Republic of the Philippines

DAVAO ORIENTAL STATE UNIVERSITY

SPECIAL CRIME INVESTIGATION WITH LEGAL MEDICINE
Guang-guang, Dahican, 8200, Mati City, Davao Oriental, Philippines

SUBMITTED BY:

Monique Louie A. Balili

Jacinth L. Manang
Johnrave Pabroa
Joice Diaño
Rainiel Geres

SUBMITTED TO:

Ms. Renalyn Sampayan Rcrim

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 CHAPTER 11
IDENTIFICATION OF HUMAN REMAINS

Learning Objectives

At the end of this chapter, the student will be able to:

 Understand the importance of identifying unknown human remains

and the process involved

 Define forensic anthropology

 Describe the process of correctly estimating the time of death

 Describe the process of correctly determining the cause of death

 Enumerate the key principles of disaster victim identification

 Define fingerprint analysis, forensic odontology, and DNA analysis as

primary methods of disaster victim identification

 Differentiate between ante-mortem data collection and post- mortem

evidence collection

 Describe the National Policy on the Management of the Dead and

Missing Persons During Emergencies and Disasters

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INTRODUCTION TO IDENTIFICATION OF HUMAN REMAINS

The identification of human remains is a critical facet within the realm of criminology,
a field dedicated to understanding and addressing crimes. In the often intricate
landscape of criminal investigations, the ability to accurately identify human remains
holds paramount importance, shedding light on the circumstances of a person's
demise and contributing vital information to law enforcement efforts. This process
encompasses a multidisciplinary approach, blending the principles of forensic
science, anatomy, and anthropology to unravel the mysteries surrounding
unidentified or deceased individuals. Aspiring criminology students delving into the
intricacies of human identification are embarking on a journey that not only sharpens
their scientific acumen but also equips them with the skills necessary to bring closure
to grieving families and contribute to the pursuit of justice.

At the core of the identification process lies the specialized field of forensic
anthropology, where criminology students explore the intricacies of skeletal analysis
and anatomical clues. Human remains, whether skeletal or partially decomposed,
carry a wealth of information that can reveal the individual's age, sex, ancestry, and
potential signs of trauma or disease. Through the meticulous examination of bones,
criminologists gain insights into the biological profile of the deceased, enabling them
to construct a narrative that transcends the boundaries of time. The study of human
remains is not only a scientific endeavor but a profound exploration into the stories
that bones can tell, empowering criminology students to become skilled interpreters
of this silent testimony.

The identification process extends beyond the realm of bones, encompassing

advanced techniques such as DNA analysis, dental examination, and facial
reconstruction. Criminology students engage in the study of these methodologies,
understanding how each contributes to the comprehensive puzzle of human
identification. DNA, the genetic code unique to each individual, has become a
powerful tool in establishing identity, while dental records and facial reconstruction
techniques offer alternative avenues when skeletal remains are incomplete. As
criminology students delve into these techniques, they not only gain a nuanced
understanding of forensic science but also appreciate the significance of
interdisciplinary collaboration in unraveling the mysteries surrounding human
remains.

In the pursuit of justice, the identification of human remains becomes a cornerstone

of criminal investigations, aiding in the resolution of missing persons cases, homicide
inquiries, and mass disasters. Criminology students engaged in this field not only
acquire the technical skills required for identification but also grapple with the ethical
considerations inherent in handling such sensitive information. The ability to
approach human identification with empathy and cultural sensitivity is an integral
aspect of criminology education, emphasizing the profound impact these
investigations can have on the lives of families seeking closure. As students navigate
the complex landscape of human identification, they are not only becoming adept
forensic scientists but also compassionate advocates for the voiceless and the
forgotten.

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Human Remains – refers to the physical remains of a deceased
human body. These remains can include bones, tissues, organs,
and any other bodily materials that persist after death.

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Identification of Human Remains – is a critical process in
forensic investigations, disaster response, and missing persons
cases. Several methods and techniques may be employed to
identify human remains, depending on the condition of the remains
and available evidence.

Identification by the Forensic Pathologist

Ways of identifying a person
Preliminary or tentative – usually produced during initial stages
of medico-legal.

Visual recognition – by someone who knows the deceased. But

not scientific method.

Scientific approaches – identification of unknown human

remains is essential for the following:

Notification of next-of-kin to allow for emotional closure, settlement

of estates and insurance claims;
Completion of official records (e.g., death certification, closure of
police records);

Medico-legal investigation to allow questioning of potential

witnesses and known associates of the deceased; and
Proper observance of criminal and civil legal proceedings
On the other hand, misidentification can lead to the following :
Unauthorized autopsy being done on the wrong body;

Release of a wrongly identified body to a family, causing emotional

distress and administrative delays;

Wasted investigative efforts; and Jeopardized legal proceedings.

