REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES CAGAYAN STATE

UNIVERSITY
CARIG CAMPUS
Carig Sur, Tuguegarao City, Cagayan
www.csu.edu.ph

PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION TECHNIQUES

INTRODUCTION:

There are no two persons who were born to be the same.” The principle of individuality
explains that each person is unique. While physical appearances may be similar, other factors
can prove their uniqueness. Odontology, or the teeth structure; anthropology, or the bone
structure; DNA profiling; and fingerprints, with their small ridges, can be used to establish the
identity of an unknown person.

“Let no one despise the ridges on account of their smallness, for they are, in some
respects, the most important of all anthropological data. We shall see that they form patterns of
considerable size and curious variety in shape, whose boundaries can be firmly outlined,
constituting little worlds in themselves." (Sir Francis Galton)

METHODS OF IDENTIFICATION

1. By Comparison – the identifying details or characteristics found at the crime scene

compared to known records of the victim or suspect.
2. By exclusion
Identification of Dead Bodies

• Personal Effects
• Physical Description
• Portrait Parle (Spoken Picture) – a verbal description that is sometimes aided by
general photographic files, mug files, or rogues galleries. Extrinsic Factors in Identification

• Ornamentation
• Personal Belongings
• Wearing Apparel
• Foreign Bodies
• Identification of close friends, police records, photographs
ORDINARY METHOD OF IDENTIFICATION
 Points of Identification Application Both to Living and Dead Before the Onset of
Decomposition
1. Occupational Marks – painters have stains
2. Race – Malay: brown, flat nose round face, round head, wearing apparel
3. Structure – tips of middle fingers of both hands extended laterally
4. Tattoo marks

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 5. Weight
6. Deformities – particularly those leaving permanent scars or deformities
7. Birth Marks
8. Injuries Leaving Permanent Records
9. Moles
10. Scar
11. Tribal Marks
12. Sexual Organ
13. Blood Examination

SCIENTIFIC OR MEDICO-LEGAL METHODS OF IDENTIFICATION

A. FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY
➢ ANTHROPOLOGY—the scientific study of all aspects of human development
and interaction
➢ FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY is the examination of human skeletal remains for
law enforcement agencies to help with the recovery of human remains,
determine the identity of unidentified human remains, interpret trauma, and
estimate the time since death.
➢ ANTHROPOMETRY is the science of recording measurements of various parts
of the human body.
➢ FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGIST focuses on human skeletal traits, such as skull
features, dental characteristics, and sub-cranial bone sizes and shapes, that vary
from individual to individual and from population to population. o the presence of
bone anomalies, metal plates or pins, or specific dental characteristics can help
to make a positive identification. o In addition to revealing the age, sex, size,
stature, health, and ethnic population of the decedent, an examination of the
skeleton may reveal evidence concerning pathology and any antemortem (before
death), perimortem (at the time of death), or postmortem (after death) trauma.
o time elapsed since death can be determined by using forensic entomology,
which studies the relationship between insects and decomposition.
➢ OSTEOBIOGRAPHY—bones contain a record of the physical life
- Analyzing bones reveals clues to age, gender, race, height, and health
- X-rays may identify prior fractures, pins, artificial joints

➢ SKELETAL TRAUMA ANALYSIS Forensic anthropologists determine if damage

to bones occurred before or after death.
Distinct patterns exist for damage by
✓ Environment ✓ Gunshot wounds
✓ Sharp-force trauma ✓ Knife wounds
✓ Blunt-force trauma

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 B. FORENSIC ODONTOLOGY
➢ Forensic odontology involves the management, examination, evaluation, and
presentation of dental evidence in criminal or civil proceedings, all in the interest of
justice
➢ DR. OSCAR AMOEDO, Paris, is considered as "Father of Forensic Odontology".
➢ Dental evidence played a vital role in the historical case of the identification of Adolf
Hitler. His dental findings were compared with antemortem dental records and
radiographs. Dentition was an important lead in the identification of the remains of
various leaders, who were killed, like Zia Ul Haq, former Pakistani President, and Rajiv
Gandhi, former Indian Prime Minister.
➢ DENTAL HARD TISSUES AND DENTAL MATERIALS - resistant to postmortem
decomposition
➢ DENTAL EVIDENCE is the method of choice in establishing identity of badly burned,
decomposed and skeletal remains
BASIS FOR DENTAL IDENTIFICATION

✓ HUMAN DENTITION is never same in any two Individuals

✓ The morphology and arrangement of teeth vary from person to person
✓ Dental identity -″total of all characteristics of the teeth and their associated structures
which, while not individually unique, when considered together provide a unique totality”
Teeth are relatively resistant to environmental insults after death
TECHNIQUES OF IDENTIFICATION
a. COMPARATIVE DENTAL IDENTIFICATION: attempts conclusive identification by
comparing the dead individuals’ teeth with presumed dental records of the individual.
✓ ORAL AUTOPSY
✓ OBTAINING DENTAL RECORDS
✓ COMPARING POST AND ANTEMORTEM DENTAL DATA
✓ ✓ WRITING A REPORT AND DRAWING CONCLUSIONS
b. RECONSTRUCTIVE GROUPS
✓ Attempts are made to elicit age, sex, race, occupation etc leading to a probable
identification.
c. DNA PROFILING: This method is used when dental record is not available for
comparison. The technique uses modern forensic DNA profiling methods to oral tissues
to establish identity
COMPARING POST-MORTEM AND ANTE MORTEM DENTAL RECORDS

✓ Features compared include tooth morphology and associated bony structures,

pathology, and restorations
✓ An individual with multiple dental treatments and unusual features has a better likelihood
of being identified than someone with no extraordinary dental characteristics
CONCLUSIONS

1. Positive Identification – sufficient uniqueness among the comparable items

2. Probable Identification – high level of concordance among data, may lack radiograph
support

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 3. Presumptive (possible) Identification – enough information may be missing from either
source
4. Insufficient Identification – Insufficient supportive evidence
5. Exclusion of Identification – clearly inconsistent
PROBLEMS WITH DENTAL IDENTIFICATION

a. Absence of antemortem records.

b. Absence of acquired dental tracts for identification.
c. Limitations for storing dental records for a certain period.
d. Poor quality dental records.
e. In postmortem situations, all the teeth may not be recovered because of postmortem
trauma.
f. Fire can result in irreversible changes to restorations and teeth which can reduce the
amount of information available for comparison.

