Academic Achievement: July 2014

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Academic Achievement
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DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199756810-0108
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4.9.2015 Academic Achievement Education Oxford Bibliographies
Academic Achievement
Ricarda Steinmayr, Anja Meißner, Anne F. Weidinger, Linda Wirthwein
LAST REVIEWED: 04 JUNE 2015
LAST MODIFIED: 30 JULY 2014
DOI: 10.1093/OBO/97801997568100108
Introduction
Academic achievement represents performance outcomes that indicate the extent to which a person has accomplished
specific goals that were the focus of activities in instructional environments, specifically in school, college, and university.
School systems mostly define cognitive goals that either apply across multiple subject areas (e.g., critical thinking) or include
the acquisition of knowledge and understanding in a specific intellectual domain (e.g., numeracy, literacy, science, history).
Therefore, academic achievement should be considered to be a multifaceted construct that comprises different domains of
learning. Because the field of academic achievement is very wideranging and covers a broad variety of educational
outcomes, the definition of academic achievement depends on the indicators used to measure it. Among the many criteria
that indicate academic achievement, there are very general indicators such as procedural and declarative knowledge
acquired in an educational system, more curricularbased criteria such as grades or performance on an educational
achievement test, and cumulative indicators of academic achievement such as educational degrees and certificates. All
criteria have in common that they represent intellectual endeavors and thus, more or less, mirror the intellectual capacity of a
person. In developed societies, academic achievement plays an important role in every person’s life. Academic achievement
as measured by the GPA (grade point average) or by standardized assessments designed for selection purpose such as the
SAT (Scholastic Assessment Test) determines whether a student will have the opportunity to continue his or her education
(e.g., to attend a university). Therefore, academic achievement defines whether one can take part in higher education, and
based on the educational degrees one attains, influences one’s vocational career after education. Besides the relevance for
an individual, academic achievement is of utmost importance for the wealth of a nation and its prosperity. The strong
association between a society’s level of academic achievement and positive socioeconomic development is one reason for
conducting international studies on academic achievement, such as PISA (Programme for International Student
Assessment), administered by the OECD (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development). The results of these
studies provide information about different indicators of a nation’s academic achievement; such information is used to
analyze the strengths and weaknesses of a nation’s educational system and to guide educational policy decisions. Given
the individual and societal importance of academic achievement, it is not surprising that academic achievement is the
research focus of many scientists; for example, in psychology or educational disciplines. This article focuses on the
explanation, determination, enhancement, and assessment of academic achievement as investigated by educational
psychologists.
General Overviews
The exploration of academic achievement has led to numerous empirical studies and fundamental progress such as the
development of the first intelligence test by Binet and Simon. Introductory textbooks such as Woolfolk 2007 provide
theoretical and empirical insight into the determinants of academic achievement and its assessment. However, as academic
achievement is a broad topic, several textbooks have focused mainly on selected aspects of academic achievement, such as
enhancing academic achievement or specific predictors of academic achievement. A thorough, short, and informative
overview of academic achievement is provided in Spinath 2012. Spinath 2012 emphasizes the importance of academic
achievement with regard to different perspectives (such as for individuals and societies, as well as psychological and
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educational research). Walberg 1986 is an early synthesis of existing research on the educational effects of the time but it
still influences current research such as investigations of predictors of academic achievement in some of the largescale
academic achievement assessment studies (e.g., Programme for International Student Assessment, PISA). Walberg 1986
highlights the relevance of research syntheses (such as reviews and metaanalyses) as an initial point for the improvement
of educational processes. A current work, Hattie 2009, provides an overview of the empirical findings on academic
achievement by distinguishing between individual, home, and scholastic determinants of academic achievement according
to theoretical assumptions. However, Spinath 2012 points out that it is more appropriate to speak of “predictors” instead of
determinants of academic achievement because the mostly crosssectional nature of the underlying research does not allow
causal conclusions to be drawn. Largescale scholastic achievement assessments such as PISA (see OECD 2010) provide
an overview of the current state of research on academic achievement, as these studies have investigated established
predictors of academic achievement on an international level. Furthermore, these studies, for the first time, have enabled
nations to compare their educational systems with other nations and to evaluate them on this basis. However, it should be
mentioned critically that this approach may, to some degree, overestimate the practical significance of differences between
the countries. Moreover, the studies have increased the amount of attention paid to the role of family background and the
educational system in the development of individual performance. The quality of teaching, in particular, has been
emphasized as a predictor of student achievement. Altogether, there are valuable crosssectional studies investigating many
predictors of academic achievement. A further focus in educational research has been placed on tertiary educational
research. Richardson, et al. 2012 subsumes the individual correlates of university students’ performance.
Hattie, John A. C. 2009. Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 metaanalyses relating to achievement. London:
Routledge.
A quantitative synthesis of 815 metaanalyses covering Englishspeaking research on the achievement of schoolaged
students. According to Hattie, the influences of quality teaching represent the most powerful determinants of learning.
Thereafter, Hattie published Visible Learning for Teachers (London and New York: Routledge, 2012) so that the results
could be transferred to the classroom.
OECD. 2010. PISA 2009 key findings. Vols. 1–6.
These six volumes illustrate the results of the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2009—the most
extensive international scholastic achievement assessment—regarding the competencies of fifteenyearold students all
over the world in reading, mathematics, and science. Furthermore, the presented results cover the effects of student learning
behavior, social background, and scholastic resources. Unlimited online access.
Richardson, Michelle, Charles Abraham, and Rod Bond. 2012. Psychological correlates of university students’
academic performance: A systematic review and metaanalysis. Psychological Bulletin 138:353–387.
A current and comprehensive review concerning the prediction of university students’ performance, illustrating selfefficacy
to be the strongest correlate of tertiary grade point average (GPA). Cognitive constructs (high school GPA, American College
Test), as well as further motivational factors (grade goal, academic selfefficacy) have medium effect sizes.