Positive Identification – can also be achieved by examining

distinguishing characteristics on the deceased individual’s body,
such as the placement and visual attributes of birthmarks, scars,
medical implants, or tattoos.

Reliable Science based methods of identification may include

Fingerprint comparison, Dental comparison, X -ray comparisons all
of which require available ante- mortem record for a successful
comparison to be made.

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Identification by the Forensic Anthropologist

Forensic Anthropology - Their work is crucial in not only

identifying the individual but also providing insights into the
circumstances surrounding their death. Advanced technologies,
such as 3D imaging and computer modeling, have enhanced the
precision and efficiency of forensic anthropological analyses,
making this field an invaluable component of modern forensic
investigations.

Determining the Sex - Determining the sex of an individual is a

critical aspect that aids in building a comprehensive profile.
Forensic experts employ a variety of methods, with primary focus
on biological markers such as skeletal characteristics, DNA
analysis, and examination of reproductive anatomy. Skeletal
dimensions, especially the pelvic bone, often offer reliable
indicators of sex, while DNA analysis can provide definitive
evidence.

Determining the Race - Determining the race of an individual

during a crime investigation is a complex process that involves
assessing a range of physical features and, to some extent,
genetic markers. Forensic anthropologists examine traits such as
cranial morphology, facial features, and body proportions to make
preliminary assessments.

Determining the Age - Determining the age of a deceased

individual is a crucial aspect of forensic investigation, and forensic
anthropologists employ a multifaceted approach to ascertain an
accurate estimation. Skeletal analysis is a primary method,
involving the examination of bone development, fusion, and
degeneration.

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Tooth Eruption

Another analysis in which we determine the age of a person is by

observing their teeth. Teeth are the hardest material in the human
body and the most valuable in determining an individual’s age.

Teeth are grouped into two categories: deciduous dentition and

permanent dentition. Deciduous dentition (baby teeth) are
temporary teeth that start to erupt within 6 months of age and
begin to shed between 6 to 7 years old, being replaced by
permanent dentition. We have only 20 deciduous teeth and 32
permanent teeth.

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Epiphyseal unions

are the points at which the bones of the skeleton fuse together.
They occur at the ends of long bones, where the epiphyses (the
rounded ends of the bones) meet the shafts. The unions usually
occur during adolescence, when the bones are growing rapidly.

DETERMINING THE STATURE AND WEIGHT

Stature estimation is obtained from measurements of long

bones; namely the humerus, femur, and tibia. If these bones are
unavailable, the ulna, radius, and fibula can also provide a good
range for the expected height of an individual. As many elements
as possible should be used in a regression equation to estimate
stature.

To estimate a person's height, forensic anthropologists use a

formula based on the lengths of certain bones. By averaging the
lengths of both right and left humeri, ulnae, radii, tibiae, fibulae,
and femurs, along with standard error, they can get a fairly
accurate stature estimation. Precise measurements are taken
using an osteometric board.

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 Weight in forensic anthropology, weight is often considered
a function of stature determination. This means that, based on the
estimated stature and associated standard error, a range of
weights can be calculated.
For example, let's assume a regression formula for estimating
weight based on stature:
Weight = Weight Coefficient x Stature + Weight Intercept + e
 If the estimated stature is 150 cm with a standard error of 5
cm, and the weight coefficient is 0.7, and weight intercept is
20, then:
Weight = (0.7 x 150) + 20 + e = 130 + e
This suggests that the estimated weight is 130 kg, and the range
would be influenced by the standard error, indicating the potential
variability around this estimation.

Estimating the time of Death

Typical time-of-death estimates based on environmental factors
are as follows:

 3 weeks – articulated bones

 5 weeks – some scatter, some articulated
 4 months – disarticulated, within 10’ circle
 7 to 8 months – most bones 20’ w/in 10’ circle and all w/in
 1 year – small bones missing, complete disarticulation 2 to 4
years – some bones broken, scattered 40’, some
 Large bones missing 12+ years bone rot; partial burial (from
leaves, storms,
 Erosion from shallow burial)
 15 to 20 years – no surface evidence
Determining the Cause of Death
Forensic pathologists and medical examiners use a combination of
investigative techniques , but these are characteristics of injuries of
bones:

 Complete - broken all the way through

 Incomplete- crack; not all the way
 Comminuted – piece not with the bone

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  Linear – pressure on skull, stress released by cracking; soft
blunt weapon
 Stellate – star shaped piece missing; hard blunt weapon
 Depressed – usually with stellate, piece pressed in; hard
blunt object, sometimes sharo weapon
 Broken hyoid – if not adult, not fused; may indicate
strangulation
 Timing – linear crackes do not cross prior cracks; indicate
order of attack

Disaster Victim Identification

Disaster Victim Identification (DVI) is a systematic and

multidisciplinary process aimed at identifying individuals who have
perished in mass fatality incidents, such as natural disasters,
accidents, or acts of terrorism. The primary goal of DVI is to
provide closure to the families of the deceased by establishing the
identities of victims through scientific and investigative means.

