PROJECT FILE

FORENSIC SCIENCE
TOPIC- WHAT IS PERSONAL IDENTITY HOW IT CAN BE IDENTITY
BY FORENSIC SCIENTIST.

SUMITTED TO:
MS. BALWINDER KAUR
ASST. PROF. RCL

SUBMITTED BY: PARAMJIT SINGH

ROLL NO.16274, B.A.LLB (9TH SEM)
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am pleased to declare that this project file titled: WHAT IS PERSONAL IDENTITY HOW IT
CAN BE IDENTITY BY FORENSIC SCIENTIST is my original work which is assigned to me
as per the syllabus supervision of MS. BALWINDER KAUR.

All sources used for this project file has been fully and properly cited

I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my teacher as well as Our

principal gave me the golden opportunity to do this topic, which also helped me in

doing a lot of research and came to know about so many new things. I am really

thankful to them

I am thankful to the library staff for helping in my research

I would also like to thank my parents and friends who helped me a lot in making of

this project

Above all I would like to thank God for keeping me in a position

to make this project.

Paramjit Singh
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INTRODUCTION:
Personal identification is defined as the determination of the individuality of a person. It also refers to
the process of linking an unknown personal object or material (which may be a whole body, a
skeleton, a finger print, a biological fluid, etc.) back to an individual of known identity (Christensen et
al, 2013). It is a key issue in forensic anthropology and consists of the correct assignment of an
identity to an unknown corpse. Although it may seem an easy and automatic procedure, the
mechanism of identification encompasses several difficulties concerning the methods, and above all,
the significance of identification process in court. The process of identification is towards two
conclusions: exclusion and positive identification.

Complete and Partial Identification

Personal Identification may be complete (absolute) and incomplete (partial):

Complete identification is the absolute fixation or exact specification of the individuality of a person
along with the determination of exact place in the community occupied by him. Partial identification
refers to the ascertainment of only some facts about the identity while others remain still unknown.

Partial identification may assist in complete or total identification of a person. e.g. identified as a
female, Christian, about 40 years of age, having 6 feet height, whereabout regarding her family,
occupation etc. are not known.

Need of Personal Identification

In medico legal cases identification is very crucial in living as well as in dead.

In Living:

Civil Cases

(a) In impersonation or false personification cases in relation with: ·

o Inheritance of property
o Pension
o Life insurance
o Voting rights
o Passport1

(b) Disputed identity in cases of divorce or nullity of marriage 2

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(c) Disputed Sex

(d) Missing persons

(e) Lost memory patients

Criminal Cases

 Identification of accused in criminal cases of assault, murder, dacoity, sexual offenses

 Absconding soldiers
 Interchange of new born babies in hospital
 Criminal abortion
 To fix up age of criminal responsibility and majority
 Impersonation in criminal cases (Bardale, 2011)

Historical Record of Identification:

 In ancient times criminals were punished by mutilation and branding. This may be looked
upon as the first attempt toward subsequent identification. Branding disappeared more than
a century agoin Russia, for example, not until 1860 or thereabouts. In France, branding was
abolished at the end of the revolution, but was later reinforced and finally abolished in 1832.
It had already disappeared in Germany but Holland continued to employ it until 1854 and
China until 1905.
 Descriptions of wanted criminals were used as far back as the Egypt of the Ptolemys and in
the days of the Roman empire; and the system used then has a surprising similarity to the
portrait parle’ of today. They were planless, unmethodical, and gave rise to serious mistakes.
 About 1840, the Belgian statistician Quetelet stated that there are no two human beings in
the world of exactly the same size. This theory is said to have been used for the first time for
criminological purposes by Stevens, the warden of the prison in Louvain, who in 1860
proceeded to measure heads, ears, feet, breasts, and lengths of bodies of criminals.
 The first accurate system for description of prisoners, also called portrait parle (French term)
(spoken picture), was devised by Bertillon. In its original form the portrait parle was divided
into four categories: (a) Determination of Colour (left eye, hair, beard and skin)
Morphological determinations (Shape, direction and size of every part of the head) (c)
General determinations (grade of stoutness, carriage, voice and language, dress, social
standing etc.) (d) Description of indelible marks (scars, tattooing etc.) (Soderman, 1952).
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Identification in the Living

Identification in the living persons is justified for various reasons. Identification of living almost
exclusively depended on recognition by personal impressions until the fingerprint was recognized as
a powerful means of identification. It is still being employed as part of the investigation of crime to
hold ‘identification parades’. The suspect or the accused is included in a group of persons of
approximately similar build, age and appearance etc. and witness/witnesses are invited to point out
one of them as the alleged criminal.

The identification of the living person is based entirely on known finger prints or birth marks or
several personal impressions with regard to characteristic gestures, movements or shape and other
features of the teeth, eyes and hair, or voice but is liable to mistakes. These methods require the
services of different experts with reasonable experiences. Fingerprints, palm prints and toe prints
are unique, as means of identification, both in living as well as in dead. Along with these other
characteristics may be included like testing of mental calibre, educational level in the living which,
for obvious reasons cannot be applied to the dead.

Photography is also an important aid in identification of living but may be of not much use in the
identification of dead. Appreciable change, exaggerated by decomposition can occur in features
after death. However, it may also be wrong to assume that excellent photographs never lead to an
error in the identification of living.

Identification of the Dead

The identification of dead body sometimes becomes very difficult owing to its rapid decomposition
in the hot season, or through damage caused by wild animals when exposed, on the outskirts of a
city or village. The problem of identifying a recently dead person whose features, clothes, fingers are
intact is totally different from identifying the same person, dying in the same fashion but whose
naked body is discovered in a field and that too in the peak of summer/rainy season. 3 The longer the
interval between death and examination of the body/remains, the greater the need for varying
experts in establishing the identification. Under such situations, sight recognition of the body for
positive identification must be accepted with a caution and the investigator should never relax his/
her vigilance.

The examination of a person for the purpose of identification depends on the presence of the
following data or techniques. These are as follows:

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1. Primary Characteristics: Age, Sex, Stature. These characteristics cannot be altered after death.

2. Secondary Characteristics: Features, personal belongings (pocket contents, clothes including any
marks/defects/stitching, jewellery etc.), Hairs, Scars, Tattoos, External peculiarities including
deformities, whether natural or due to disease, occupational stigma, Race, religion and nationality.

3. Comparative data/techniques: Dental patterns or restorations, fingerprints, footprints or

handprints, superimposition technique, neutron activation analysis, Anthropometry, trace evidence
comparisons and other fortuitous comparisons (Vij, 2008).

The following Information is usually noted for the purpose of identification:

 Race
 Tattoo-marks
 Sex
 Occupation Marks
 Age
 Handwriting
 Complexion and Features
 Clothes and Personal articles
 Hair
 Speech and voice
 Anthropometry and dactylography
 Gait
 Footprints
 Tricks of manner and habit
 Deformities
 Mental power, memory and education
 Scars
 Miscellaneous methods of identification 4

1. Race:

Race is a population concept, which differs in the frequency of genes. There are three main types of
races: Caucasoid, Mongoloid and Negroid. The particular race of a person can be determined on the
basis of skull, forehead, skin colour, hair form, facial form and eye form.

2. Sex:

It is easy to determine sex in normal cases from external appearance and inspection of genitals, but
it becomes difficult in case of intersex, concealed sex, advanced decomposed body and in the

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skeleton. Sex of a person can be determined by any one of the following: · Physical morphology ·
Bone Study · Microscopic study of sex chromatin in cells · Gonadal biopsy · Hormonal study (in case
of intersex) · Dental methods

3. Age:

Age of a person can be determined by following methods: · Physical or morphological features ·

Some laboratory tests (in infants) · Age estimation by teeth · Age estimation by ossification activities
& growth of bone.

4. Complexion and features:

The complexion may be fair, whitish, coloured, dark, brown or shallow. The colour may vary in
different environmental conditions. The facial features include eyes, nose, lips, chin, ear and teeth.
These features may change considerably from disease, dissipation, ageing or due to stress.

5. Hair:

This forms an important means of identification, as it resists putrefaction and the effect of dyeing,
bleaching, cutting or heat can be noticed. Examination of hair (form, colour, texture) is also of
considerable help in crime detection as it is frequently found at the scene of crime.

6. Anthropometry:

In 1883, Alphonse Bertillon a French Law enforcement officer and biometric researcher created
anthropometry, as an identification system This system was based on the principle that, measurements
of various parts of the human body do not alter after adult age (21 years). 5 It was the first scientific
system used by police to identify criminals. 6He found that several physical features and the
dimensions of certain bones remain unchanged throughout adult life. He concluded that these
measurements can be used to distinguish a person from the other.

This system is based on fourteen identical measurements, a standardized photographic portrait (frontal
and profile), the classification of facial and body characteristics, and the notation of scars and tattoos.
These were recorded on cards that were filed according to a complex method, so that they could be
matched and retrieved.

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• Data to be recorded

1. Descriptive Data such as hair, eyes, complexion, shape of nose, ears, chin, iris color etc.

2. Bodily Marks like moles, scar, tattoo etc.

3. Bodily Measurements.

4. -Height

Stretch: Length of body from left shoulder to right middle finger when arm is raised.

Bust: Length of torso from head to seat, taken when seated.

Length of head: Crown to forehead.

Width of head: Temple to temple.

Length of right ear.

Length of left foot.

Length of left middle finger.

Length of left cubit: Elbow to tip of middle finger.

Width of cheeks.

Length of left little finger

Photographs of front and right profile views of the head and face are also taken.

Disadvantages of photography is:

 Photographs are not always reliable as there are chances of error.

 Instruments and trained operators are required for the measurements.
 This system applicable only to adults.
 There is a chance that errors in calculation may occur.

7 Dactylography:

• Dactylography is also known as Henry Galton system of identification. It is the study of fingerprints
as a method of identification.

Fingerprints have been used as a very effective means of establishing identity of the individual.
Fingerprint is an impression of the ball of a finger and this gives the details of arrangement of the
papillary or epidermal ridges on the skin of the finger ball.
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• Fingerprints appear for the first time from the 12-16 week of intrauterine life and their formation
gets completed by 24th week intrauterine life.The ridge formed during the fetal period does not
change throughout the life of an individual until destroyed by mutilation.

• Principles of Identification by Fingerprinting:

1. No two persons will have identical fingerprint pattern.

2. A fingerprint pattern will remain unchanged during an individual's lifetime.

3. The probability that two individuals will have the same fingerprint pattern is about one in 1 billion.

4. Fingerprints do not change throughout life. However, damage to the dermal skin layer may alter the
pattern. Permanent impairment of fingerprint pattern can occur in leprosy and electric injury. 7

• Types of Fingerprints: All fingerprints are divided in to following types.

 Loops (60-70%): Ridges start on one side then run parallel and end on the same side. Loops
can be a medial loop or lateral loop.
 Whorls (30-35%): Multiple circular or oval ridges one around another.
 Arches (5-10%): Ridges start on one side and after a backward course end on the opposite
side.

• Recording of Fingerprints

(i) Plain Method: In this method, inked fingers are brought in contact with unglazed paper and
impressions are taken. This method is quicker and easy to do. This method has a disadvantage that
larger surface area is not obtained for comparison.

(il) Rolled Method: Fingerprints are taken by rolling the fingers on paper from outward to inward
direction without lifting fingers in such a way that an impression of whole tip is obtained. This
method gives impression of a larger area than plain method. However it is somewhat difficult
procedure and may blur the prints at places.

Fingerprints at Scene of Crime: The fingertips of person are usually smeared by sebaceous
secretion and sweat. When a person touches any article, he leaves the impression of fingers over that
article due to the presence of sebaceous secretions. Fingerprints present at a scene of crime may be
classified as:

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 Visible Prints: These are the fingerprints left at scene when the fingers are smeared with or
contaminated with blood, paint, oil, grease, dust etc. These prints are visible prints.
 Plastic (impression) Prints: These are the prints left over soft surface or articles such as
soap, wax, clay, cheese etc.
 Latent Prints: These prints are either invisible or barely visible that were left at scene of
crime. These impressions are left over surface or articles due to sebaceous and sweat gland
secretions. These prints have to be made visible by developing with reagents. Processing of
latent prints to render them visible and suitable for comparison is called development,
enhancement, or visualization. 8

CASE LAWS:

Phool Kumar v Delhi Administration 1975 SCC (1) 7979: the accused was charged for the offence of
robbery U/S 397 IPC. The Court found ample and clinching corroboration from the fact that the
thumb impression of the accused was found on the kunda of the cash box. The conviction of the
accused was upheld by the Court.

Rama Subramaniam V State of Kerala/ AIR 2006 SC 639:10 The chance fingerprints found on the
handle of the almirah in the bedroom of the deceased matched with the fingerprints of the accused.
This evidence is very crucial and convincing to show that the appellant had been in the room of the
deceased. The presence of the accused in the vicinity of the house of the deceased was also proved by
the witnesses. The accused had strong hatred against the deceased because she had terminated the
services of the accused before the incident. The recovery of gold ornaments and weapons also is an
important evidence. All these proved the guilt of the accused beyond reasonable doubt, and he was
held guilty of murder.

• Medicolegal importance of Fingerprints

 Fingerprint examination is an absolute method of identification.

 Fingerprints can be used for identification in case of accidental exchange of new born
babies, impersonation etc.
 Fingerprints can be used in lieu of signature.
 Fingerprints can be used to maintain identity records.
 It can be used for identification of criminals, weapons, fugitives, missing persons, unknown
dead bodies etc.

8. Foot Prints
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AIR1975SCC(1)797.
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AIR 2006 SC 639.
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•Footprints are the foot patterns left by person at the scene of crime. Footprints can be recorded by
photography or by making plaster cast.Latent footprints are also developed in a same way as
fingerprints.

• Analysis of footwear characteristics and impressions can provide important evidence in a crime
scene investigation. Footprints are of two types:11

Bare Footprint: These are prints left by barefoot. Bare footprint of a suspected person can be
compared with the reference print. Peculiarities of the foot print like ridge pattern, flat
foot,supernumerary toes etc. can help in identification. If there is absence of ridge pattern, the
measurements such as length and width of foot, length and width of toe, toe pad, angle of
declination from each toe and from ball to its juncture with the arch help in identification

(ii) Shoe prints: These are prints left with shoe or footwear worn by person. These prints are also
individualistic and are helpful in identification. In case of shoe prints, there are two types of
markings.

(a) Primary markings: These are the markings about the make of shoes or soles of shoe.

(b) Secondary markings: These are the markings that are imparted over sole of shoe by the user and
these markings are individualistic.

• Medicolegal importance of Footprints

 Footprints are helpful in identification of offenders. The offender may also leave footprints
at the scene of crime. