International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR)

ISSN (Online): 2319-7064

Index Copernicus Value (2013): 6.14 | Impact Factor (2015): 6.391

Role of Bite Mark in Forensic Odontology – A

Review
Dr. Shiva Kumar B1, Dr. Deepthi. B. C.2

Abstract: Teeth are often used as weapons when one person attacks another or when a victim tries to ward off an assailant. It is
relatively simple to record the evidence from the injury and the teeth for comparison of the shapes, sizes and pattern that are present.
However, this comparative analysis is often very difficult, especially since human skin is curved, elastic, distortable and undergoing
edema1. In many cases, though, conclusions can be reached about any role a suspect may have played in a crime. Additionally, traces of
saliva deposited during biting can be recovered to acquire DNA evidence and this can be analyzed to determine who contributed this
biological evidence. If dentists are aware of the various methods to collect and preserve bitemark evidence from victims and suspects, it
may be possible for them to assist the justice system to identify and prosecute violent offenders. 2 This paper reviews the recognition and
recovery of this evidence and provides insight into modern methods used to investigate bitemark evidence from heinous crimes.

Keywords: Forensic odontology, Bitemarks, photography radiographs, dental impressions

1. Introduction Gustafson method18 (looking for six signs of wear) or the

Lamendin method (looking at transparency of roots). With
Forensic Odontology is the application of dentistry in legal the Universal System, each tooth is assigned its own number
proceedings deriving from any evidence that pertains to from 1- 32 and the five surfaces of each tooth are also
teeth. OR Area of dentistry concerned with the correct classified.11
management, examination, evaluation &presentation of
dental evidence in civil/criminal legal proceedings in the 3. Definition and Classification
interest of justice(Neville)3. Every human body ages in a
similar manner, the teeth also follow a semi- standardized Bitemark
pattern. These quantitative measurements help establish  A physical alteration in a medium caused by the contact of
relative age of person. Each human has an individual set of teeth.
teeth which can be traced back to established dental records  A representative pattern left in an object or tissue by the
to find missing individuals.4Teeth is made of enamel dental structures of an animal or human.
(hardest tissue of the body) - withstand trauma
(decomposition, heat degradation, water immersion, and Cutaneous Human Bitemark:An injury in skin caused by
desiccation) better than other tissues in body. Teeth are a contacting teeth (with or without the lips or tongue) which
source of DNA: dental pulp or a crushed tooth can provide shows the representational pattern of the oral structures.
nuclear or mitochondrial DNA that to help identify a person.
5
Bite marks occur in a variety of crimes such as assault, Prototypical Human Bitemark: A circular or oval (doughnut)
rape, murder and child abuse.Mac Donald (1974) defined (ring-shaped) patterned injury consisting of two opposing
bite mark as ‘a mark caused by the teeth either alone or in (facing) symmetrical, U-shaped arches separated at their
combination with other mouth parts’.9 bases by open spaces. Following the periphery of the arches
are a series of individual abrasions, contusions and/or
2. History lacerations reflecting the size, shape, arrangement and
distribution of the class characteristics of the contacting
Identification by teeth is not new. It goes back as far back as surfaces of the human dentition.
66 A.D. at the time of Nero. As the story goes, Nero's
mother Agrippina had her soldiers kill Lollia Paulina, 6.7with Variations of the Prototypical Bitemark: Variations include
instructions to bring back her head as proof that she was additions, subtractions and distortions.15,16,21
dead. Agrippina, unable to positively identify the head, 1) Additional features: Central Ecchymosis (central
examined the front teeth and on finding the discolored front contusion) - when found, these are caused by two
tooth confirmed the identity of the victim.During the U.S. possible phenomena: a)positive pressure from the closing
Revolutionary War, none other than Paul Revere (a young of teeth with disruption of small vessels. B)negative
dentist) helped identify war casualties by their bridgework. pressure caused by suction and tongue thrusting like
10
Teeth are highly resistant to destruction and 1.Linear Abrasions, Contusions or Striations - these
decomposition, so dental identification can be made under represent marks made by either slipping of teeth against
extreme circumstances. It was used on Adolf Hitler and Eva skin or by imprinting of the lingual surfaces of teeth,
Braun at the end of World War II, the New York City World Double Bite - a "bite within a bite" occurring when skin
Trade Center bombing, the Waco Branch Davidien siege, slips after an initial contact of the teeth and then the teeth
and numerous airplane crashes and natural disasters. The contact again a second time. Weave Patterns of
U.S. has a fairly well-developed system of dental records interposed clothing and Peripheral Ecchymosis - due to
system (the Universal System), so it's not surprising to find excessive, confluent bruising.
it used for the identity of remains or "Jane Doe" victims.
You can also tell age solely by analysis of teeth - the
Volume 5 Issue 5, May 2016
www.ijsr.net
Paper ID: NOV163740 1764
Licensed Under Creative Commons Attribution CC BY
 International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR)