The meticulous and scientific approach of Disaster Victim

Identification not only helps bring closure to grieving families but
also contributes to the accurate recording and reporting of fatalities
in the aftermath of large-scale disasters, facilitating proper
memorialization and commemoration.

Methods of Identification

People can also be identified from traces of their DNA from blood,
skin, hair, saliva, and semen by DNA fingerprinting, from their ear
print, from their teeth or bite by forensic odontology, from a
photograph or a video recording by facial recognition systems,
from the video recording

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Friction ridges

Found on the palmar and plantar surfaces of the human body are persistent from
birth unless permanently damaged or from advanced decomposition. They grow back
in the same pattern following minor injuries, whereas more severe injuries can result
in permanent scarring. Such changes can still contribute to an identification or
exclusion.
Friction ridge patterns on fingers (fingerprints) can be classified and searched.
Because they can be classified, they can be categorized and registered
systematically in a database or collection. Subsequently, impressions can be
searched and retrieved easily for comparison and identification.

Forensic Odontology
The unique structures and traits of human teeth and jaws readily lend themselves to
use in the identification of living and deceased victims. Dental data can be recovered
and recorded at the time of PM examination and compared to AM data that is
supplied by generalist and/or specialist dentists who treated the victim during their
lifetime. The teeth are well protected in the oral cavity and can withstand many
external influences at, near, or after the time of death. Teeth comprise the hardest
and most resilient substances in the body, so that when the body’s soft tissues
deteriorate, the dental characteristics that are so valuable for identification purposes
remain accessible. This is especially true of treatments in the teeth, such as
restorative and cosmetic fillings and crowns, root canal procedures, implants, fixed
and removable prostheses since these are custom-made as unique treatments for
each individual. Other anatomical traits can also be compared even when no dental
treatments are present, and these also provide useful data for identification
purposes.

DNA Analysis
DNA material is a proven source for identification, as a significant portion of the
genetic information contained in a cell is unique to a specific individual and thus
differs – except in identical twins, from one person to the next. DNA analysis requires
a sample to be taken from the deceased body or body parts as well as from

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known reference material/source for comparison. The samples need to be sent to an
accredited laboratory and analyse according to international standards and the
profiles compared with the known reference samples (acknowledging that these may
not be identical if originating in a biological relative).

The Secondary Method’s

of Identification

Medical Data Photographs Property

Secondary means of identification include personal description, medical findings and

medical records as well as evidence and clothing found on the body. These means of
identification serve to support identification by other means and are normally not
sufficient to be used as a sole means of identification and cannot be standalone to
prove identity of disaster victims. Secondary identifiers are often used to complement
the primary identifiers. To ensure that the victims are identified as quickly and as
efficiently as possible, a multidisciplinary expert team comprising of the pathologists,
odontologists, radiologists, fingerprint and DNA experts, are deployed to work as
soon as practicable during a mass disaster incident. This paper highlights a case of
the Dauphin helicopter crash in which identifications for all the victims were done
using only secondary means of identification.

Fingerprint Analysis
Fingerprints as Reliable Indicators of Identity:

• Fingerprints are unique. The papillary ridges on the fingers of two different
individuals or fingers of the same person are radically different.
• Fingerprints do not change. Fingerprints will follow the same pattern from their
formation until death, remaining congruent following minor injuries and changing only
by scarring after serious injuries.
• Fingerprints can be classified as: a) Whorl, b) Composite, c) Loop, d) Arch.
• Fingerprints do not change. Fingerprints will follow the same pattern from their
formation until death, remaining congruent following minor injuries and changing only
by scarring after serious injuries.
• Fingerprints can be classified as: a) Whorl, b) Composite, c) Loop, d) Arch.

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Fingerprints can be classified into four main types based on
their pattern characteristics. These are:
1.Loop: The loop pattern is the most common type of fingerprint, accounting for
about 60-70% of all fingerprints. In this pattern, the ridges enter from one side, curve
around, and exit on the same side they entered.