Spinath, Birgit. 2012. Academic achievement. In Encyclopedia of human behavior. 2d ed. Edited by Vilanayur S.
Ramachandran, 1–8. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
A current introduction to academic achievement, subsuming research on indicators and predictors of achievement as well as
reasons for differences in education caused by gender and socioeconomic resources. The chapter provides further
references on the topic.
Walberg, Herbert J. 1986. Syntheses of research on teaching. In Handbook of research on teaching. 3d ed. Edited by
Merlin C. Wittrock, 214–229. New York: Macmillan.
A quantitative and qualitative aggregation of a variety of reviews and quantitative syntheses as an overview of early research
on educational outcomes. Walberg found nine factors to be central to the determination of school learning.
Woolfolk, Anita. 2007. Educational psychology. 10th ed. Boston: Pearson.
Woolfolk represents a comprehensive basic work that is founded on an understandable and practical communication of
knowledge. The perspectives of students as scholastic learners as well as teachers are the focus of attention. Suitable for
undergraduate and graduate students. Currently presented in the 12th edition.
National and International Reports
Since the end of the Second World War standardized educational tests have been used as a database to evaluate
educational systems. These tests provide information on the educational system of the whole nation, or, in federal
educational systems, on the educational system of one state in one nation. For example, the United States has a program for
the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) but also federal programs that collect educational data. Because
there is a vast assortment of national tests and thus national reports on national academic achievement, it would be beyond
the scope of this article to list all of these national reports. However, interested readers from a specific country can access
most of these reports online. Besides reports on national academic achievement, international standardized tests of
academic achievement have also been initiated since the Second World War with the aim of correlating the quality of an
educational system with the socioeconomic development of the country. After a kind of pretest, the first international
standardized test was the First International Mathematics Study (FIMS), which was conducted in 1964. Thirteenyearold
students and preuniversity students from twelve countries from all over the world participated in this study. Postlethwaite
1967 provides an overview of this study. In 1970–1971, the FIMS was followed by the First International Science Study
(FISS), which is reported in detail by Comber and Keeves 1973. The FIMS, the FISS, and the Second International
Mathematics Study (SIMS) in the 1980s are the antecedents of the TIMSS (Third and Trends, respectively, in Mathematics
and Science Study). Reports on the last TIMSS, which was conducted in 2012, can be accessed through links on the
homepage of the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA). Since the FIMS and FISS,
several international educational achievement studies have been conducted (e.g., PISA, PIRLS) with different foci (e.g.,
reading, mathematics, financial and/or science literacy, problemsolving, computer knowledge) and different organizers
(e.g., the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, IEA). Further educational outputs such as the
percentage of students finishing secondary or tertiary education are frequently monitored by “Education at a Glance.” In
order to provide information on an educational system and academic achievement over time, international studies such as
the TIMSS or PISA are run in cycles. The international and national (i.e., international results presented with a focus on the
country of interest) reports on academic achievement based on these studies have become more and more important for the
evaluation of national educational systems.
Comber, Leonard C., and John P. Keeves. 1973. Science education in nineteen countries: An empirical study.
Stockholm: Almqvist and Wiksell.
In addition to the book Postlethwaite 1967, this is a rather historic book on the first international testing in science. However,
the FISS was the first study of the six subject surveys that aimed to compare academic achievement in reading, literature,
foreign language (English and French), and social sciences. This book and reading on the other six subject studies are
important for understanding current international academic achievement testings.
International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement.
This is the official homepage of the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA). Here, one
can find information on the following studies: TIMSS, PIRLS, ICILS, ICCS, TEDSM. Furthermore, cooperating institutions are
listed as hints for where to look for reports on the educational achievement of a certain country.
Organisation for Economic CoOperation and Development.
This link belongs to the official homepage of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD).
Information on PISA and “Education at a Glance” are provided. Furthermore, cooperating institutions are listed so that
anyone who is interested in more information can find reports on the educational achievement of a certain country.
Postlethwaite, Neville. 1967. School organisation and student achievement. Stockholm: Almqvist and Wiksell.
This book provides a thorough overview of the first internationally conducted standardized educational achievement testing.
It provides information on the study design but also on the different aspects one must consider when conducting an
international study on academic achievement.
Journals
Currently, due to the interdisciplinary nature of academic achievement, there is no single journal that explicitly refers to the
research on academic achievement. However, a wide range of journals from different psychological disciplines such as
educational, differential, or organizational psychology address this comprehensive topic among other issues. The most
relevant journals are The Journal of Educational Psychology, Child Development, Educational Psychologist, Learning and
Individual Differences, and Personality and Individual Differences. These journals offer a wide range of empirical studies
exploring relevant predictors and correlates of academic achievement. Especially, journals with an educational background
publish articles on academic achievement. Some of these journals focus on special learning groups. For example, School
Psychology International refers to, inter alia, studies conducted with different target groups such as students with learning
disabilities or from different ethnic backgrounds.
Child Development. 1930–.
This wellestablished journal from the Society for Research in Child Development comprises empirical articles, essays, and
reviews. The focus with regard to academic achievement is on elementary, middle, and high school students. This journal
provides information not only for researchers, but also for specialists in the field.
Educational Psychologist. 1963–.
With a focus on theory development, this journal publishes essays, reviews, and critiques as well as metaanalyses. In
particular, it provides relevant overviews of the association of academic achievement with various motivational variables.
Journal of Educational Psychology. 2009–.
This outstanding peerreviewed journal of the American Psychological Association publishes excellent original educational
research across all educational levels. Furthermore, exceptionally important theoretical and review articles are considered
as well. This journal has also published several historically relevant studies in the field of academic achievement.
Learning and Individual Differences. 1989–.
Publishes original papers, reports, and essays from different psychological disciplines with a focus on the exploration of
individual differences within an educational context.
Personality and Individual Differences. 1980–.
