptoms
To determine whether the within-child changes in parents’
perceptions of child ADHD symptoms from prior to and
during the pandemic were significant, repeated measures
general linear models were examined for both inattention
and hyperactivity/impulsivity. There was a significant
main effect, or within-person change, from winter to
spring for Inattention, F(1, 107) = 8.49, p = .00; η2 = .07.
There was also a significant within-person change in levels
of hyperactivity/impulsivity from winter to spring, F(1,
107) = 5.38, p = .02; η2 = .05.
Changes in Parent Involvement and Child ADHD
Symptoms as Moderators
To determine whether the within-parent change in parent
involvement variables from prior to and during the pan-
demic were significant, as well as whether child
472 School Psychology Review, 2020, Volume 49, No. 4 DOI:10.1080/2372966X.2020.1838233

Table 1.  Descriptives and Correlations for Key Variables

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
1. Self-Efficacy wintera .88
2. Self-Efficacy springa .66** .85
3. Role Construction wintera .23* .27* .78
4. Role Construction springa .17 .32** .70** .79
5. Time and Energy wintera .37** .54** .63** .55** .81
6. Time and Energy springa .25* .52** .47** .62** .75** .87
7. Knowledge and Skills .57** .53** .40** .22* .52** .35** .73
wintera
8. Knowledge and Skills .27* .50** .32** .36** .42** .51** .62** .72
springa
9. Home-Based Involvement .22* .37** .49** .42** .55** .44** .37** .31** .85
winterb
10. Home-Based Involvement .25* .52** .49** .58** .48** .55** .30** .40** .69** .86
springb
11. Inattentive symptoms −.51** −.38** −.02 −.07 −.18 −.05 −.25* −.27** .03 .04 .92
winterc
12. Inattention symptoms −.55** −.54** −.11 −.18 −.26** −.15 −.28** −.17 .00 −.04 .79** .89
springc
13. Hyperactivity/impulsivity −.44** −.32** −.01 −.06 −.19 −.09 −.22* −.21* .00 .00 .78** .67** .89
symptoms winterc
14. Hyperactivity/impulsivity −.39** −.44** −.12 −.21* −.38** −.27* −.21* −.22* −.06 −.07 .63** .71** .74** .89
springc
15. Family income .12 .01 −.14 −.09 .08 −.14 .04 .03 −.13 −.13 −.22* −.17 −.13 −.13
n 107 107 107 107 107 107 107 106 106 113 113 113 113 113
Winter mean (SD) 4.82 (.86)4.69 (.83)4.88 (.56)4.63 (.80)4.39 (.91)5.07 (.67)5.08 (.57)2.97 (.48)3.02 (.50)1.56 (.57)1.71 (.53)1.61 (.55)1.70 (.59)—
Note.aScores for parenting involvement beliefs (Self-Efficacy, Role Construction, Time and Energy, Knowledge and Skills) ranged from 1 (disagree very strongly) to 6
(agree very strongly).
b
Scores for Home-Based Involvement ranged from 1 (rarely) to 4 (always).
c
Scores on child inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity symptoms ranged from 1 (never or rarely) to 4 (very often).
p < .05. **p < .01; alphas for each measure are on the diagonal in italics.
*

inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity moderated
these changes, repeated measures general linear models
were examined. Specifically, separate models were run
for each parent involvement variable (i.e., Self-Efficacy,
Role Construction, Time and Energy, Knowledge and
Skills) with each symptom of ADHD (i.e., inattention and
hyperactivity/impulsivity). Child gender and family
income were also included in all models. In addition, a
dummy variable for the school variable was included to
control for nesting. The results are presented in Table 2
(models with inattention) and Table 3 (models with
hyperactivity/impulsivity).
Self-Efficacy
For parent self-efficacy, inattention (see Table 2) and
hyperactivity/impulsivity (see Table 3) demonstrated a
between-person association with self-efficacy. Correlation
coefficients demonstrated that both inattention and hyper-
activity/impulsivity were negatively associated with paren-
tal self-efficacy for educational involvement. There was no
significant within-person change in parental self-efficacy
from winter to spring.