2.Whorl: Accounting for about 25-35% of fingerprints, the whorl pattern features
ridges that form circular or spiral patterns.

3.Arch: This is the simplest type of fingerprint pattern, found in about 5% of all
fingerprints. In an arch pattern, the ridges run from one side to the other without
looping back.

4.Composite: Some systems use a composite or complex category to describe

fingerprints that do not clearly fit into the other three categories or have two or more
different patterns.

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Forensic Odontology

Teeth contain the hardest substances in the human body. While soft tissues
deteriorate upon death, teeth are well protected by the oral cavity, preserving the
dental characteristics valuable for identification purposes. By comparing postmortem
and antemortem records, odontologists will be able to draw conclusions about the
lifestyle of a person.

DNA ANALYSIS

 DNA is a reliable source for identification because each individual's DNA

contains unique genetic information. This distinctiveness arises from the
specific sequence of nucleotides in their DNA, making it highly unlikely for two
individuals (excluding identical twins) to have the exact same genetic code.
Therefore, DNA serves as a powerful and accurate tool for identification,
allowing forensic experts to distinguish one person from another based on
their unique genetic makeup.
ADVANTAGES
1. DNA Testing in Challenging Cases
DNA testing can be conducted even in challenging cases involving partial,
severely decomposed, or degraded remains. This is possible because DNA
analysis targets specific genetic markers, allowing for successful identification
even when the biological material is not in pristine condition.
2. DNA Matching for Body Parts Identification
DNA matching is considered the most effective method for identifying body
parts. Due to the uniqueness of an individual's DNA, matching DNA profiles

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 extracted from body parts can provide a conclusive and accurate means of
identification.
3. Automated DNA Analysis with High Throughput
DNA analysis can be automated, enabling a high-quality and high-throughput
process. Automation allows for faster and more efficient testing, which is crucial
in forensic settings where timely identification is often essential.
4. Multiple Sources for DNA Matching
DNA matching can be based on profiles obtained from various sources,
including relatives, self-samples, or personal belongings. This versatility provides
flexibility in identification methods, allowing for comparisons beyond direct
physical samples.
5. Primary Identification through DNA Matching
DNA analysis, especially when automated, serves as the primary method for
identification, independent of direct physical comparisons like fingerprint or dental
records. This highlights the significance of DNA matching in forensic scenarios as
a reliable and stand-alone method for identification.
6. Procedure for DNA Profile Creation
To create a DNA profile, samples are taken from the deceased body or body
parts, as well as from reference samples (relatives, self, or belongings). These
samples are then sent to a laboratory where they undergo analysis following
international standards. The resulting DNA profiles are then compared to
establish matches, aiding in the identification process.

PERSONAL DESCRIPTIONS/ MEDICAL FINDINGS

A personal description includes basic details like age, gender, height, and
ethnicity. Specific features like scars, surgical history (e.g., appendix removal),
and unique identifiers such as numbers on pacemakers help identify individuals.
Tattoos, moles, and disfigurements also play a role in recognizing someone.
Medical findings are crucial, offering insights into a person's health history, while
common surgeries need consideration. In summary, these details help build a
comprehensive picture for identification in various situations.
 age,
 gender
 Height
 Ethnicity
 medical findings (scars, surgeries, unique identifiers)
 Moles
 tattoos
- crucial in forensics because they provide key information for identifying
individuals. This data helps forensic experts create a detailed profile, aiding in
the recognition of victims or individuals involved in a case. Medical details,
such as surgeries or unique markers on devices, offer insights into a person's
history, aiding in accurate identification and contributing valuable information
to investigations. In simple terms, personal and medical details act like puzzle
pieces that, when put together, help solve the mystery in forensic cases.

Evidence/Clothing

Encompasses all items discovered on victims’ bodies, such as jewelry, clothing, and
identification documents. Engraved jewelry can offer significant hints about a victim’s
identity. But you must consider certain

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Ante – Mortem Data Collection

Ante-mortem data collection involves gathering information about an individual before

their death, such as medical history, dental records, and identifying features.
The following information and/or material should be gathered prior to the conclusion
of the interview.
 Any original medical and/or odontological records, charts, treatment records,
x-rays and mouth guards in the relative’s or friend’s possession
 Names and addresses of any medical practitioners consulted by the missing
person/potential victim
 Names and addresses of dentists consulted by the missing person/potential
victim
 Descriptions of jewelry and property worn by the missing person/potential
victim
 Recent photograph/s (showing full face and/or teeth, tattoos, etc.)
 Buccal smear or blood sample taken from the biological parents or children of
the missing person/potential victim
 Descriptions and/or photographs of any tattoos or other significant physical
characteristics
 Any object that may contain the sole fingerprints and/or DNA of the missing
person/potential victim
Potential sources of ante-mortem data include
 Fingerprints Two main sources: official fingerprint records (through AFIS
system, PNP or NBI), and forensic examination of ante-mortem property
 Dental records – Dental charts, dental x-rays, casts, mouth
 Guards, dentures
 DNA Family members (descendants, ascendants, if possible), ante-mortem
property, DNA database