This journal aims to integrate research that focuses on personality across different psychological disciplines, inter alia,
educational psychology. It contains research on the determinants of individual differences (such as differences in academic
achievement) and publishes mainly empirical research.
School Psychology International. 1979–.
Focuses on empirical studies and literature reviews in the educational context and also targets services for children in
school settings. This journal is relevant for specialists interested in practical implications. It addresses the needs of diverse
populations, cultures, and communities.
Measuring Academic Achievement
Because academic achievement is defined by different indicators of educational success, it can be measured in different
ways. Single studies and metaanalyses have demonstrated that the associations between academic achievement and its
predictors such as intelligence, motivation, and personality differ depending on how academic achievement is measured.
Thus, it is important to differentiate between the different indicators of academic achievement. The APA book on testing and
assessment in school psychology and education, Geisinger 2013, provides a thorough overview of the assessment of
academic achievement. In the following, the most important indicators of academic achievement are presented. Grade point
average (GPA) is one of the most frequently investigated variables in educational psychology and education. Even though it
is a valid predictor of subsequent academic success, the metaanalysis in Kuncel, et al. 2005 demonstrates that one has to
be cautious with selfreported GPA. Grades measure students’ performance in the classroom as rated by teachers and are
thus influenced by the frameofreference effect. This effect, also known as the bigfishlittlepond effect, has been
investigated in numerous studies. Standardized achievement tests are also important indicators of academic achievement
because they provide more objective ratings of academic achievement than grades and can be viewed as more of a “pure”
indicator of academic knowledge. Thus, they are used in many countries as college entrance tests that are good predictors
of success in tertiary education. The chapter Camara, et al. 2013 provides a detailed overview of admission tests in the
educational context. The metaanalysis in Kuncel, et al. 2001 showed that the graduate record examination even predicted
academic success in a highly selective sample such as graduate students. Burton and Ramist 2001 found that grades were
slightly better predictors of college success than standardized scholastic aptitude tests but that the combination of the two
greatly increased the amount of variance that could be explained in college success. In some countries, educational
degrees are a direct result of the grades one obtains during one’s educational career, whereas in other countries, they are
also influenced by standardized achievement tests if those are used as entrance tests for further education. The most
comprehensive overview of the international comparability of educational degrees obtained in different countries is provided
annually by the OECD in “Education at a Glance” (e.g., OECD 2012). Amelang and Steinmayr 2006 found that a person’s
educational level still predicted the social status of her/his profession (indicated by prestige and income) after controlling for
other powerful predictors of occupational success such as intelligence and conscientiousness.
Amelang, Manfred, and Ricarda Steinmayr. 2006. Is there a validity increment for tests of emotional intelligence in
explaining the variance of performance criteria? Intelligence 34:459–468.
This study originally investigated the incremental validity of emotional intelligence in the prediction of performance criteria in
students and adults. Even though emotional intelligence was not incrementally valid, the study provides a current example of
the predictive validity of educational status with regard to job success. Educational status even predicted job success after
controlling for other powerful predictors such as intelligence and personality.
Burton, Nicola. W., and Leonard Ramist. 2001. Predicting success in college: SAT studies of classes graduating since
1980. College Board Report No. 20012. New York: The College Board.
This report provides information on the interesting question of whether standardized achievement tests or grades are better
predictors of success in college. The report displays results in favor of grades but also demonstrates that the combination of
grades and standardized scholastic achievement tests is the best predictor of success in college.
Camara, Wayne, Sheryl Packman, and Andrew Wiley. 2013. College, graduate, and professional school admission
testing. In Testing and assessment in school psychology and education. Vol. 3 of APA handbook of testing and
assessment in psychology. Edited by Kurt F. Geisinger, 101–128. Washington, DC: American Psychological
Association.
This chapter of the book edited by Geisinger provides an overview of the most important college and graduate entrance
tests. It also describes the validity of those tests and other important psychometric aspects such as the fairness of these tests
and the association of such aspects with socioeconomic status.
Geisinger, Kurt F., ed. 2013. APA handbook of testing and assessment in psychology. Vol. 3, Testing and assessment
in school psychology and education. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
This is a book on testing and assessment in the context of school and education by the American Psychological Association.
It comprises all important issues in the assessment of academic achievement and provides an overview of the current
research on this topic.
Kuncel, Nathan R., Marcus Credé, and Lisa L. Thomas. 2005. The validity of selfreported grade point averages, class
ranks, and test scores: A metaanalysis and review of the literature. Review of Educational Research 75:63–82.
This metaanalysis sums up research on the validity of selfreported grade point average. The results raise concerns with
regard to the validity of selfreported GPA. However, the authors also identify context variables that boost the validity of self
reported GPA, such as academic level.
Kuncel, Nathan R., Sarah A. Hezlett, and Deniz S. Ones. 2001. A comprehensive metaanalysis of the predictive validity
of the graduate record examinations: Implications for graduate student selection and performance. Psychological
Bulletin 127:162–181.
This metaanalysis summarizes studies investigating the predictive validity of the Graduate Record Examination (GRE). It
demonstrates that standardized tests are still powerful predictors of university success in a sample as selected as graduate
students.
OECD. 2012. Education at a glance 2012: OECD indicators. OECD Publishing.
This is the latest report on “Education at a Glance” conducted by the OECD. The report provides interesting data on different
aspects concerning countries’ educational systems such as educational output, the effect of educational attainment on
occupational success, the finances invested in education, etc.