➢ BITEMARK ANALYSIS
✓ BITEMARKS have been defined by MacDonald as a “mark caused by the teeth
either alone or in combination with other mouth parts”.
✓ During sexual attacks including sexual homicide, rape and child sexual abuse,
bite marks are clustered around parts of body associated with sexuality.
➢ SITES OF BITE MARKS
✓ Females are usually bitten - breasts, abdomen, thighs, buttocks and pubis, while
✓ Men are usually bitten - back, arms, shoulders, chest and penis.
✓ In cases of self-defense the victim can bite on the hands and arms of an
assailant.

➢ FACTORS INFLUENCING THE BITE MARKS

✓ Type of tissue:
✓ loose or with excessive fat - bruising leading to poor definition.
✓ Fibrous tissue or with high muscle content - bruise less, definition is good.
✓ Age: Infants and old individuals bruise more than other age groups.
✓ Sex: Females tend to bruise more than males. Once produced bitemarks will be evident
for a longer period in females compared to males.
✓ Medical Status – bleeding disturbances, under anticoagulant therapy, skin diseases
more
✓ Time – depression produced in the skin due to bitemarks will recover within 1020
minutes leaving swelling and discoloration
✓ After death skin tends to contract, harden, and decompose
BITE MARK CASES HAVE TO BE DEALT WITH STEP BY STEP IN THE
FOLLOWING WAY
1. Description of bitemarks
- Both in the living and deceased victims the following vital information should be
recorded.
✓ Demographics:

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 -Name, age, sex, race, case number, date of examination, and name of the examiners
should be recorded.
✓ Location of the bite mark:
- Anatomic location, contour - flat, curved, or irregular and state the tissue
characters – - Skin - fixed or mobile
- Underlying tissue - bone, cartilage, muscle or fat.
✓ Shape of the bitemarks
- round, ovoid, crescent, or irregular in shape
✓ Color of the mark ✓ Size of the mark
- Both vertical and horizontal dimensions should be recorded in the metric system
✓ Type of Injury
- Petechial hemorrhage, contusion, abrasion, laceration, incision, Avulsion
2. Collection of evidence from the victim – Visual examination, Photographs, Salivary
swabbing, impression of bite marks
3. Collection of evidence from the suspect
4. Bite marks comparison

EVALUATION OF EVIDENCE
- While evaluating the bite mark first the cause of the mark has to be determined,
since bite marks may be caused by nonhumans or humans.

CONCLUSION OF BITEMARK ANALYSIS

- Positive identification: characteristic matches between the bite mark pattern and the
pattern of the suspect's teeth.
- Possible identification: • This implies that although the suspect's teeth could have made
the bite mark, there are no characteristic matches to be certain.
- Excludes identification: • When features on the bitemark indicate that the suspect's teeth
could not have caused them, it represents a Negative or exclusion.

C. DNA PROFILING
Deoxyribonucleic Acid – It is found in the nucleus of all living cells, except for Red Blood
Cells.

- is the process where a specific DNA pattern, called a profile, is obtained from a person
or sample of bodily tissue
- DNA profiling is commonly used in criminal investigations (forensics) and to settle
paternity disputes.
The procedure involved is common for both:
A DNA sample is collected (e.g. from blood, semen, saliva, etc.) and then amplified using PCR
Satellite DNA (with STR sequences) is cut with specific restriction enzymes to generate
fragments
Fragment length will differ between individuals due to the variable length of their short tandem
repeats

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The fragments are separated using gel electrophoresis and the resulting profiles are compared
USES OF DNA PROFILING
1. Crime scene investigation
2. Paternity suites and family relationships
3. Archaeology
4. Human/family ancestry
5. Exonerate persons wrongly accused of crimes
6. Identify catastrophe victims
7. Identify endangered and protected species as an aid to wildlife officials (could be used
for prosecuting poachers)
8. Detect bacteria and other organisms that may pollute air, water, soil and food
9. Match organ donors with recipients in transplant programs
10. Determine pedigree for seed or livestock breeds

D. FINGERPRINT IDENTIFICATION

Definition Of Terms

1. FINGERPRINT (DACTYLOGRAMS) – an impression designed by the ridges on the

inside of the end joint of the fingers and thumb on any smooth surface through the
media of ink, sweat, or any reagents capable of producing visibility.
2. DACTYLOSCOPY – the science that deals with the study of fingerprints as a means
of personal identification that involves manual comparison of fingerprints.
ORIGIN:
a. The word Dactyloscopy was derived from two Greek words: “Dactyl” which means
“finger” and “skopien” meaning “to study” or “to examine”. Therefore,
dactyloscopy means the study of the finger.
3. DACTYLOGRAPHY refers to the scientific study and analysis of fingerprints as a
means of identification.
4. DACTYLOMANCY is the study of fingerprints for purpose of interpreting one’s
personality.
FINGERPRINTS IN OTHER SPECIES

1. KOALA – is one of the few mammals, native to Australia that has fingerprints
2. MONKEYS – have fingerprints which are almost the same as human beings. It is proven
that the fingerprints of monkeys are mistakenly identified as human fingerprints.
RELATED SCIENCES WITH FINGERPRINT

1. CHIROSCOPY - it is the study of the prints of the palms of the hand. Sir William
Herschel utilized this. Derived from the Greek words
a. Cheir - means a “hand”, and
b. Skopien - means to “examine”.