ISSN (Online): 2319-7064
Index Copernicus Value (2013): 6.14 | Impact Factor (2015): 6.391
2) Partial Bitemarks like one-arched (half bites),one or few mark evidence usually meets the Frye standard, at least in
teeth and unilateral (one-sided) marks - due to this regard.19,20,23
incomplete dentition, uneven pressure or skewed bite.
3) Indistinct/Faded Bitemarks like Fused Arches - collective 4. Methods to Preserve Bitemark Evidence
pressure of teeth leaves arched rings without showing
individual tooth marks ,Solid - ring pattern is not a) Saliva Swabs of Bite Site: Saliva swabbing of the bite
apparent because erythema or contusion fills the entire site should be obtained whenever possible. Obviously,
center leaving a filled, discolored, circular mark and certain circumstances may preclude the collection of this
Closed Arches - the maxillary and mandibular arch are evidence. If the region had been washed prior to the
not separate but joined at their edges.Latent - seen only opportunity to swab this procedure would not be
with special imaging techniques. possible. If swabbing the area would damage or alter the
4) Superimposed or Multiple Bites. pattern, it should either not be done or accomplished only
5) Avulsive Bites. after all other preservation methods have been employed.
It is acceptable to use either cotton tip applicators or
Unique: This term is variably defined as either one of a kind cigarette paper to gather this evidence. Other appropriate
or rare and unusual. In its most conservative interpretation mediums may be used to collect this information. Control
the following connotations apply: of such distinctiveness swabbing should be taken from other regions or portions
that no other person could have made an identical pattern, to of the object or in- individual that was bitten. 22
the point of persuasion of individuality. attributable to only b) Photographic Documentation of the Bite Site: The bite
one individual, unequaled. site should be photographed using conventional
photography and following the guidelines as described in
Distinctive: variation from normal, unusual, infrequent, not the ABFO Bitemark Analysis Guidelines. The actual
one of a kind but serves to differentiate from most others photographic procedures should be performed by the
,highly specific and individualized. forensic dentist or under the odontologist's direction to
insure accurate and complete documentation of the bite
Possible Bitemark: An injury showing a pattern that may or site. Color print or slide film and black and white film
may not be caused by teeth; could be caused by other factors should be used whenever possible. Color or specialty
but biting cannot be ruled out. filters may be used to record the bite site in addition to
unfiltered photographs. 26
Probable Bitemark: The pattern strongly suggests or
supports origin from teeth but could conceivably be caused 5. Impressions of Bite Site
by something else.
1) Victim's Dental Impressions :When the bite site is
Definite Bitemark: There is no reasonable doubt that teeth accessible to the victim's dentition impressions of the
created the pattern; other possibilities were considered and victim's teeth should be obtained. Impressions of the bite
excluded. site should be taken when indicated according to the
ABFO Bitemark Analysis Guidelines. A backing
Bite marks can be classified by four degrees of impression material should be used to maintain the contour of the
into seven types: 1. hemorrhage - small bleeding spot impression site.
.2.abrasion - undamaging mark on skin.3. contusion - 2) Tissue Specimens :The bite site should be preserved
ruptured blood vessel, bruise.4.laceration - punctured or torn when indicated following proper stabilization prior to
skin.5.incision - neat puncture of skin.6.avulsion - removal removal. The resection of the tissue should follow all
of skin7. artifact - bitten-off piece of body other evidence collecting procedures. 10% Formalin is a
common fixative used.
Contusions are the most common type of bite mark, and
incisions offer the best three-dimensional image of the teeth.
When avulsions and artifacts can be combined, you've also 6. Evidence Collection of Suspected Dentition
got three-dimensional imaging. The Marx case involved
very clear three-dimensional bites. The forensic science of a) Dental Records: Whenever possible the dental records
analyzing degree of impression involves, the specification of of the individual should be obtained in accordance with
"violence", and this kind of testimony can be taken as the ABFO Bitemark Analysis Guidelines.
evidence of the defendant's state of mind, aggravating b) Photographic Documentation of the Dentition:
circumstances, or especially heinous behavior.18 Photographs of the dentition should be taken by the
forensic dentist or by the odontologist's direction. A scale
Bite marks on a live body also have different characteristics such as the ABFO No. 2 scale should be utilized when
from those on a dead body, so a forensic dentist might be using a scale in these photographs. Video or digital
able to assist with things like time of attack and/or time of imaging can be used to document the dentition when
death. Generally, the better the bite mark, the better an utilized in addition to conventional photography. .
expert can make a comparison. The Illinois appellate case of
People v. Milone (1976) establishes this principle in that, to Clinical Examination
be admitted, dental evidence must be agreed upon by the 1) Extraoral Considerations
scientific community as "good quality". This means that bite  Maximum vertical opening and any deviations should
be noted whenever possible.