Theories
The empirically established determinants of academic achievement have been addressed in numerous models. Haertel, et
al. 1983 reviewed different theories of educational performance such as the early models of John B. A. Carroll (developed in
1963) and Benjamin S. Bloom (developed in 1976), in which learning success is based on the interaction between
individual and class characteristics. According to Carroll’s influential model, the extent of learning success results from the
ratio of time spent to time needed. In addition to Carroll’s assumptions, Bloom’s model shows a differentiation between three
types of learning success (achievement, affective outcome, and improved rate of learning). Based on analyses of existing
models and studies, Walberg 1984 designed the ninefactor model of educational productivity, including the groups of
individual, scholastic, and extracurricular determinants. In contrast to previous models, Walberg’s model additionally
considered distal environmental factors. As one example, the variables assessed in the PISA studies (OECD 2009) are in
line with these models. Another wellknown model of academic achievement is the expectancyvalue model in Eccles and
Wigfield 2002. The model subdivides distal and proximal determinants. Distal determinants comprise environmental factors
(such as socializers’ beliefs), individual characteristics (e.g., gender), and prior experiences. An individual processes these
distal determinants emotionally and cognitively. The results of this process (e.g., test anxiety, ability selfconcept, goals)
influence the proximal determinants (expectation of success and subjective task values), which directly influence
achievement and achievementrelated behavior. Thus, the distal factors of the model do not directly influence academic
achievement but have only an indirect effect on it. The model is characterized by the specification of complex interactions
between the variables as well as by the central role of motivational constructs. The empirical validation of the theoretical
model appears to be difficult. Even though the model has inspired numerous researchers and provides the theoretical
foundation of many articles, we are not aware of a study that has investigated the model by considering all variables
depicted in the last version (Eccles and Wigfield 2002). The model proposed in Byrnes and Miller 2007 synthesizes aspects
of the Eccles and Walberg model. According to their opportunitypropensity model, academic achievement depends on a
person’s access to effective learning contexts (opportunity factors) as well as individual’s ability to take advantage of
learning opportunities (propensity factors). Moreover, distal factors (e.g., socioeconomic status) also influence later
achievement directly and indirectly via opportunity and propensity factors.
Byrnes, James P., and David C. Miller. 2007. The relative importance of predictors of math and science achievement:
An opportunitypropensity analysis. Contemporary Educational Psychology 32:599–629.
Empirical validation of a new framework including proximal causes of achievement (such as opportunity and ability or
willingness to learn) and distal factors (such as socioeconomic status). It provides support via latentvariable analyses in a
largescale longitudinal study. Due to the investigation of a limited number of variables per factor, the interpretation of the
results is limited.
Eccles, Jacquelynne S., and Allan Wigfield. 2002. Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology
53:109–132.
Survey of theories focusing on motivational constructs in relation to achievement behavior. Describes the expectancyvalue
model by Eccles and colleagues, a prominent theory in educational psychology. According to this theory, distal contextual
and individual factors influence children’s perceptions of proximal determinants such as the expectation of success and task
values resulting in a direct impact on achievement.
Haertel, Geneva D., Herbert J. Walberg, and Thomas Weinstein. 1983. Psychological models of educational
performance: A theoretical synthesis of constructs. Review of Educational Research 53:75–91.
A descriptive analysis of eight models of individual learning with the underlying aim of identifying constructs that are
generally important to students’ performance outcomes. Provides a comprehensive overview of the earliest and most
influential learning models in educational psychology.
OECD. 2009. PISA 2009 assessment framework: Key competencies in reading, mathematics and science. OECD
Publishing.
This aims to represent the theory behind the measurement of fifteenyearold students’ achievement as well as background
information associated with performance outcomes in the international 2009 survey. Differentiates between information from
four educational levels (educational system, school level, instructional settings, and student level) collected by student,
school, or parent questionnaires. Unlimited online access.
Walberg, Herbert J. 1984. Improving the productivity of America’s schools. Educational Leadership 41:19–27.
This is a description of Walberg’s productivity model that includes—conforming to traditional models—aspects of students’
aptitudes and instruction such as factors affecting academic learning. In addition to these factors, a number of environmental
factors are also taken into account. An extensive empirical validation of model factors is presented.
Students’ Characteristics
Student characteristics have frequently been found to be among the most important predictors of academic achievement.
Among these are not only cognitive (i.e., intelligence) but also noncognitive constructs such as motivational or personality
variables. Because of the large number of studies investigating the influence of student characteristics, metaanalyses are
particularly helpful for gaining insight into this complex topic. A comprehensive overview of relevant student characteristics
predicting academic achievement can be found in Hattie and Anderman 2013. Hattie 2009 analyzed over 800 meta
analyses investigating, inter alia, correlations between academic achievement and many different student characteristics.
Richardson, et al. 2012 is a comprehensive metaanalysis investigating the associations between the psychological
correlates of university students and academic performance. Just a few studies have investigated the combined influence of
different student characteristics on academic achievement outcomes. Marsh, et al. 2006 focused on selfconcept and
personality; Spinath, et al. 2006 focused on different motivational variables and intelligence; and Steinmayr, et al. 2011
investigated achievement goals, personality, and intelligence.
Routledge.
One chapter from this comprehensive work, summarizing and integrating the results of over 800 metaanalyses, focuses on
the contributions of the student (pp. 39–60). This chapter provides a good overview of the most relevant metaanalyses in
this field and is written in a clear and comprehensible way. Hattie reports effect sizes for each student characteristic and
draws conclusions concerning the relative contribution of various student characteristics.
Hattie, John A. C., and Eric M. Anderman. 2013. International guide to student achievement. New York: Routledge.
This book provides insight into various determinants of academic achievement. One chapter is devoted to student
characteristics and comprises short summaries of all relevant variables such as personality or motivation, but also goal
setting or gender (pp. 23–84).
Marsh, Herbert W., Ulrich Trautwein, Oliver Lüdtke, Olaf Köller, and Jürgen Baumert. 2006. Integration of
multidimensional selfconcept and core personality constructs: Construct validation and relations to wellbeing and
achievement. Journal of Personality 74:403–456.
In a sample of German adolescents (N = 4,475), this study analyzed the relevance of selfesteem, Big Five, wellbeing, and
multiple dimensions of selfconcept. After controlling for specific selfconcept factors, the remaining variables explained just
small amounts of variance in different academic outcomes. This study underlines the significance of academic selfconcept
measures with regard to the prediction of academic achievement outcomes.
