BLOOD AND CIRCULATION

The purpose of the circulatory system is to produce rapid mass flow of materials from one part of the body to
another over distances where diffusion is slow. As the size of an organism increases, its surface area to volume
ratio decreases therefore it cannot rely on diffusion alone to supply their cells with substances such as food
and oxygen and to remove waste products. So they require specialised transport systems.

Every circulatory system possesses three distinct characteristics:

1. A circulatory fluid; generally blood

2. A contractile pumping device to compel the fluid around the bod, like the heart
3. Tubes through which blood can circulate

CIRCULATION SYSTEMS OF DIFFERENT ANIMALS

One of the main functions of the circulation system in animals is to transport oxygen. Blood is pumped to a gas
exchange organ to load oxygen. There are two main types:

1. SINGLE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Blood is pumped from the heart to a gas exchange organ and then directly to the rest of the body.
2. DOUBLE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Blood is pumped to a gas exchange organ, back to the heart and then to the rest of the body. There are
two distinct parts of a double circulatory system:
a. Pulmonary circulation in which blood is circulated through the lungs where it is oxygenated.
b. Systemic circulation in which blood is circulated through other parts of the body where it unloads
oxygen.

Advantages of a double circulatory system

● Heart pumps blood twice so higher pressures can be maintained.

● Blood travels more quickly to the organs.
HEART

The heart is a pumping organ present in the chest cavity tilted to the left. The heart is made of cardiac muscles
that contract and relax throughout the life of a person without getting tired.

Structure of the heart

There are four chambers in the heart. Two upper thin walled called the atria that receive blood and two lower
thick walled called the ventricles that pump blood out of the heart. The right side of the heart is completely
separated from the left side by a muscular septum. The atria are separated from the ventricles by the
atrioventricular valves. The one on the right side is called the tricuspid valve while the one on the left side is
called the bicuspid or mitral valve. The left ventricle has very thick muscular wall. The blood vessels entering
and leaving the heart are:

1. Vena cavae
Blood is brought to the heart from all the other parts of the body except the lungs by these vessels.
They open into the right atrium.
2. Pulmonary veins
These bring back oxygen rich blood from the lungs to the heart. They are four in number and open into
the left atrium.
3. Pulmonary artery
Oxygen poor blood is taken to the heart for oxygenation from the right ventricle by the pulmonary
artery. Its opening is guarded by semilunar valves called the pulmonary valves.
4. Aorta
Blood is pumped from the left ventricle into the aorta and carried to the rest of the body. The opening
of the aorta is guarded by semilunar aortic valves which prevent the back flow of blood.
 ADAPTATION OF THE STRUCTURE OF THE HEART
1. The right and left sides of the heart are separated by a thick muscular septum that prevents mixing
of blood.
2. The wall of the left ventricle is thicker than the right as it has to pump blood to the entire body and
requires more pressure.
3. Valves ensure unidirectional flow of blood.
4. Atria have thin walls that can stretch to receive blood.
5. Walls are made of cardiac muscle that does not get tired.
6. The heart has its own blood supply – the coronary circulation.

CORONARY HEART DISEASE

The cardiac muscle has its own blood supply – the coronary circulation. Blood reaches the heart via coronary
arteries. These branch off from the aorta just as it leaves the left ventricle. The heart therefore has a high
pressure supply of blood loaded with oxygen and glucose. Blood is returned to the right atrium by cardiac
veins.

The coronary arteries are amongst the narrowest in the body. They are easily blocked by a build up of fatty
substances or a blood clot. The supply of blood to an area of cardiac muscle may be interrupted. The heart
cells are deprived of glucose and oxygen and due to anaerobic respiration, lactic acid builds up. This decreases
the pH of the cells causing the enzymes to denature. The cells die, causing inhibition of contraction resulting in
a heart attack.

CAUSES

● Heredity
● High blood pressure
● High levels of cholesterol
● Smoking
● Stress
● Lack of exercise

HOW TO AVOID THE PROBLEM

● Do not smoke
● Avoid fatty foods
● Exercise regularly

Coronary Bypass Surgery

In a coronary artery bypass surgery , a blood vessel is removed from another part of the body and stitched into
place between the aorta and the unblocked part of the coronary artery. The bypass increases blood flow and
reduces the likelihood of angina ( chest pain).

MAIN ARTERIES AND VEINS IN THE BODY.

Arteries carry blood from the heart to the organs whereas veins bring back blood to the heart. Some of the
important blood vessels in the body are:

Hepatic artery – carries blood to the liver

Mesenteric arteries – carry blood to the intestines

Renal artery – carries blood to the kidney ( contains a high concentration of urea)

Hepatic vein – returns blood from the liver

Hepatic portal vein – capillaries from the gut join to form this vein which goes to the liver (contains a high
concentration of glucose after a meal)

renal vein – brings blood from the kidney ( least concentration of urea)

BLOOD VESSELS
Blood flows around the body in a system of tubes called the blood vessels. Blood vessels can be divided into
three main types:

1. Arteries
2. Veins
3. Capillaries

ARTERIES

Arteries carry blood away from the heart to the organs of the body. They have thick walls that contain more
elastic and muscle tissue and a narrow lumen so that blood flows with pressure. Arteries carry blood rich in
oxygen and low in carbon dioxide, except pulmonary artery and umbilical artery in an unborn baby.