Volume 5 Issue 5, May 2016

www.ijsr.net
Paper ID: NOV163740 1765
Licensed Under Creative Commons Attribution CC BY
 International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR)
ISSN (Online): 2319-7064
Index Copernicus Value (2013): 6.14 | Impact Factor (2015): 6.391
 Evidence of surgery, trauma and/or facial asymmetry  match; positive match.
should be noted.  consistent with.
 TMJ function may be checked in addition to the  compatible with.
previous observations.  unique.
 Muscle tone and balance may also be checked in 4) The following terms should not be used to describe
addition to the previous observations. bitemarks:
2) Intraoral Considerations  Suck mark (20% of diplomates still use this antiquated
 Missing and misaligned of teeth should be noted. term).
 Broken and restored teeth should be noted.  Incised wound.
 The periodontal condition and tooth mobility should 5) All boarded forensic odonatologists are responsible for
be noted whenever possible. being familiar with the standards set forth in this
 Previous dental charts should be reviewed if document.
available.
 Occlusal disharmonies should be noted whenever 7. Photography
possible. Imaging of the patterned bruise of a bite mark is a variable
 The tongue size and function may be noted in in the process of bite mark analysis that the investigator can
addition to the previous observations. control. The technique and equipment employed by the
 The bite classification may be noted in addition to the operator will influence the quality of the photographic
previous observations. evidence.

A. Dental Impressions Forensic photography requires accurate results when

 Dental impressions, following the ABFO Bitemark depicting an object in its 2D representation. Consistency is
Analysis Guidelines, should be taken by the forensic required in framing of the object in the centre of the image,
dentist or by the odontologist's direction. the sharpness of the focus and, absence of photographic
 Bite exemplars should be obtained in addition to the distortion. Consistency of colour and tonal range are equally
dental impressions. important. Care must also be taken to eliminate any
 Saliva Samples unwanted or distracting shadows. High-end digital single-
 Saliva swabbings should be obtained if appropriate. lens-reflex (DSLR) cameras are used to achieve these
results, equipped with a range of lenses and separate flash
Bitemark Analysis Guidelines: Both in the case of a living systems.
victim or deceased individual, the odontologist should
determine and record certain vital information.9,23 Colour representation and reproducibility- The same photo
1) Demographics :Name of victim ,Case Number ,Date of image on different monitors can look very different if the
examination ,Referring agency,Person to contact ,Age of monitors are not professionally calibrated. Further variation
victim, Race of victim ,Sex of victim, Name of is produced on printing the digital image: often the printed
examiner(s) image does not represent what appears on screen. The latest
2) Location of Bitemark: Describe anatomical location digital SLR cameras have very high pixel counts.
,Describe surface contour: flat, curved or irregular
,Describe tissue characteristics (Underlying structure: Lenses fall into two categories:
bone, cartilage, muscle, fat Skin: relatively fixed or  Prime lenses- have fixed focal length. A 105mm lens
mobile ) provides fine detail that is needed to demonstrate
3) Shape :The shape of the bitemark should be described; individual teeth marks accurately. Lens with lower focal
e.g. essentially round, ovoid, crescent, irregular, etc. length (example- 20 mm), produces noticeable barrel
4) Color :The color should be noted; e.g. red, purple, etc. distortion.
5) Size :Vertical and horizontal dimensions of the bitemark  Zoom lenses- have a range instead of fixed focal length
should be noted, preferably in the metric system. and are commonly supplied with a camera when sold as a
kit. Zoom lenses should be avoided when photographing
ABFO Standards for "Bitemark Terminology": The bite marks because the operator can often change the focal
following list of Bitemark Terminology Standards have been length without realising.
accepted by the American Board of Forensic
Odontology.25,25 Mobile phones with cameras should be considered a last
1) Terms assuring unconditional identification of a resort for use in recording patterned injuries such as bite
perpetrator, without doubt, on the basis of an epidermal marks. Although they have sensors with large pixel counts,
bitemark and an open population is not sanctioned as a the lenses have short focal lengths. The lens distortion will
final conclusion. reduce the quality of the photographic evidence. Sometimes,
2) Terms used in a different manner from the recommended a mobile phone may be the only option available to the
guidelines should be explained in the body of a report or operator and may provide important information to the
in testimony. investigation.
3) Certain terms have been used in a non-uniform manner
by odontologists. To prevent miscommunication, the A rigid scale, such as the ABFO no. 2, L-shaped scale, is
following terms, if used as a conclusion in a report or in essential for photography of any patterned injury. The scale
testimony, should be explained: allows the investigator to make consistent measurements of