Post Mortem Evidence Collection

Climate is a big factor why a body will be damaged and be hardly recognized so in
able to analyze the body it must be cooled at 4°C to 6°C in a major forensic facilities,
however if it will needed a mote lager capacities authorities can tap mortician firm
and crematorium that do have colling facilities.

Examination Procedure/ Individual Station

It must first be started with the body placed in the autopsy table together with its
reciept and recovered records. Next will be the unique number issued by the body
registrar together with the record of it in the blank PM form. Next all of the papers will
be given to the autopsy recorder. The PM numbers must be entered by the body
registrar on th recovery report and gives existing evidence to the property processor.

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Reconciliation and Identification
In forensic science, reconciliation and identification are important concepts used to
piece together evidence and solve crimes:

Reconciliation
Reconciliation involves comparing and matching different data or evidence (AM and
PM Records) to ensure consistency and accuracy within an investigation.

Example: Comparing fingerprints found at a crime scene to the suspected

individuals who have committed the same crimes in the police database.

Identification
Identification is the process of determining the identity of individuals or materials.

Example: Using DNA analysis to identify a suspect from samples found at a crime
scene or employing forensic anthropology techniques to identify human remains.

Identification Board
The identification board has the following responsibilities:

- Review and evaluate the evidence in favor of identification in a given case.

- Decide whether the evidence is enough to identify the victim.
- Localization and reassessment of non-matches.
- Compilation of results in a Victim Identification Report and approval by signature.

National Policy on the Management of the Dead and Missing Person

During Emergencies and Disaster

Recovery, Identification, Transfer and Final Disposal of dead bodies is being

handled by the government in times of emergencies and disasters and by doing so it
must be guaranteed that the dignitya and all of its cultural and religous belief of the
deceased and its family is being followed and respected.

The AFP will lead the search and recovery with the coordination of the local
government, the NBI, PNP Crime Laboratory in able to establish mortuary operations
for the identifications of the victims in every disaster. In this kind of system the
medico-legal officer from the PNP and NBI must issue the Certificate of Identification
in every processed and identified bodies which will later on the local health officer will
issue a death certificate for the identified body.

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 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the identification of human remains is a
multifaceted process crucial for criminology students
studying forensic sciences. The intricate nature of this field
requires a comprehensive understanding of various
methods and techniques employed in the analysis of
skeletal and biological evidence. Through the meticulous
examination of skeletal features, forensic anthropologists
can determine key factors such as age, sex, ancestry, and
potential indicators of trauma, contributing to the
establishment of the biological profile of the deceased
individual.

Moreover, the application of advanced technologies,

including 3D imaging and computer modeling, enhances
the accuracy and efficiency of identification procedures.
Criminology students should recognize the importance of
staying abreast of technological advancements and
incorporating them into their skill set. Emphasizing hands-
on experience and practical training is paramount, as this
field demands a combination of theoretical knowledge and
real-world application to successfully navigate the
complexities of human remains identification.

Furthermore, the ethical considerations inherent in dealing

with human remains cannot be overstated. Criminology
students must approach this aspect of forensic science
with sensitivity and respect, understanding the profound
implications their work can have on individuals and their
families. In addition to technical proficiency, cultivating

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empathy and ethical decision-making skills is vital in
ensuring the ethical practice of forensic identification and
upholding the integrity of the criminal justice system.

REFERENCES

Interpol. (2009). Disaster Victim Identification Guide.

Retrieved July 29, 2014, from www.interpol.int:
http://www.interpol.int/
content/download/9158/68001/version/5/file/Guide.pdf

Interpol. (2014, March). Disaster Victim Identification

Factsheet. Retrieved July 29, 2014, from www.interpol.int:
file:///C:/
Users/CHP/Downloads/10_FS02_03_2014_EN_web.pdf

Interpol. (n.d.). White Paper on Disaster Victim

Identification. Retrieved July 29, 2014, from
www.interpol.int: file:///C:/Users/CHP/
Downloads/WhitePaperDVI.pdf

Morse, D. (1983). Handbook of Forensic Archaeology and

Anthropology. Florida: Florida State University
Foundation.

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