Richardson, Michelle, Rod Bond, and Charles Abraham. 2012. Psychological correlates of university students’
academic performance: A systematic review and metaanalysis. Psychological Bulletin 138:353–387.
This study provides a detailed overview of the last decade’s research on psychological antecedents of university students’
grade point average, including cognitive as well as noncognitive factors. The authors found indications that selfefficacy was
the strongest predictor of the investigated correlates and discussed their results with regard to previous reviews and
empirical studies.
Spinath, Birgit, Frank M. Spinath, Nicole Harlaar, and Robert Plomin. 2006. Predicting school achievement from general
cognitive ability, selfperceived ability, and intrinsic value. Intelligence 34:363–374.
The authors not only examined the incremental validity of motivational variables beyond general intelligence in an
elementary school student sample (N = 1678), but also analyzed the amount of variance in school achievement explained
by both motivation and intelligence. Commonality analyses revealed that these predictors explained a considerable amount
of common variance in academic achievement, which is frequently neglected in other empirical studies.
Steinmayr, Ricarda, Tanja Bipp, and Birgit Spinath. 2011. Goal orientations predict academic performance beyond
intelligence and personality. Learning and Individual Differences 21:196–200.
There is still a lack of studies investigating the relevance of motivational and personality variables as well as cognitive
variables with regard to predicting academic achievement. This study investigated the relevance of achievement goals, the
Big Five, and intelligence in a sample of N = 520 adolescents. The authors conclude that besides intelligence some
personality traits were of similar importance or even more important than achievement goals.
Intelligence
Among the numerous conceptions of intelligence, the definition of intelligence as a general factor is widely accepted. The
association between intelligence and academic achievement is explained by the fact that a fundamental characteristic of
intelligence is the ability to learn. Intelligence is considered to be the most important predictor of academic achievement.
Kuncel, et al. 2004 demonstrated the relevance of general intelligence in explaining educational or career success. When
using intelligence as a predictor of school performance, one has to take into consideration the specific criterion of academic
achievement: among others, the longitudinal study (fiveyear interval) in Deary, et al. 2007 provided data that showed that
the correlations between intelligence and standardized achievement test scores were higher than between intelligence and
school grades. Jensen 1980 summarized additional important empirical as well as theoretical aspects with regard to the
association between intelligence and academic achievement. Inter alia, the author referred to important moderator variables
regarding the correlations between intelligence and academic achievement such as the time point of examination (early or
later in school) or the specific intelligence test investigated. Not only general intelligence but also specific aspects of
intelligence were found to be important for predicting academic achievement. Brunner 2008 analyzed two different structural
models of intelligence and summarized that, besides general cognitive ability, domainspecific abilities are relevant for
predicting subjectspecific grades.
Brunner, Martin. 2008. No g in education? Learning and Individual Differences 18:152–165.
Investigating a large sample of ninth graders, this study aimed to figure out how two alternative models of cognitive abilities
relate to students’ educational success (i.e., grades). The author concludes that the conception of intelligence applied in a
study has to be taken into account. Several important theoretical and practical implications of this finding are
comprehensively discussed.
Deary, Ian J., Steve Strand, Pauline Smith, and Cres Fernandes. 2007. Intelligence and educational achievement.
Intelligence 35:13–21.
This paper is important as it provides valuable data from students’ national examinations in different academic subjects. One
strength of this longitudinal study is the assessment of both multiple cognitive and multiple educational outcomes in a large
sample of adolescents. The latent correlation between general intelligence (assessed at age eleven) and educational
achievement (assessed at age sixteen) was r = .81.
Jensen, Arthur R. 1980. Bias in mental testing. New York: Free Press.
Jensen, inter alia, refers to the important fact that intelligence explains more variance in school achievement in younger than
in older students. Moreover, he lists several important moderator variables with regard to the relation between intelligence
and academic achievement.
Kuncel, Nathan R., Sarah A. Hezlett, and Deniz S. Ones. 2004. Academic performance, career potential, creativity, and
job performance: Can one construct predict them all? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 86:148–161.
This frequently cited metaanalysis outlines the relevance of intelligence for predicting various achievement outcomes in
educational as well as in work domains. The authors summarize that even a single intelligence measure is able to predict
various important performance criteria. Moreover, the relatedness of general intelligence to success in various domains is
highlighted.
Motivation
Motivation has also been extensively investigated in the context of academic achievement. This is due to two reasons. First,
it is thought to be an important predictor of academic achievement but, second, motivation is also an important academic
outcome itself. Thus, there are many studies on the association between different motivational constructs and academic
achievement. Wigfield and Cambria 2010 provides a theoretical overview of selected motivational constructs such as
achievement values, goal orientations, and interest and their associations with several outcome variables, inter alia,
academic achievement. The metaanalyses in Credé and Kuncel 2008 as well as in Robbins, et al. 2004 provide a complex
empirical overview of central noncognitive, especially motivational variables and their impact on achievement outcomes.
When summarizing the association between motivation and academic achievement there is still a problem with regard to the
great diversity of existing motivational constructs that overlap to some degree. This makes it difficult to classify findings on the
association between motivation and academic achievement and needs more research. The identification of the motivational
construct that best predicts academic achievement is still an unresolved issue. There is a lack of studies comparatively
investigating the relations between different motivational variables and academic achievement. Therefore, Steinmayr and
Spinath 2009 should be considered in this context, as the authors investigated the currently most prominent motivational
variables and academic achievement in one study. Achievement motives, values, and ability selfconcepts were found to be
of special importance. Furthermore, this study and others have demonstrated that motivational constructs predict academic
achievement beyond intelligence and that a part of the variance explained in academic achievement is explained by both
motivation and intelligence. Among motivational variables associated with academic achievement, a wide range of research
has focused on academic selfconcept, inter alia, Marsh and Martin 2011. It has been shown that academic selfconcepts are
not pure reflections of one’s prior performance, as academic selfconcepts predict subsequent academic achievement
beyond prior academic achievement and vice versa.