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 2. POROSCOPY - the study of the sweat pores. This was explored by Edmond Locard
(Father of Poroscopy) Derived from the Greek words: a. Poros - means a pore, and
b. Skopien - means to examine

3. PODOSCOPY - the study of the prints of the soles of the feet and footwear identification.
Derived from two Greek words: a.
Podo – means the foot and
b. Skopien - means “to examine”

4. RIDGEOLOGY – a combination of:

a. poroscopy
b. edgeoscopy
c. ridge characteristics
Introduced by Sgt. David R. Ashbaugh (1946-present)
Title of Book “Quantitative-Qualitative Friction Ridge Analysis: An Introduction to
Basic and Advanced Ridgeology”

5. EDGEOSCOPY –first presented in 1962 by Salil Chatterjee of India.

However, these shapes are only of use when the friction ridges are reproduced in both
the latent and the exemplar prints.
This study includes: a.
endings
b. puckering
c. bifurcations

6. DERMATOGLYPHICS – study of the lines, tracings, and ridges of the skin of fingers,
palms, and hands. Derived from the words:
a. “derma”-means “skin”
b. “glyphein”- means “to study”

7. CHEILOSCOPY is a forensic investigation technique that deals with the identification of

humans based on lips traces. It aims to establish the uniqueness of lip prints which aids
in personal identification.
✓ Lip prints have to be obtained within 24 hours of the time of death to prevent erroneous
data that would result from post-mortem alterations of the lip.
✓ Pattern depends on whether the mouth is opened or closed.
✓ Closed mouth position - well-defined grooves
• Open position – ill-defined and difficult to interpret Development of Friction Ridges
• Friction ridge begins to form on the human fetus during the 3 rd to 4th months of the fetus's
life (fifth to sixth months before birth).
• Friction ridges – are the raised strips on the inside of the end joints of the fingers and
thumbs by which fingerprints are made.

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Components of the Friction Skin

a. Ridge Surface – is that component of the friction skin that forms the fingerprint
impression.
1. Ridges – are tiny elevations or hill-like structures found on the epidermal layer of
the skin containing sweat pores. It appears as black lines with tiny white dots
called pores in an inked impression.
2. Furrows – are the canal-like impression or depression found between the ridges
which may be compared with the low areas in a tire tread. They appear as white
lines in an inked impression.
b. Sweat Pores –a small opening found anywhere across the ridge surface but is usually
found near the center. Sometimes called an “island which is colored white in plain
impression and is considered as individual as the fingerprints.
c. Sweat duct –a long-host-like structure that serves as the passageway for the sweat that
exists at its mouth, the pore.
d. Sweat glands – is that glands found in the dermis layer of the skin which is responsible
for the production of sweat.
CAUSES OF THE MARKINGS

• Ridges or the raised strip of the epidermis

• Sweat or perspiration

COMPOSITION OF FINGERPRINT
A. SWEAT B. CONTAMINANTS

1. 99.0-99.5% water 2. Body fluids (blood, saliva, secretions, nasal

2. .5-1.0% solid semen, etc.)
a. 50% organic solid
(mostly amino
acids)
b. 50% inorganic
solid (NaCl and
KCl)

MOST SECRETIONS COME FROM THREE GLANDS:

1. ECCRINE - largely water with both inorganic (ammonia, chlorides, metal ions,
phosphates) and organic compounds (amino acids, lactic acids, urea, sugars). Most
important for fingerprints.
2. APOCRINE - secrete pheromones and other organic materials.
3. SEBACEOUS—SEBACEOUS EXCRETA – is a colorless, transparent substance
consisting of fatty acids, vitamins, etc. The quality and quantity of excreta vary from
person to person.

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PHALANGES OF THE FINGERS
TERMINAL OR DISTAL PHALANGE – it is the particular bone that is covered with friction skin
having all the different types of patterns and is located
near the tip of the finger.
MIDDLE PHALANGE
- is a phalange of the finger located at the
middle of the terminal
PROXIMAL PHALANGE
- Located at the proximal end, articulating with the
metacarpals.

FUNDAMENTAL LAYERS OF
THE FRICTION SKIN

1. Epidermis – the outer covering of the

skin
Sub-layers:
a. Stratum Basale – also called
the generating layer.
b. Stratum spinosum – also called Malpighian layer
c. Stratum Granulosum – consists of 3-4 layers
d. Stratum Lucidum
- The stratum Lucidum is a layer that derives its name from the lucid
appearance it gives off under a microscope.
- It can only be found in the hairless part of our body.
e. Stratum Corneum - also known as corneous layer
- The horny layer filled with cornified cells
- This is the only layer that we see with our eyes

2. Dermis – the inner layer of the skin containing blood vessels, various glands, and
nerves. It is where the dermal papillae are found.

DERMAL PAPILLAE - irregular blunt pegs composed of delicate connective tissues, protruding
and forming the ridges of the skin, each containing a small opening or pores
2 Layers
a. Papillary layer
b. Reticular layer

3. THE HYPODERMIS
- lies under the dermis and is a loose connective tissue that contains a pad of adipose
cells (fat) that contour the body and serve as an energy reserve.
- Fibers link the epidermis to the dermis and the dermis to the hypodermis.