Role Construction
Hyperactivity/impulsivity (but not inattention) demon-
strated a between-person association with parents’ role
construction. Hyperactivity/impulsivity was negatively
associated with parental role construction. Although there
was not a significant within-person change from winter to
spring for parent’s role construction, this change was mod-
erated by gender. This moderation is visually represented
in Figure 1 and represents a small effect. For boys, there
was a slight increase in parents’ role construction scores
from winter (M = 4.68; SD = 0.54) to spring (M = 4.71;
SD = 0.58). For girls, the scores of role construction were
higher, but there was a slight decline in scores from winter
(M = 5.06; SD = 0.51) to spring (M = 4.90; SD = 0.53).
Time and Energy
Inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity demonstrated a
negative between-person association with parents’ percep-
tion of their time and energy. Parents’ perception of their
time and energy for involvement did not demonstrate a
within-person change from winter to spring.
Knowledge and Skills
Inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity demonstrated
a between-person association with parents’ knowledge
and skills. Specifically, ADHD symptoms were negatively
associated with parents’ perceptions of their knowledge
and skills to support their child’s education. There was
not a significant within-person change in parents’ knowl-
edge and skills.
 COVID-19, ADHD Symptoms, and Parental Involvement 473

Table 2. Changes in Parent Involvement Beliefs and Behavior and Table 3. Changes in Parent Involvement Beliefs and Behavior
Child Inattention, Child Gender, and Family Income and Child Hyperactivity/Impulsivity, Child Gender, and Family
F p Value η2 Income
Model 1: Parent self-efficacy and child inattention symptoms F p Value η2
Between-person effects Model 1: Parent self-efficacy and child hyperactivity/impulsivity symptoms
 Child inattention symptoms 41.62 .00* .34 Between-person effects
 Child gender 0.89 .35 .01  Child hyperactivity/impulsivity symptoms 12.65 .00* .13
  Family income 0.00 .96 .00  Child gender 1.17 .28 .01
Within-parent change in parent self-efficacy 0.47 .49 .00   Family income 0.12 .73 .00
  Moderator: Child inattention symptoms 0.21 .65 .00 Within-parent change in parent self-efficacy 1.61 .21 .01
  Moderator: Child gender 0.33 .57 .00   Moderator: Child hyperactivity/impulsivity 0.17 .68 .00
  Moderator: Family income 0.35 .56 .00   Moderator: Child gender 0.54 .47 .00
Model 2: Parent role construction and child inattention symptoms   Moderator: Family income 0.48 .49 .00
Between-person effects Model 2: Parent role construction and child hyperactivity/impulsivity
 Child inattention symptoms 2.52 .12 .03 symptoms
 Child gender 2.71 .10 .03 Between-person effects
  Family income 0.09 .76 .00  Child hyperactivity/impulsivity symptoms 5.26 .02* .06
Within-parent change in parent role construction 0.19 .67 .00  Child gender 2.19 .14 .02
  Moderator: Child inattention symptoms 0.81 .37 .01   Family income 0.13 .72 .00
  Moderator: Child gender 5.84 .02* .03 Within-parent change in parent role construction 0.20 .68 .00
  Moderator: Family income 0.34 .56 .00   Moderator: Child hyperactivity/impulsivity 0.92 .34 .01
Model 3: Parent time and energy and child inattention symptoms   Moderator: Child gender 5.96 .02* .04
Between-person effects   Moderator: Family income 0.35 .56 .00
 Child inattention symptoms 4.78 .03* .05 Model 3: Parent time and energy and child hyperactivity/impulsivity
 Child gender 2.84 .10 .03 symptoms
  Family income 0.44 .51 .01 Between-person effects
Within-parent change in parent time and energy 0.01 .92 .00  Child hyperactivity/impulsivity symptoms 15.70 .00* .16
  Moderator: Child inattention symptoms 0.88 .35 .01  Child gender 1.93 .17 .02
  Moderator: Child gender 1.44 .24 .01   Family income 0.69 .41 .01
  Moderator: Family income 0.02 .90 .00 Within-parent change in parent time and energy 0.11 .74 .00