Credé, Marcus, and Nathan R. Kuncel. 2008. Study habits, skills, and attitudes: The third pillar supporting collegiate
academic performance. Perspectives on Psychological Science 3:425–453.
This metaanalysis provides valuable insight into the importance of different motivational constructs for college students’
performance. Among these, study skills and study motivation are especially relevant for academic performance. The authors
conclude that the predictive value of study skills, study habits, study attitudes, and study motivation is as high as the
predictive value of standardized achievement test scores or prior achievement.
Marsh, Herbert W., and Andrew J. Martin. 2011. Academic selfconcept and academic achievement: Relations and
http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo9780199756810/obo97801997568100108.xml?rskey=FbIOhK&result=1&q=academic+achiev… 10/16
causal ordering. British Journal of Educational Psychology 81:59–77.
This narrative review provides a comprehensive insight into the research on academic selfconcept in the educational
domain. The authors sum up the theoretical, methodological, and empirical support for the assumption that the effects
between academic selfconcept and academic achievement are reciprocal. Furthermore, the authors provide information
regarding the generality of these reciprocal effects.
Robbins, Steven B., Kristy Lauver, Huy Le, Daniel Davis, Ronelle Langley, and Aaron Carlstrom. 2004. Do noncognitive
and study skills factors predict college outcomes? A metaanalysis. Psychological Bulletin 130:261–288.
This metaanalysis investigated the relevance of several important student characteristics predicting two different college
outcomes (grade point average, persistence). Academic selfefficacy and achievement motivation emerged as the most
important predictors, especially for grade point average. Moreover, the authors revealed that the noncognitive variables
they considered showed incremental validity over and above variables such as socioeconomic status or standardized
achievement.
Steinmayr, Ricarda, and Birgit Spinath. 2009. The importance of motivation as a predictor of school achievement.
Learning and Individual Differences 19:80−90.
Domainspecific values as well as ability selfperceptions, achievement goals, and achievement motives were investigated
in a sample of adolescents. In addition, both intelligence and grades were assessed. Beyond intelligence, especially
domainspecific ability selfperceptions and values yielded incremental validity. This study highlights the importance of
different motivational variables over and above intelligence.
Wigfield, Allan, and Jenna Cambria. 2010. Students’ achievement values, goal orientations, and interest: Definitions,
development, and relations to achievement outcomes. Developmental Review 30:1–35.
This narrative review is important because it broaches the issue of different motivational constructs and their relevance with
regard to academic achievement. More specifically, the authors present definitions and measurement methods to assess
motivational constructs such as achievement values, goal orientations, and interest. They also address developmental
changes. The authors discuss conceptual similarities between these different variables and present methodological issues,
which could be addressed in future studies.
Personality
Personality as a predictor of academic achievement has, especially recently, been the focus of research. One argument for
why academic achievement might be associated with personality refers to the fact that besides intellectual ability, the
willingness to perform well is relevant to achievement, as outlined in Zeidner and Matthews 2012. Moreover, the authors
provide basic information on as well as detailed theoretical arguments for selected personality constructs and their
associations with academic achievement. Among the “Big Five” personality traits (Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness to
Experience, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness), Conscientiousness is the most important personality predictor of academic
achievement, as outlined in the comprehensive metaanalysis in Poropat 2009. ChamorroPremuzic and Furnham 2003
provided longitudinal data and highlighted the importance of including personality factors in academic selection procedures.
Going beyond the “Big Five,” Duckworth and Seligman 2005 presents valuable data indicating the relevance of self
discipline for academic success. Steinmayr and Spinath 2007 demonstrates the importance of need for achievement in
predicting GPA. The relevance of considering personality on a facet level is addressed in the study Rosander, et al. 2011.
ChamorroPremuzic, Tomas, and Adrian Furnham. 2003. Personality predicts academic performance: Evidence from
two longitudinal university samples. Journal of Research in Personality 37:319–338.
This paper outlines predictions of academic performance with measures of personality in university students. This study is
important as the authors argue that personality measures should be included in academic selection procedures.
Duckworth, Angela L., and Martin E. P. Seligman. 2005. Selfdiscipline outdoes IQ in predicting academic performance
of adolescents. Psychological Science 16:939–944.
This study is relevant as it provides selfreports as well as parent and teacher reports indicating that selfdiscipline has
effects on grades even when other relevant variables such as intelligence or achievement test scores are held constant.
Poropat, Arthur E. 2009. A metaanalysis of the fivefactor model of personality and academic performance.
Psychological Bulletin 135:322–338.
This is probably the most cited metaanalysis exploring the associations between the “Big Five” (Neuroticism, Extraversion,
Openness to Experience, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness) and performance. The highest effect size emerged for
Conscientiousness (d = .46) followed by Openness (d = .24). In addition, Poropat found some important moderator variables,
such as academic level or age.
Rosander, Pia, Martin Bäckström, and Georg Stenberg. 2011. Personality traits and general intelligence as predictors
of academic performance: A structural equation modelling approach. Personality and Individual Differences 21:590–
596.
This empirical study aims to determine whether facetlevel measures of personality show differential associations with
domainspecific achievement indicators. Although intelligence was the most important predictor, the authors found support
for their hypotheses.
Steinmayr, Ricarda, and Birgit Spinath. 2007. Predicting school achievement from motivation and personality.
Zeitschrift für Pädagogische Psychologie [German Journal of Educational Psychology] 21:207–216.
This study (published in English) investigated whether need for achievement, values, and ability selfconcepts predicted
academic achievement beyond the Big Five. The results clearly demonstrate that narrow performancerelated personality
traits such as need for achievement or motivational variables are better predictors of academic achievement than the Big
Five.