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SKIN STRUCTURE OF THE RIDGE SYSTEM

• Ninety-five percent (95%) of the body's skin is smooth and relatively featureless, apart
from hairs, pores, and creases.
• The remaining five percent (5%) covering the palms of the hands and soles of the feet is
marked differently.
RIDGE DESTRUCTION

- The pattern that appears on the inside first joint of our fingers and thumbs never
changes except, in the size of the pattern during the life of an individual.
- There are some outside and even outside pressures that may cause an effect or destroy
the ridges.
1. Manual Works - temporary
Cut/Burns – depth of 1mm or more would cause permanent scars – destroy ridges
2. Occupational Habits
3. Diseased Person
4. Warts
5. Creases
6. Ulcer/burns
*Adermatoglyphia – is a rare medical condition that causes a person to have no
fingerprints
PERSONS WHO ATTEMPTED TO ERASE FINGERPRINTS

JOHN HERBERT DILLINGER is identified as the U.S. “Public Enemy No. 1” by the FBI for
robbing several banks. He attempted to conceal his identity by forcing a plastic surgeon to alter
his face and fingerprints by burning them with acid (caustic soda known as sodium hydroxide)

ROBERT JAMES PITT He is famed as the “man without fingerprints” after knowing from an
inmate of a possible destruction of fingerprints. He contacted a doctor and the doctor removed
the skin up to the germinating layer and serve thin into incisions on each side of Pitts’s chest.
He was identified by the Texas Police by using the second joint of his fingers
EDMOND LOCARD & WITKOWSJI Performed painful experiments on themselves by burning
their fingertips with boiling water and oil with hot metals to find out whether it can destroy the
ridges of a finger.

FINGERPRINT PRINCIPLES
3. Three (3) DOGMATIC PRINCIPLES – F/P As a Perfect Science
1. PRINCIPLE OF INDIVIDUALITY (VARIATION)– The order of arrangements of
ridges and their characteristics (minutiae) are unique; which means that no two
fingerprints are exactly alike
2. PRINCIPLE OF PERMANENCY – the ridges develop in the third month of the
fetal stage and their peculiarities remain unchanged throughout one's life span,
until death and complete decomposition of the body.
3. PRINCIPLE OF INFALLIBILITY – states that fingerprints cannot be forged or
changed. (Faulds). The most reliable means of personal identification

OTHER PRINCIPLES BY DR. EDMOND LOCARD

1. LAW OF MULTIPLICITY OF EVIDENCE

State that the greater the number of similarities or dissimilarities the greater the
probability for the conclusion to be correct.
2. LAW OF PROBABILITY
States that “if the world’s population reaches 64B, two people may have identical
fingerprints.

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 3. LOCARD’S EXCHANGE PRINCIPLE
When two objects physically contact, trace evidence is left over the softer one.
CLASSES OF LATENT PRINTS

1. Visible prints - are impressions made by fingers smeared with colored substances,
such as blood, ink, grease, dirt, or paint.
2. Semi-visible prints - are molded or plastic impressions. They are prints made in plastic
materials such as soap, melted candles, wax, tar, pitch, paraffin, putty, adhesive
gun on envelopes, postage stamps, and the like.
3. Invisible prints (TRUE LATENT PRINTS)- are the most common type of chance
impressions.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE STABILITY OF LATENT PRINTS
1. Climate/Climatic Condition – windy, sunny and wet seasons affects the stability of
latent print.
2. Subject Factor – Degree of acidity.
3. Nature of the Surface – whether the surface is smooth or rough.

CASES INVOLVING FINGERPRINTS AS EVIDENCE

FIRST CONVICTION IN U.S.A.

PEOPLE vs JENNINGS

In 1911 the Illinois Police Department arrested a man named Thomas Jennings for murder. The
evidence against Jennings was slim except for fingerprint evidence. The prosecution wanted to
ensure the fingerprint evidence would be admitted before the Illinois Supreme Court.

FIRST CONVICTION IN CANADA PEOPLE vs. CARACATH & PARACHIQUE

- It was Edward Foster who gave expert opinion to the first conviction in Canada based on
fingerprint evidence which took place in 1914. The fingerprints from the scene matched with
suspects: Peter Caracath and Gregory Parachique who broke into the CPR Station in
Petawawa, Ontario. They left fingerprints on glass at the point of entry that was used for their
identification.

LAMBLE VS STATE (Lamble vs. State, 96 N.T.L., 231; 114 ATL., (N.J.) 364 (1921) - This
involved the discovery of fingerprints on the door of an automobile, the court believed it was not
necessary to produce the door as evidence. The court stated that a photograph of the
fingerprints noted on the door should be sufficient along with the identification of the fingerprints
by an expert to show these of the defendant. The court referred to the previously decided case
in State vs. Conners (Supra)

STATE VS CONNERS (87 N. T. L., 419, 94, Atl.812 (1915)

- Where the photographs of the fingerprint were competently reproduced from the balcony
post of the house and even without producing that post in court and because of the expert
testimony without disruption to the continuity of testimony, it is deemed admissible.

PEOPLE VS CORRAL (224 California 2d 300 (1964)

- It is a well settled principle in law that fingerprints are the strongest evidence of the
identity of a person. This doctrine was reasserted in the case of PP VS RESIR (California), in
which court stated, “fingerprint evidence is strongest of identity and is ordinarily sufficient alone
to identity of the defendant.