Model 4: Parent knowledge and skills and child inattention symptoms   Moderator: Child hyperactivity/impulsivity 0.37 .54 .00
Between-person effects   Moderator: Child gender 1.51 .22 .01
 Child inattention symptoms 10.96 .00* .12   Moderator: Family income 0.03 .86 .00
 Child gender 0.00 .98 .00 Model 4: Parent knowledge and skills and child hyperactivity/impulsivity
  Family income 0.59 .45 .01 symptoms
Within-parent change in parent knowledge and 0.18 .67 .00 Between-person effects
skills  Child hyperactivity/impulsivity symptoms 6.87 .01* .08
  Moderator: Child inattention symptoms 1.16 .28 .01  Child gender 0.00 .99 .00
  Moderator: Child gender 0.74 .39 .01   Family income 0.75 .39 .01
  Moderator: Family income 0.22 .64 .00 Within-parent change in parent knowledge and 0.04 .84 .00
Model 5: Parent home-based involvement and child inattention symptoms skills
Between-person effects   Moderator: Child hyperactivity/impulsivity 0.02 .90 .00
 Child inattention symptoms 0.32 .57 .00   Moderator: Child gender 1.03 .31 .01
 Child gender 8.97 .00* .10   Moderator: Family income 0.12 .73 .00
  Family income 0.34 .56 .00 Model 5: Parent home-based involvement and child hyperactivity/impulsivity
Within-parent change in parent home-based 0.82 .37 .01 symptoms
involvement Between-person effects
  Moderator: Child inattention symptoms 0.23 .64 .00  Child hyperactivity/impulsivity symptoms 0.04 .84 .00
  Moderator: Child gender 0.01 .95 .00  Child gender 8.09 .01* .09
  Moderator: Family income 0.01 .92 .00   Family income 0.41 .52 .00
Note.*Significant at p < .05; child symptoms in the spring were tested as the Within-parent change in parent home-based 0.81 .37 .01
moderator. involvement
  Moderator: Child hyperactivity/impulsivity 0.22 .64 .00
  Moderator: Child gender 0.01 .93 .00
  Moderator: Family income 0.01 .92 .00
Home-Based Involvement Note.*Significant at p < .05; child symptoms in the spring were tested as the
Gender demonstrated a between-person association with moderator.
parent’s home-based involvement. Parents of boys
reported Home-Based Involvement means of 2.93
(SD = 0.53) and 2.89 (SD = 0.53) in the winter and spring, involvement in education beliefs in behavior from the
respectively, whereas parents of girls reported means of winter—prior to the COVID-19 pandemic—to the spring,
3.04 (winter, SD = 0.49) and 3.06 (spring, SD = 0.47). There following the shift to remote learning in a sample of pre-K
were no significant within-person changes in parents’ lev- and kindergarten students. The results indicated that there
els of home-based involvement from winter to spring. were within-person changes in parent-rated child inatten-
tion and hyperactivity/impulsivity from winter to spring.
However, there were no significant within-person changes
DISCUSSION
in parental involvement beliefs and behaviors from prior
The purpose of the current study was to examine changes to the pandemic and following the pandemic. The only
in children’s levels of ADHD symptoms and parent exception was role construction, and the change in this
474 School Psychology Review, 2020, Volume 49, No. 4
Figure 1.  Parental Role Construction for Boys and Girls From Fall
(Pre-pandemic) to Spring (During Pandemic).
variable depended on child gender. For boys, parents
reported an increase in their beliefs that supporting their
child’s education was part of their responsibility; however,
for girls, the opposite was true such that parents of girls
reported a decrease in their role construction beliefs. The
results of the study also demonstrated that child inatten-
tion and hyperactivity/impulsivity were negatively associ-
ated with parental involvement beliefs (inattention with
self-efficacy; hyperactivity/impulsivity with self-efficacy,
role construction, and time and energy); however, inat-
tention and hyperactivity/impulsivity did not moderate
any changes in parent involvement from winter to spring.