Zeidner, Moshe, and Gerald Matthews. 2012. Personality. In Individual differences and cultural and contextual factors.
Vol. 2 of APA educational psychology handbook. Edited by Karen R. Harris, Steve Graham, and Tim Urdan, 111–137.
Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Besides an overview of different personality traits, this chapter offers an introduction to the theory and research on
associations between selected personality constructs (Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Neuroticism,
Agreeableness) and academic achievement. Moreover, Zeidner and Matthews refer to important conclusions for further
research such as the relevance for investigating specific facets of the fivefactor model.
Gender
A number of studies have shown that gender plays a relevant role in predicting academic achievement: girls outperform
boys with regard to school grades, whereas boys perform better with regard to standardized achievement tests or college
placement exams in scientific or (somewhat in) mathematical competence. Hence, the achievement outcome has to be
considered as outlined in Duckworth and Seligman 2006. The metaanalysis in ElseQuest, et al. 2010 provides data from
several studies investigating gender differences in mathematics assessed via standardized achievement tests: although the
overall effect size was small, the range of effect sizes was quite heterogeneous, pointing toward the influence of moderator
variables on the association between gender and mathematical performance tests. Several reasons for gender differences
are discussed in the literature. Meece and Askew 2012 presents an overview of different reasons and additionally addresses
important theoretical aspects regarding gender and educational achievement. Due to the fact that individual differences such
as motivation and personality are relevant predictors of academic achievement, there is evidence that gender differences in
academic achievement can be explained in part by gender differences in these students’ characteristics. Steinmayr and
Spinath 2008 investigated whether gender differences in the most important predictors of academic achievement such as
intelligence, motivation, and personality indeed mediate the association between gender and academic achievement.
Halpern 2006 summarizes the research on gender gaps in the field of education and refers not only to gender differences
but also to similarities and provides valuable information on how the research results can be transferred to policy and praxis.
Another frequently cited publication focusing on gender similarities is Hyde 2005.
Duckworth, Angela L., and Martin E. P. Seligman. 2006. Selfdiscipline gives girls the edge: Gender in selfdiscipline,
grades, and achievement test scores. Journal of Educational Psychology 98:198–208.
The authors address the fact that, although girls earn higher grades than boys, the performance of girls on standardized
achievement tests is lower than the performance of boys. Instead of finding explanations for the better performance of boys,
the authors provide the comprehensible explanation that girls earn higher grades because of their higher selfdiscipline.
Two empirical studies investigating school students confirm the authors’ hypotheses.
ElseQuest, Nicole M., Janet S. Hyde, and Marcia C. Linn. 2010. Crossnational patterns of gender differences in
mathematics: A metaanalysis. Psychological Bulletin 136:103–127.
This widely known metaanalysis investigated gender differences in standardized mathematic achievement tests by using
two large international data sets. On average, gender differences were mostly small, although there was a considerable
range in effect sizes. The authors found hints that at least some of the heterogeneity in the effect sizes can be explained by
different indicators of societal gender equity.
Halpern, Diane F. 2006. Assessing gender gaps in learning and academic achievement. In Handbook of educational
psychology. Edited by Patricia A. Alexander and Philip H. Winne, 635–653. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
This chapter offers a comprehensible overview of not only gender differences but also similarities regarding different areas,
inter alia, grades and standardized assessment. Moreover, the author presents reasons for gender gaps and a psychosocial
explanation. Valuable information is given on how the scientific findings are relevant for policy and practice.
Hyde, J. S. 2005. The gender similarities hypothesis. American Psychologist 60:581–592.
This frequently cited overview of metaanalyses focuses on gender differences in different psychological variables. The
author concludes that there are more similarities than differences between males and females and argues that researchers
should be aware of “overinflated claims of gender differences” (p. 590).
Meece, Judith L., and Karyl J. S. Askew. 2012. Gender, motivation, and educational attainment. In Individual differences
and cultural and contextual factors. Vol. 2 of APA educational psychology handbook. Edited by Karen R. Harris, Steve
Graham, and Tim Urdan, 139–162. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
This chapter provides a good overview of theoretical aspects and addresses the most important theoretical models in this
field of research (e.g., the expectancyvalue theories). It further provides important implications for educational practice.
Steinmayr, Ricarda, and Birgit Spinath. 2008. Sex differences in school achievement: What are the roles of personality
and achievement motivation? European Journal of Personality 22:185–209.
This empirical study focuses on gender differences in school achievement and additionally examines the influence of
several student characteristics such as intelligence, personality (Big Five), and different motivational variables with regard to
achievement in math and German. The authors conclude that both motivation and personality are relevant for explaining
gender differences in academic achievement.
Students’ Familial Background
The correlation between students’ socioeconomic background (SES) and academic achievement is often considered in the
field of educational research as it is associated with aspects such as equity in learning opportunities. According to the 2009
Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA, see OECD 2010), a significant part of the interindividual variance in
academic performance has been explained by SES in many countries. In line with these results, the survey Hattie 2009,
which comprises other important metaanalyses on the association between socioeconomic status (SES) and academic
achievement, also demonstrates a substantial influence of SES on students’ performance. The processes underlying this
association are still not completely understood. Steinmayr, et al. 2010 and Steinmayr, et al. 2012 demonstrated that the
association is partly mediated by students’ personality and motivational characteristics. Furthermore, the importance of
parental involvement, which is highly correlated with SES and has an impact on academic achievement above and beyond
it, was illustrated by a metaanalysis in Jeynes 2007. In particular, parental expectations are postulated to be the strongest
familial determinant of academic achievement. By contrast, structural familial features (e.g., single or twoparent families,
parental divorce, and number of siblings) play a minor role, as summarized by Hattie 2009. Similarly, the role of the
extensively discussed issue of maternal employment seems negligible according to current research. The metaanalysis in
Goldberg, et al. 2008 discovered that maternal employment is not associated with children’s performance impairments in
general, whereas, to some extent, some slightly beneficial effects were exhibited. Largescale assessments such as PISA
(see OECD 2010) have also demonstrated that the socioeconomic status of a school has a greater impact on individual
performance than the individual’s social background. Beside the SES of a school or an individual, there is a substantial
association between the immigration status of a student and his/her academic achievement with immigrant students showing
lower academic performance. Urdan 2012 reviewed the extensive and conflicting research results on immigration status and
academic achievement by drawing attention to the diversity of ethnic groups.