SCHMERBER VS CALIFORNIA (384 us, 757,763,764 (1966)

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- It was held that the introduction into evidence of fingerprint impression taken without the
consent of the defendant was not an infringement of his constitutional privilege against self-
incrimination. The high court held that it is constitutional to obtain real or physical evidence even
if the suspect is compelled to give blood in a hospital environment, submit to fingerprinting,
photographing or measurement, write or speak for identification, appears in court, stand or walk,
assume a stance or make a particular gesture, put on a cloth that fits him, or exhibit his body as
evidence when it is material.

PHILIPPINES

BINGALAWA VS AMADOR (CA, 36320-B)

• The fingerprint expert and constabulary sergeant/ investigator testified and successfully
defended fingerprint evidence based on eight (8) identical ridge points.

• The court stated that admissibility was based on rare identical characteristics compared
to both true and questioned prints.

PP VS MEDINA (59 PHIL. 330)

• The first leading judicial decision in Philippine Jurisprudence on the Science of
Fingerprinting.
• On the night of February 12, 1932, Mariano Medina broke into and entered through the
window of the house of Mr. James C. Rockwell. Once inside, Medina took several
properties of the Rockwell’s and one among them was a jewelry box, which was later on
recovered by the intelligence division of the Philippine Constabulary, Officer Agripino
Ruiz. The latter was able to develop and lift a fingerprint on top of the box. Ruiz took the
fingerprints of the accused and found similarities when he compared them with his
records. Further investigation revealed that the accused had served three terms in the
Bilibid prison.
• Ruiz then compared a photograph of the impression of the middle finger of
Medina’s right hand with the photograph fingerprint on top of the box stolen from the
bedroom of the Rockwell’s and established that they coincided in ten (10) points. He
concluded that the two (2) impressions were from the same person.

METHODS OF DETECTING PRINTS

1. Dusting Method – is done with the use of fingerprint brush and powder by applying amount
of powder that is lightly swept on the suspected area to little by little reveal the print caused
by the powder.
This is called as the “brush on” or “powder” method.

2. The Rolling Method (Rocking Method)

- The powder is put on the suspected surface of a material/object. Then in a slanting
position, the material/object is rolled slightly to attach powder to the fingerprint.

3. The Spray Method - The powder is put into an empty container specially designed for
spraying.
- Suspected areas where fingerprints are suspected to be present are sprayed to let
latent prints appear.

4. The Transplant Method

- The latent print is powdered and lifted ready to be pasted to a paper with the opposite
color from that of the color of powder used.
- The principle of contrast shall always be applied.

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5. The Restoration Method-
- Stain fingerprint sampling process is wiped with:
a. fabric absorbing thinning scientific cleansing agent.
b. water-absorbing fabric:
c. then wipe with a dried fabric.

6. Kromekote Lift Technique

- Provides the forensic science technician with an inexpensive and practical technique
for recovering latent fingerprints from human skin.
- The Kromekote Card is used to lift latent print in 2-3 seconds. It is done by lifting from
one side while pressing the other side.
- Fingerprints on skin surfaces appear to last about 1-1/2 hours on living victims. - Latent
prints on skin can also be done by using cyanoacrylate

NATURE OF LATENT FINGERPRINTS

• Fingerprints recovered from crimes scenes are known as latent fingerprints. Substrate –
is the surface the latent print is deposited on. It is variable in texture and contour. May be
smooth or rough, flat or curved, porous or non-porous.

POROUS, NON-POROUS & SEMIPOROUS SUBSTRATES

POROUS refers to a surface “containing pores” or small spaces within a substrate.

Porous materials are permeable to liquids and gases. Example: paper,
cardboard
It absorbs the fingerprint matrix.
NON-POROUS not permeable to gases and liquids.
Fingerprints on these objects remains on the surface.
Cyanoacrylate Ester one of the most common methods for developing fingerprints.
Example: Glass
SEMI-POROUS items that are difficult to categorize as either porous and non-porous.
Example: waxy-coated paper products

PHYSICAL PROCESSING METHODS

FINGERPRINT POWDERS

fast, effective, and low-cost method of latent print development.

Used on dry, non-porous surfaces
Most often used at crime scenes where large areas and fixed objects such as furniture,
windows, and railings must be processed quickly and thoroughly.
commonly used on non-porous, dry surfaces.

FOUR COMMON TYPES OF FINGERPRINT POWDERS

1. Granular powder (black, white, and bichromatic)

Are composed of large asymmetrical particles.
Black powder is a carbon-based granular powder most used at crime
scenes. Fiberglass brush
2. Magnetic powder (black, bichromatic, and/or fluorescent)
It has particles that are smaller than granular powders, mixed in with magnetic
metallic particles. Iron particles are blended with the powder to make the mixture
magnetic.
Used on greasy surfaces.

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 Magna-brush
3. Fluorescent powder (many colors available)
Are very small fluorescent particles mixed with cornstarch or Lycopodium powder
carrier particles.
They are useful for delicate dusting or on items that cannot get wet with chemical
reagents.
Feather brush

4. Metallic flake powder (aluminum copper)

Composed of flattened flakes of aluminum, zinc, iron, or copper.
Used on smooth, dry surface,
Wet surface – aqueous powder suspensions. – powder suspensions are
mixture of insoluble fine powder particles
Available in black and white powder suspension

FINGERPRINT POWDER PROCESSING

1. Visually inspect the surface of interest with oblique white light.

2. Photograph any visible prints in situ (in place).
3. Pick a color powder that contrasts with the surface.
4. Put a light layer of powder onto a fingerprint brush and shake off the excess
5. Lightly pass the brush over the surface until friction ridges are visualized.
6. Photograph the visible fingerprints.
7. Lift the fingerprints onto a contrasting fingerprint card using fingerprint lift tape.
8. Fill out all known case info, completer a sketch, and note the “up” direction of the print.