There was a significant within-person change in ADHD
symptoms from prior to and during COVID-19, with aver-
age parent ratings of symptoms of both inattention and
hyperactivity/impulsivity higher following the pandemic.
The disruption to routines and lost opportunities for phys-
ical activity may explain the increase in ADHD symptoms.
A substantial body of research has found that physical activ-
ity is useful to manage ADHD symptoms (Hoza et al.,
2016), and routine, stability, and consistency are particularly
important for children with behavioral problems (Harris
et al., 2014). The loss of consistent schedules, recesses, gym
class, extracurricular sports, and all access to public parks
including play structures has led to more sedentary behav-
iors and decreased consistency and structure (Bates et al.,
2020), which may be responsible for increased symptoms
of inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity. It is also pos-
sible that because parents are spending more time with their
children focused on academic work, they are more aware
of their children’s difficulties with sustaining attention or
being hyperactive and impulsive.
The findings related to the stability of parent involve-
ment beliefs and behavior are somewhat inconsistent with
the prior research that has demonstrated changes in par-
enting behaviors during times of crises. However, research
examining parent involvement in education is limited, and
DOI:10.1080/2372966X.2020.1838233
changes in parenting behaviors during a crisis—such as
increased harsh punishment (Neppl et al., 2016)—may not
parallel the changes in parental involvement in learning.
That is, parental involvement in learning may demonstrate
different patterns of change during a crisis than other par-
enting behaviors. Further, COVID-19 is a unique crisis with
substantial repercussions for children’s education. The
extant research on parental involvement in learning has
examined adversities, such as parental stress and economic
stress (e.g., Rogers et al., 2009b), that are qualitatively dif-
ferent from the unprecedented circumstances and stressors
caused by a global pandemic. Although it is assumed that
COVID-19 has brought about changes to parenting, there
are few studies examining changes to parental involvement
in learning due to COVID-19. One survey (Lee & Ward,
2020) indicated that parents have increased the amount of
educational activities they engage in with their children due
to COVID-19, but the characteristics of the sample—that
is, diverse race/ethnicity, lower household income, and
children of various ages—are different from the current
sample. Indeed, family income, race/ethnicity, and child
age are traits of the current sample that may explain the
stability of parent involvement beliefs and behaviors in their
children’s education. Additionally, the ways in which par-
ents have increased their involvement in learning (such as
supervising online meetings) are not well represented in
the surveys used in the current study. Nevertheless, the fact
that parents did not decrease in their beliefs of self-efficacy,
time and energy, and knowledge and skills is promising,
because these variables are more associated with involve-
ment behaviors and positive child educational outcomes
(Hoover-Dempsey et al., 2005). Still, data were collected
just a few months into remote learning, and parents’ per-
ceptions and behaviors may change with more time at home
with their children.
The stability of parental involvement may be a repre-
sentation of a sample of mainly White parents with a
higher income and may not represent minorities and fam-
ilies with lower incomes. For families of higher income
levels, crises have less of an impact on both parents and
children (Silverman & La Greca, 2002). Further, lower
income and minority status are associated with lower edu-
cational involvement (e.g., Davis-Kean, 2005; Weiss et al.,
2009) and greater child behavior problems (Marcal, 2020).
Moreover, White parents are less likely to be essential
workers (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018), enabling
them more opportunities to work from home during
COVID-19. Therefore, given the mainly White, higher
income sample, parents’ stress levels during COVID-19
may have remained similar to their baseline levels, and the
transition to home learning may not have been a substan-
tial burden for this sample.