Arterioles are small arteries that carry blood into the organs from the main arteries. They have a larger portion
of muscle fibres in their walls so that they can be made to dilate or constrict to control the blood flow.

VEINS

Veins carry blood from the organs to the heart. They have less thick walls with less elastic and muscle tissue as
most of the pressure has been lost. Their lumen is wide to ensure steady flow of blood. They carry blood rich in
carbon dioxide and poor in oxygen, except the pulmonary veins and the umbilical veins in the new born baby.
Valves are present to prevent back flow of blood.

Blood is kept moving in the veins by the contraction of muscles around them. The large veins in the legs are
squeezed by the leg muscles when you walk. This helps to push the blood back to the heart. If a person is
confined to bed for a long time, then there is a danger that the blood in the veins will not be kept moving. A
clot (thrombus) may form in them. If the clot breaks, it can be carried to the lungs where it could get stuck in
the arterioles causing pulmonary embolism.

CAPILLARIES

These are fine blood vessels that carry blood through organs bringing it close to every cell. The walls of the
capillaries are only one cell thick and have a very large surface area so that substances do not have very far to
diffuse. They are permeable and small enough to fit in between cells allowing materials to pass through them
easily. They are just wide enough for red blood cells to fit. The blood flowis very slow which allows more time
for diffusion.

TISSUE FLUID

By the time blood reaches the capillary bed, it is at high pressure and this forces the plasma out. The plasma
leaves the capillary and becomes the tissue fluid. As the blood plasma moves through the capillary bed
towards the vein, the pressure drops and stops plasma from being squeezed out. The tissue fluid acts as a
bridge in diffusion of substances between capillaries and cells.
COMPOSITION OF BLOOD

Blood is made of two basic components – blood plasma and blood cells.

BLOOD PLASMA

It is the straw coloured fluid part of the blood and mainly consists of water and other organic and inorganic
substances.

Functions

● Carries blood cells around the body.

● Carries dissolved nutrients, antibodies ,hormones, carbon dioxide and urea.

BLOOD CELLS

The main types of cells found in blood are:

● Red blood cells
● White blood cells
● Platelets

Red blood cells

These are specialised cells made in the bone marrow. They have a life span of 100 days. Their only function
is to transport oxygen throughout the body. The following features enable them to carry out their function
efficiently:

⮚ Contain haemoglobin which combines loosely and efficiently with oxygen forming oxyhaemoglobin.
This is called loading oxygen. As blood passes through active tissues, red blood cells unload oxygen.
⮚ They do not contain a nucleus hence more haemoglobin can be packed into each cell.
⮚ Their biconcave disc shape allows more oxygen to be carried by increasing the surface area to
volume ratio.
⮚ The thinness of the cell gives a short distance for diffusion.
⮚ They are small and flexible so can easily squeeze through vessels.

Platelets

They are fragments of large cells with no nucleus. They are made in the bone marrow and are involved
in clotting of blood. If the skin is cut, exposure to air stimulates the platelets to produce a chemical that
causes fibrinogen to change into fibrin fibres. These fibres form a network around the wound which
traps blood cells and forms a clot. This prevents further loss of blood and entry of pathogens. These dry
out to form a scab that closes the wound.

White blood cells

There are several types of white blood cells and their main role is to protect the body against
pathogens. They do this in two main ways:

1. Phagocytosis
2. Antibody formation

Phagocytes

About 70% of white blood cells can engulf, ingest and digest microorganisms such as bacteria and any
of your own body cells that are damaged or worn out. They do this by changing their shape producing
cytoplasmic extensions called pseudopodia. These surround and enclose the microorganisms in a
vacuole where digestive enzymes are secreted to break them down. They have an irregular shaped
nucleus which allows the cell to squeeze through the gaps in the capillaries. Thei cytoplasm contains
granules.

Lymphocytes

These are a type of blood cells found both in the circulating blood and the lymph nodes. They have a
large spherical nucleus and the cytoplasm has no granules. These are stimulated to contact the
pathogens and form antibodies. These are proteins that are able to recognise, bind to and help destroy
the pathogens. The pathogens have special proteins called antigens that act as surface markers.

Memory cells

Some lymphocytes develop into memory cells that remain in the blood for many years. They do not get
involved in killing the pathogens straight away. They are capable of responding to a particular antigen
on its reintroduction long after the exposure that prompted its production.

IMMUNITY

It is a body’s response to deal with a foreign antigen. Immune responses can be of two types:

1. Primary immune response - production of antibodies following first exposure to a foreign antigen.
 2. Secondary immune response – It is more effective and faster than the primary response. The
number of antibodies in the blood quickly rise to a high level killing microorganisms before they can
multiply to a point where they could cause a disease.

VACCINATION

It is the introduction of dead or weakened pathogens inside the blood stream of a person. This is
known as artificial immunity. Lymphocytes recognise the antigen and produce antibodies. They also produce
memory cells and make the person immune to the disease. This creates a faster secondary immune response.