CHEMICAL METHODS OF DEVELOPING LATENT PRINTS

1. NINHYDRIN SOLUTION (destroys writings)

- was discovered by chance in 1910 by a chemist named Siegfried Ruhemann.
- also known as triketohydrindene hydrate, is both water-soluble and alcohol soluble. - This
is used to detect latent prints on absorbent materials, white wood, bloodstained
fingerprints, paper wrapping of cigarette stick, etc.
- thereafter known as the Ruhemann’s purple

2. NINHYDRIN PETROLEUM BENZINE SOLUTION

- This is applied to printed materials. The advantage of this method is the nondestruction
of written letters made by “ballpen” and other ink.

3. TETRAMETHYL BENZEDRINE METHOD (with a chemical formula of C16H2oN2) – With

this method, the invisible amount of blood-stained fingerprints can be detected. Fingerprints
on kitchen knives, and other blades used as weapons, were effectively detected.

Preparation:
Solution A – 100 ml Ethanol consisting of 0.5 ml of TMB powder solution
Solution B – Ethanol added to the same amount of distilled water, and 30% peroxide
mixed up in 9:1 ratio.

4. NEO SPWA METHOD – This was invented by Nobuo Yamauchi, a Japanese

Fingerprint Expert, who authored a book entitled “Fingerprints Identifications.” This method
is applied on wet surfaces (plastic bags, metal products, plastic products, vehicle bodies,
bathroom tiles, weekly magazine covers, glass products, smooth surfaces with no water
absorbent), adherent surfaces of adhesive tape, magnetic cards, and crappy plastic bags.

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 o Method of preparation: A few drops of Isopropyl alcohol (70% alcohol content)
are added to 1 gram of black powder. Add 7 – 10 ml of water and mix well.

o Method of use: Dip the brush on the reagent and brush it over the suspected
surface. Leave for 30 seconds and wash away excess powder. When prints are
detected, photograph them.

Procedure: o Before starting to work on the suspected area, take a photograph to

record the original appearance. o Apply solution A using a brush, then solution B after it
dries. o If there is an existing blood-stained fingerprint, it will turn into blue green color.
o Photograph such print.

5. VICTORIA PURE BLUE METHOD – This is used to detect latent prints on leaves, scotch
tape, and masking tape.

o Preparation: 1 gram of Victoria pure blue mix with 1 liter of ordinary water to
make 0.1% of Victoria pure blue solution.

Procedure: Dip or soak the suspected object in a tray containing the solution for 30
seconds to one minute and observe how the prints appear, then wash it with water.
Photograph the developed print. The developed print can remain for several months and
years depending on its preservation.

6. EMULGEN BLACK.
- Used to develop latent prints on Glass, plastics, tin cans, metals, smooth surfaces of
cars, doorknobs, etc.

- Can be used on wet surfaces.

GAS METHOD

1. SUPER GLUE / CYANOACRYLATE METHOD

The cyano bond’s brand name in the Philippines is mighty bond.
o This applies to metals, plastic/synthetic resin, painted wood or metal, leather products,
adhesive tape (adherence surface side, not the sticky side), and glossy – paper.

STEPS IN LATENT FINGERPRINT EXAMINATION

Code: R-I-I-R

1. Recognition – This includes processing of latent prints in the crime scene, preliminary
screening, photography, and lifting of the prints.
2. Identification – includes laboratory processing, enhancement, and comparison of known and
unknown prints.
3. Individualization – includes the method of matching the prints for identification purposes
followed by evaluation.
4. Reconstruction – this will be done if there is a non-matching of prints. The condition and
position should be identified and the Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS)
may be used.

STEPS IN FINGERPRINT EXAMINATION

Introduced by Sgt. Asbaugh
Code: ACE-V

It is a scientific methodical evaluation of level one, two, and three details.

o This methodology standardizes the comparison process to ensure that every examiner
follows the same steps to identify the source of any latent fingerprint.

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 The ACE-V process is not only used to identify the source of a fingerprint but also to exclude
an individual as the source of the fingerprint.
An exclusion conclusion is just as valuable as an identification conclusion.

The components of the scientific method are:

Analysis - general patterns and name of Specific patterns are identified.
Observation
Hypothesis
Comparison - ridge details of the fingerprints are being compared.
Experimentation
Analysis
Evaluation – The making of a conclusion about whether the latent print and fingerprint of the
suspect are the same. Conclusion
Verification – The opinion of an examiner should be verified by 1-2 examiner/s. Peer
review

AFIS – AUTOMATED FINGERPRINT IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM

- The computer system that stores the fingerprint databases and searches for matches
both to known and unknown fingerprints.
- A computerized system for digitizing, matching, storing, and retrieving fingerprint images
and textual information.

History of AFIS

The current, efficient use of fingerprints as biometrics is only possible due to the advent
of the silicone microchip, and consequently the computer, in the early 1970’s.
The FBI’s identification bureau, known as the Identification Division, was established in
1924 “to provide a central repository of criminal identification data for law enforcement
agencies. The original collection of fingerprint records contained 810,188 records.”
The technicians employed in the Identification Division were responsible for classifying,
filing, and searching approximately 30,000 ten print cards submitted by law enforcement
agencies around the country every day.

• The Royal Canadian Mounted Police – put a system into place in 1977.
• The city of San Francisco was the first jurisdiction to use the AFIS on a routine basis in
the United States.
• It was installed in San Francisco in 1983, and a new unit called Crime Scene
Investigations, was formed.
• 1992 – IAFIS imported 32 million fingerprint cards into its database.
• 1997 – the United Kingdom installed its own national AFIS database.