Volume 5 Issue 5, May 2016

www.ijsr.net
Paper ID: NOV163740 1766
Licensed Under Creative Commons Attribution CC BY
 International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR)
ISSN (Online): 2319-7064
Index Copernicus Value (2013): 6.14 | Impact Factor (2015): 6.391
the bruise. Without this scale being placed correctly and images may enable the researcher to analyse the image more
photographed with the injury, the subsequent measurements extensively and come to a more accurate conclusion
will be subject to error and affect the analysis resulting in regarding the source of the bite. However, bite mark analysis
inadmissible evidence for court. alone should not be allowed to lead to a guilty verdict, but it
will offer the opportunity to exclude a suspect from a crime
It is important to use the same scale when taking when data do not correspond.
photographs of the bite mark and making recordings of the
suspect’s dental cast, to minimise unwanted measurement References
error. The scale should have a matt finish to reduce
reflection. 26 [1] 3D Imaging in Forensic Odontology- Sam Evans, Carl
Jones, Peter Plassmann - Journal of Visual
Colour chart Communication in Medicine , June 2010; Vol. 33, No.
An accurate colour chart is needed when photographing the 2, pp. 63-68.
bite mark to ensure correct colour calibration when using a [2] A brief history of Forensic odontology since 1775.
computer. For consistent results a colour chart should be Robert Michael Bruce- Journal of Forensic and Legal
visible in every image that is taken because slight changes in Medicine 17 (2010) 127–130.
the distance between the flash and subject will have an [3] A Pathologist’s Guide to Forensic Odontology.
influence on brightness within the image and will create Identification Catherine M.T. Adams.
slight variance in the colour. [4] Accuracy of age estimation methods from
orthopantomo-graph in Forensic odontology: A
Digital image file formats comparative study. Manisha M. Khorate a, A.D. Dinkar,
The lossless (little compression) type of format used by the Junaid Ahmed. Forensic Science International 234
camera is either the TIF (Tagged Image File) format or a (2014) 184.e1–184.e8.
RAW image format. Many forensic photographers use only [5] Acting as an expert witness -Jason Tucker -Centre for
RAW files when creating photographic evidence. Thus Professional Legal Studies, Law School, Cardiff
integrity of the evidence is maintained as all original data is University, UK.
reconstructed faithfully at all stages in the workflow, from [6] Advanced Technologies in Forensic Odontology. B.
viewing to archiving of the image. Rai, J. Kaur, Evidence-Based Forensic Dentistry,
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013. J. Forens. Sci.
The JPEG file format uses a heavier compression, meaning Soc. (1971), 11, 223. An Identification bv means of
that, to reduce the size (in megabytes), parts of the data from Forensic odontology. The Mearns (Garvie) Murder N.
the image file are removed. The JPEG format can introduce W. Kerr, j. M. Murray.
changes to the appearance of the image itself. Artefacts can [7] Forensic Science International, 29 (1985) 259-267.
appear around the edges of an object in the digital image. If Application of aspartic acid racemization to forensic
image enhancement is needed, then further loss of detail is odontology: post mortem designation of a great death.
introduced. Changes brought about by image compression TsunekoOgino, T HiboshiOgino, Bartholomew Nagy.
may cause issues for the forensic investigator when [8] Bite Marks- I. Douglas R. Sheasby. Forensic
analysing the images. To preserve the continuity of the Odontology: An Essential Guide, First Edition. 2014
sequence all images must be kept. There is no acceptable John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
reason to delete images; even if some images do not depict [9] Bite Marks-II. Roland Kouble. Forensic Odontology:
important information, the continuity of the sequence should An Essential Guide, First Edition. 2014 John Wiley &
be preserved. Using of a ring flash is recommended for Sons, Ltd.
intraoral photography. Flash devices positioned on top of the [10] Cheiloscopy in identification. Forenic Odontology. B.
camera or to one side will cause shadows to fall over parts of Rai, J. Kaur, Evidence-Based Forensic Dentistry.
the dentition and obscure information. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013.
[11] Dental age assessment. Sakher Al Qahtani. Forensic
8. Conclusion Odontology: An Essential Guide, First Edition. 2014
John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Human bite mark analysis is by far the most demanding and [12] Denture marking. Forensic Odontology aspects. B. Rai,
complicated part of forensic dentistry. There is no J. Kaur, Evidence-Based Forensic Dentistry. Springer-
dependable way of stating that one or more tooth marks seen Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013.
in a wound are irrefutably unique to just one person in the [13] Development of the dentition. Alastair. J. Sloan.
population. Bite mark distortion through skin elasticity, Forensic Odontology: An Essential Guide, First Edition.
anatomical location and body positioning is a recurring John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
problem. With the recent developments regarding expert [14] Disaster victim identification. Catherine Adams.
testimony, the need for accurate, reliable, reproducible and Forensic Odontology: An Essential Guide, First Edition.
above all objective methods for bite mark analysis and 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
comparison has never been greater. Although more research [15] DNA technology and Forensic Odontology. B. Rai, J.
is needed to explore the possibilities of image perception Kaur, Evidence-Based Forensic Dentistry. Springer-
technology, its possibilities to visualise more details in a bite Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013.
markphotograph are promising. The availability of [16] Forensic odontology - identification by dental means.
additional colouring of selected areas with similar intensity Sydney Levine, M.D.S., F.R.A.C.D.S. Australian
values as well as rendering 2-Dphotographs as pseudo 3-D
Volume 5 Issue 5, May 2016
www.ijsr.net
Paper ID: NOV163740 1767
Licensed Under Creative Commons Attribution CC BY
 International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR)
ISSN (Online): 2319-7064
Index Copernicus Value (2013): 6.14 | Impact Factor (2015): 6.391
Dental Journal, December, 1977 48 1 Volume 22, No.
6.
[17] Handbook of Forensic Medicine, First Edition. 2014
John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
[18] Forensic Odontology. Gosta Gustafson Australian
Dental Journal, August, 1962.
[19] I. J. Med. Sc. Eighth Series. Vol. March, 1970 3. NO. 3.
Forensic Odontology with case report. John F. Owens.
[20] Forensic Science Society 1988.
[21] Forensic odontology for the general practitioner. Frank
R. Shroff,- Australian Dental Journal, 0ct.-Dec. I973
[22] Forensic Odontology: History, scope and limitations. B.
Rai, J. Kaur, Evidence-Based Forensic Dentistry,
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013.
[23] Forensic Odontology in the management of
Bioterrorism. B. Rai, J. Kaur, Evidence-Based Forensic
Dentistry, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013.
[24] Forensic Sci Med Pathol (2012) 8:148–156. Forensic
odontology involvement in disaster victim
identification. John William Berketa, Helen James,
Anthony W. Lake.
[25] Forensic Science International 130 (2002) 174–182
Forensic odontology lessons: multi shooting incident.
At Port Arthur, Tasmania Paul T.G. Taylora, Marie E.
Wilsona, Tim J. Lyons.
[26] Forensic photography and imaging. Sam Evans.
Forensic Odontology: An Essential Guide, First Edition.

Volume 5 Issue 5, May 2016

www.ijsr.net
Paper ID: NOV163740 1768
Licensed Under Creative Commons Attribution CC BY