Goldberg, Wendy A., JoAnn Prause, Rachel LucasThompson, and Amy Himsel. 2008. Maternal employment and
children’s achievement in context: A metaanalysis of four decades of research. Psychological Bulletin 134:77–108.
This metaanalysis is based on sixtyeight studies and provides evidence for the absence of associations between current
maternal employment and children’s achievement. A trend toward a favorable impact and moderating effects of ethnicity and
family structure were observable.
Routledge.
Hattie’s comprehensive quantitative synthesis focuses, inter alia, on the influences of a wide range of familial characteristics.
A major impact of parental expectations and socioeconomic status was detected. One has to take into account that the
number and quality of integrated studies on different familial factors vary widely. See pp. 61–71.
Jeynes, William H. 2007. The relationship between parental involvement and urban secondary school student
academic achievement: A metaanalysis. Urban Education 42:82–110.
Analyzing the results of fiftytwo studies, the authors found a strong association between parental involvement and
educational outcomes. There is a need to distinguish between specific facets of parental involvement: whereas the effect
size was high regarding parental expectations, the effect of setting rules was negligible.
OECD. 2010. PISA 2009 results: Overcoming social background—Equity in learning opportunities and outcomes. Vol.
2. OECD Publishing.
This represents the results of the international survey in 2009 concerning the impact of socioeconomic status, immigration,
and family structure on fifteenyearold students’ reading performance. Despite different effects across the countries, a
practical impact of students’ background was demonstrated in general. Unlimited online access.
Steinmayr, Ricarda, Felix C. Dinger, and Birgit Spinath. 2010. Parents’ education and children’s achievement: The role
of personality. European Journal of Personality 24:535–550.
Students’ general intelligence and personality (such as Openness to Experience and, marginally, Conscientiousness) partly
mediated the association between parents’ education and high school students’ achievement. Thus, parents’ education
remained predictive. Controlling for intelligence, personality was still a significant mediator. Caution is needed in interpreting
the results because the study design did not allow for causal conclusions.
Steinmayr, Ricarda, Felix C. Dinger, and Birgit Spinath. 2012. Motivation as a mediator of social disparities in academic
achievement. European Journal of Personality 26:335–349.
Even after controlling for intelligence, students’ motivation (ability selfconcept and subjective values) partly mediated the
impact of parental socioeconomic status on students’ achievement as well as on change in scholastic performance. Results
differed depending on the sex of the parent and the focused domain and cannot be interpreted causally due to the cross
sectional nature of the data.
Urdan, Tim. 2012. Factors affecting the motivation and achievement of immigrant students. In Individual differences
and cultural and contextual factors. Vol. 2 of APA educational psychology handbook. Edited by Karen R. Harris, Steve
Graham, and Tim Urdan, 293–313. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Urdan’s review (focusing on Latino students) is a comprehensive and current summary regarding the vast amount of results
concerning the importance of ethnicity and immigration in the context of academic achievement.
Other Variables Predicting Academic Achievement
Despite diverse student characteristics such as intelligence, motivation, personality, or gender, a large number of further
variables have been examined in predicting academic achievement. To take all these various variables into account is
unfortunately beyond the scope of this bibliography. The works in this section refer to selected constructs most frequently
investigated throughout the literature on academic achievement. One of these constructs is selfregulated learning:
Zimmerman 2009 provides a valuable summary of different theoretical as well as empirical associations with academic
achievement. The research on environmental school conditions such as class size has shown that effects of these factors on
academic achievement are mostly negligible. However, the quality of the respective school and other teacherspecific
variables do matter, as outlined by the comprehensive summary in Hattie 2009. Hattie and Anderman 2013 provides
theoretical overviews of, inter alia, different influences from school or teacherrelated variables on academic achievement.
As the quality of teaching and the competence of teachers have been found to be very important predictors, Kunter, et al.
2013 is recommendable as it provides valuable data regarding the associations between teacher competence and different
student outcomes, inter alia, mathematics achievement.
Routledge.
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This textbook summarizing the results of over 800 metaanalyses is recommended for obtaining an overview of effect sizes
regarding different school or teacher variables. The author found that the effect sizes for environmental conditions were
small or negligible. However, teacher behavior (e.g., giving feedback to students) was found to play a relevant role.
Hattie, John A. C., and Eric M. Anderman. 2013. International guide to student achievement. New York: Routledge.
Among other relevant variables, this textbook provides a comprehensible overview of different school and teacher variables
that predict academic achievement. Each construct such as class size or school layout (but also grade retention and
inclusive education) is briefly described and the respective associations with academic achievement are reported.
Kunter, Mareike, Uta Klusmann, Jürgen Baumert, Dirk Richter, Thamar Voss, and Axinja Hachfeld. 2013. Professional
competence of teachers: Effects on instructional quality and student development. Journal of Educational Psychology.
105.3: 805–820.
Based on longitudinal data of almost 200 secondary school mathematics classes, this empirical study analyzed several
aspects of teachers’ competence and their impact on instructional quality as well as on student outcomes such as academic
achievement. On the basis of their findings, the authors developed a multidimensional model of teacher competence.
Zimmerman, Barry J. 2009. Selfregulated learning and academic achievement: Theoretical perspectives. New York:
Routledge.
This textbook provides a comprehensible overview of different theories on students’ selfregulated learning and provides
chapters written by the experts in this field of research. It aims to compare and integrate different theoretical views of self
regulated learning. This book additionally presents important practical implications with regard to instructional practice.
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