The age of the children in this study may also explain the
stability of parents’ involvement. Although parental involve-
ment tends to decrease as children progress through ele-
mentary school (Garbacz et al., 2015; Pomerantz et al.,
2007), curricular instruction for young children is more
attainable for parents (e.g., Hoover-Dempsey et al., 1995),
and parents may not need to change their educational
involvement role to align with their educational experience
when in school. This is particularly relevant considering the
nature of play-based curriculum, in which learning is driven
by child-led exploration and less dependent on direct aca-
demic instruction from teachers. Further, some research on
natural disasters shows that crises may have a greater impact
on older children than younger children, especially when
the younger children do not understand the threat (Dogan-
Ates, 2010). Thus, parents of this sample may not need to
address the additional barriers to educational involvement
that are present among older children during a crisis.
The one change to educational involvement was parents’
role construction, or their beliefs about their responsibility
to be involved in their children’s schooling, and this increased
for boys but decreased for girls. Pomerantz et al. (2007) sug-
gested that girls may not require as much parent involvement
because they are more disciplined and higher achieving than
boys, even in kindergarten (e.g., Freeman, 2004). Males also
tend to display more externalizing behaviors (Kristoffersen
& Smith, 2013). Thus, this finding might reflect differences
in male versus female behaviors and parents’ increased expo-
sure to their children’s behaviors due to COVID-19. Notably,
despite the changes in role beliefs, changes in home educa-
tional involvement practices were not present.
Although symptoms of ADHD were associated with
parent involvement beliefs, the current study demon-
strated that inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity were
not related to the degree of change from winter to spring
in parent involvement beliefs or behaviors. This finding is
aligned with research suggesting that ADHD symptoms
are associated with lower parent involvement (Fantuzzo
et al., 2004). However, when considering changes to parent
involvement due to COVID-19, the findings suggest that
although ADHD symptoms are associated with less posi-
tive parent involvement beliefs, symptoms of inattention
and hyperactivity/impulsivity did not put families at
greater risk for positive or negative changes in parent
involvement beliefs and behaviors during the pandemic.
Implications
The current study suggests that parents perceived higher
levels of inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity in their
children during the pandemic compared to prior to the
pandemic. This may be a result of reduced structure during
remote learning versus school, reduced levels of physical
COVID-19, ADHD Symptoms, and Parental Involvement 475
activity, and increased opportunities for parents to observe
their children’s behavior during academics. Given the ongo-
ing pandemic and the reality that students will continue to
be engaging in remote learning in the upcoming school
year, school psychologists can support parents by providing
ideas and coaching to increase structure and to incorporate
healthy routines into the day. Recommendations and
resources for engaging children in physical activity during
quarantine (e.g., Hammami et al., 2020) may prove useful
for managing child ADHD symptoms.
The results also suggest that some parents have main-
tained the same levels of beliefs regarding their abilities
and resources to support their children’s education.
Although this is positive, it should not be considered to
apply to all youth, and additional research is warranted.
Specifically, for families with more limited resources, the
toll of remote school on top of other stressors due to the
pandemic may create challenges in parents’ beliefs and
behaviors around supporting their children’s education.
Having the knowledge that not all families will be adversely
impacted when it comes to supporting their children’s
education can help school psychologists target their efforts
to those who may be most at risk. Continued research is
needed to best identify families in need of support.
Limitations
Several limitations should be noted for the current study.
Participants completed surveys at two time points (i.e.,
prior to and during COVID-19), which was a strength of
the current study in that it enabled testing individual
changes within participants. However, this required par-
ticipants to be excluded from the analyses if they did not
complete the surveys at both time points, resulting in a
relatively small sample size and possible self-selection bias.
Another limitation was the homogeneity of ethnicity and
race. Research has indicated that marginalized groups are
impacted more by COVID-19 (Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention, 2020), and thus more research is needed
to examine how parent involvement in education varies
across populations during the pandemic.