LIVESCAN – this device scans and digitizes fingerprints similar to a document scanner. This
method does not require ink, powder, or any other medium to capture the print.
- The Livescan operator, the individual taking the fingerprints, rolls the individual’s

fingerprints onto a plastic or glass plate in a manner similar to rolling inked prints onto a
ten-print card.
- The livescan acquires the image and the computer processes it using a computer
algorithm: a set of procedures the computer follows to process data.

Livescan fingerprinting has several advantages over and is quickly replacing inked fingerprinting
for the following purposes:

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 1. Livescan prints are digital and can be stored on computers rather than in large numbers
of file cabinets required by manual ten prints cards.
2. Unlimited numbers of exact copies of the fingerprints can be reproduced on the
computer printer.
3. Livescan prints can be instantly transmitted between agencies using computer networks.
4. Image quality is more uniform due to the quality control standards built into the livescan
device.
5. Livescan devices directly connect to AFIS. This makes it possible to take a person’s
prints; search them automatically against local, and national records; and get results
back, often in minutes.

THE AFIS OF PNP

1. Turned over by the Japanese Gov’t through JICA to the PNP on May 24, 2005.
2. This is a grant aid project amounting to 975M Yen (approx. Php 487.5M).
3. Has a current entry of more than 516,950 records (both criminal and non-criminal)?
4. The PNP Regional Crime Laboratory Offices submit ten print cards to the NHQ which are
being scanned to form part of the database of the AFIS.
5. Encoding is the duty of the NHQ-Camp Crame, QC.
6. Candidate List contains the first 20, second 10, third 5.
7. AFIS is a tool used by the Fingerprint Technician.

RIDGE CHARACTERISTICS
• These are those little details in the ridges of fingerprint patterns that are used in comparing
and identifying fingerprints.
FOUR MAIN TYPES

1. Bifurcation –a single ridge that splits into two ridges, forming a Y-shaped
structure. Sometimes called a fork.
2. A ridge ending, as its name implies, is just the abrupt end of a ridge formation.
3. The island resembles a dot. It has only a single pore.
*Several islands, if they fuse, would form what is called a short ridge.

4. Enclosure is a bifurcation that does not remain open but in which the legs of the
bifurcation, after running alongside by side for a short distance, come together
again to form a single ridge once more. Lake or Eyelet
Other Ridge Characteristics

• Spur – is where the ridge path divides, and the branch connects to an end (leg is
shorter)
• Incipient ridge – is an unusual type of ridge found in a small percentage of patterns.
They are short, narrow and badly formed ridges found between two well-formed and full-
bodied ridges which is frequently interrupted.
• Converging ridge – a ridge formation characterized by a closed angular end and serves
as a point of convergence (meeting of two ridges that were previously running side by
side.
• Diverging ridge – two ridges that are flowing side by side and sudden separating or
• spreading apart.
• Recurving or Looping Ridge – a kind of ridge formation that curves back in the direction
from which it started.
• Sufficient recurve – a recurve ridge completes in it shoulder and its free from any
appendage.
• Appendage – a short ridge found at the top or summit of a recurving ridge.

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 • Fragmentary ridge – a ridge of extremely short length.
• Dot ridge - Ridge formed like dots.

DEFINITIONS OF TERMS

• PATTERN INTERPRETATION –
the naming of a particular pattern.

• PATTERN AREA is that part of a

loop or whorl in which appear the
cores, deltas, and ridges with
which we are concerned in
classifying.

Figure 1

• The pattern areas of loops and whorls are enclosed by type lines.

• TYPE LINES may be defined as the two innermost ridges that start parallel, diverge,
and surround or tend to surround the pattern area.
LOCATING THE TYPE LINES

1. Type lines are not always two continuous ridges. In fact,

they are more often found to be broken. When there is
a definite break in a type line, the ridge immediately
outside of it is considered as its continuation. (Figure 2)

2. Type lines may be very short. (Figure 3) Figure 2

Figure 3

3. When locating type lines, it is necessary to keep in mind the distinction between a
divergence and a bifurcation.
(Figure 4)

*A bifurcation is the forking or dividing of one line into

two or more branches.

*Divergence is the spreading apart of two lines that have been running parallel or
nearly parallel.

Figure 4

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 In Figure 5, however, the ridges A—A are not the type lines
because the forks of the bifurcation do not run parallel with each other.
Instead, the ridges marked "T" are the type lines.

*A single ridge may bifurcate, but it may not be said to diverge.

Therefore, with one exception, the two forks of a bifurcation may never
constitute type lines. The exception is when the forks run parallel after
bifurcating and then diverge. In such a case the two forks become the
two innermost ridges required by the definition. Figure 5

4. Angles are never formed by a single ridge but by the abutting of one ridge against
another. Therefore, an angular formation cannot be used as a type line.

Figure 6

FOCAL POINTS —Within the pattern areas of loops and whorls are enclosed the focal
points which are used to classify them. These points are called delta and core.
LOCATING THE DELTA

• The delta is that point on a ridge at or in front of and nearest the center of the divergence
of the type lines.

• It may be:
● A bifurcation
Figure 7
● An abrupt ending ridges
● A dot
● A short ridge
● A meeting of two ridges
● A point on the first recurving ridge located nearest to the center and in front of the
divergence of the type lines.
In figure 7, with the dot as the delta, the first ridge count is ridge C. If the dot were not
present, point B on ridge C would be considered as the delta and the first count would be
ridge D. The lines X—X and Y—Y are the type lines, not X—A and Y— Z.

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 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11
Figure 8

In Figures 8 to 11, the heavy lines A—A and B—B are type lines with the delta at point
D.
Figure 12 shows ridge A bifurcating from the lower type line inside the pattern area.
Bifurcations are also present within this pattern at points B and C. The bifurcation at the point
marked "delta" is the only one that fulfills all conditions necessary for its location. It should be
understood that the diverging type lines must be present in all
delta formations and that wherever one of the formations mentioned in the definition of a delta
may be, it must be located midway between two diverging type lines at or just in front of where
they diverge to satisfy the definition and qualify as a delta.

Figure 12

RULES IN LOCATING THE DELTA

WHEN THERE IS A CHOICE BETWEEN TWO OR MORE POSSIBLE DELTAS, THE
FOLLOWING RULES GOVERN:
1. The delta may not be located at a bifurcation that does not open toward the core.

• In Figure 13, the bifurcation at E is closer to the core than the bifurcation at D. However, E
is not immediately in front of the divergence of the type lines and it does not open toward
the core. A—A and B—B are the only possible type lines in this sketch and it follows,
therefore, that the bifurcation at D must be called the delta. The first ridge count would
be ridge C.

Figure 13

2. When there is a choice between a bifurcation and another type of delta, the
bifurcation is selected. (Figure 14)

Figure 14
3. When there are two or more possible deltas that conform to the definition, the one
nearest the core is chosen. (Figure 15)

4. The delta may not be located in the middle of a ridge running between the type lines
toward the core, but at the nearer end only.

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 Figure 15

a. If the ridge enters the pattern area from a point below the divergence of the
type lines, the delta must be located at the end nearer the core. (Figure 16)

b. If the ridge is entirely within the pattern area, the delta is located at the end nearer the point
of divergence of the type lines. (Figure 17)

Figure 16 Figure 17

The delta is the point from which to start ridge counting. In the loop-type pattern, the ridges
intervening between the delta and the core are counted. The core is the second of the
two focal points.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF CORES

1. Staple Core – where a single loop appears, the loop of said loop farther from the delta is
used as the inner terminus at a point near the top just before recurving.

2. Bar or Rod Core – an ending ridge inside the innermost sufficient recurve.
3. Fragmentary Core – a very short ridge not more than 3 cms found inside a recurving
ridge located on or above the shoulder line of such ridge.
The core, as the name implies, is the approximate center of the finger impression. It will be
necessary to concern ourselves with the core of the loop type only.

RULES

I. The core is placed upon or within the innermost sufficient recurve.

II. When the innermost sufficient recurve contains no ending ridge or rod rising as high as
the shoulders of the loop, the core is placed on the shoulder of the loop farther from the
delta (pls see Figure 18)

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 Sufficient recurve – is that part of a recurving ridge between the shoulders of the loop. (It
must be free of any appendages abutting upon the outside of the recurve at a right
angle.)
Appendage – this is a short ridge at the top or summit of a recurve usually at a right
angle.

Figure 18

III. When the innermost sufficient recurve contains an uneven number (e.g. 3, 5, 7, 9) of
rods rising as high as the shoulders, the core is placed upon the end of the center rod
whether it touches the looping ridge or not. (Ex. Figure 19)

Figure 19 Fig. 20 Fig. 21

IV. When the innermost sufficient recurve contains an even number (e.g. 2, 4, 6 ) of rods
rising as high as the shoulders, the core is placed upon the end of the farther one of the
two center rods, the two center rods being treated as though they were connected by a
recurving ridge. (Ex. Fig. 20 & 21)
The shoulders of a loop are the points at which the recurving ridge definitely turns inward
or curves
Figures 22 illustrate the rule that a recurve must have no appendage
abutting upon it at a right angle between the shoulders and on the
outside. If such an appendage is present between the shoulders of a
loop, that loop is considered spoiled and the next loop outside will be
considered to locate the core. The point C indicates the core.
Figure 22

RIDGE TRACING
- It refers to the process of counting the ridges intervening between the tracing ridge (flows
from the left delta to the right delta) and the right delta. This process is used to determine
the three (3) subdivisions of Whorls into Inner, Outer and Meeting which is represented

by capital I, M, O.

RULES IN RIDGE TRACING

a. Tracing always begins at the left delta and goes toward the right delta.
b. An uninterrupted ridge can be traced from the left delta to the right delta.
c. When the tracing ridge suddenly ends, the tracing may be continued on the ridge below.
d. When a ridge bifurcates, the tracing is continued on the lower branch or the bifurcation.
e. When the delta is dot, the tracing begins on the type line, which is the ridge immediately
below the delta.

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Examples:
Note that tracing is only applicable to WHORLS.

From the example given in Figure 23 Accidental Whorl, there are 2 ridge counts between the
traced ridge and the right delta when an imaginary line is drawn. The tracing therefore is
MEETING.
Note: always consider the extreme deltas when there are three or more deltas involved.

Right Delta

Left delta
Figure 23

Figure 24, a double loop shows the tracing from the left delta
it continued until it reached the right delta. As we can see
there are more than 3 ridges in between the traced and the
right delta. So, the tracing is INNER because it has more than
3 ridges and the ridges are above the right delta.

Right Delta

Left delta
Figure 24
Right delta

In Figure 25, central pocket loop, the tracing is MEETING. There are two 2 ridge count below
the right delta.

Left delta Right delta

Figure 25

Figure 26 shows a double loop, the problem with patterns like this is where to stop tracing.
Always take note to stop in the upward trend in front of the right delta (figure 24). If there is no
upward trend, then continue until you reached the front of right delta.
In this case, figure 26 reached the right delta. So, the tracing is MEETING

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 Right Delta

Left delta

Figure 26

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