Another limitation of the current study was that the
first round of data collection occurred while the teacher’s
union was in phases 1 and 2 of their work-to-rule strike
action. Though teachers were not instructed to modify
their interactions with students or parents, the parents
themselves may have altered their beliefs about how they
should be interacting with the school and their child’s
teacher in response to the contract negotiations. For
example, for some parents the labor negotiations may
have created a reluctance to participate in some school
activities to avoid crossing the picket line or, conversely,
some parents may have felt an increased responsibility
476 School Psychology Review, 2020, Volume 49, No. 4
to participate in their child’s education because they felt
a responsibility to further support the schools.
CONCLUSIONS
The results of this study have promising implications for the
impact of COVID-19 on family involvement and children’s
learning. However, parents reported an increase in levels of
inattention and hyperactive/impulsive symptoms following
the COVID-19 pandemic. Thus, families with children with
ADHD may be at increased risk. The results suggest that
COVID-19 may not have a deleterious effect on parents’
beliefs and behaviors of involvement in young students. This
is significant, given the importance of parent involvement in
children’s early years of schooling. To gain a better under-
standing of the impact of COVID-19, research is needed that
explores the changes in involvement among diverse racial and
ethnic populations and for families with lower income levels.
DISCLOSURE
The authors have no conflicts of interest to report.
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AUTHOR BIOGRAPHICAL STATEMENTS
Moira J. Wendel, BA, is a PhD student of school psychology at
Northern Illinois University. Her research interests include
attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and social–emotional
learning.
Tessa Ritchie, MSc, is currently a second-year doctoral student
in the Clinical Psychology Program at the University of
Ottawa. She holds a master’s degree in school and applied child
psychology from the University of Calgary. Tessa’s research
interests include the early social and cognitive development of
children with ADHD and the contextual factors that help sup-
port positive outcomes for children with early ADHD
symptomatology.
Dr. Maria Rogers, PhD, is an associate professor in the School
of Psychology at the University of Ottawa. Dr. Rogers holds a
PhD in school and clinical child psychology from the University
of Toronto and completed postdoctoral fellowships at Toronto’s
Hospital for Sick Children and McGill University. Dr. Rogers
has broad interests in the social–emotional and academic devel-
opment of youth with ADHD across the childhood and adoles-
cent period. She is particularly interested in how parents and
teachers interact with children with ADHD regarding learning
and school-related issues. Dr. Rogers is also a registered psy-
chologist with the College of Psychologists of Ontario and the
Ordre des psychologues du Québec and has worked clinically
with children, teachers, and families in several school boards,
clinics, and hospitals in Ontario and Québec.

Julia Ogg, PhD, is an associate professor in the Department of
Psychology at Northern Illinois University. Her research inter-
ests include understanding how parent–child and teacher–child
relationships relate to the early development of self-regulatory
and externalizing behaviors.
Alecia M. Santuzzi, PhD, is an associate professor of psychol-
ogy in the Social–Industrial/Organizational Psychology area
and director of research methodology services at Northern
Illinois University. She has been conducting and publishing
research on disability in the workplace, with an emphasis on
improving the occupational health and well-being for workers
with disabilities. She also serves as an expert in methodology
and data analysis for complex data structures.
Elizabeth C. Shelleby’s, PhD, research is informed by a devel-
opmental psychopathology perspective and focuses on the
COVID-19, ADHD Symptoms, and Parental Involvement 479
development of child disruptive behavior problems, preven-
tive interventions for at-risk populations, parenting practices,
early child emotion regulation, and the influence of contextual
stressors on child mental health. Her work on preventive
interventions explores intervention moderators and mecha-
nisms of change. One line of inquiry she has pursued in the
area of contextual stressors focuses on the intersection
between family economic stress and children’s behavioral
development.
Kellie Menter, MA, is currently a second-year doctoral student in
the School Psychology Program at Northern Illinois University.
She holds a master’s degree in clinical psychology from the
University of Central Florida. Kellie’s research interests include
teachers’ experience of burnout and the individual and organiza-
tional factors that are associated with its development.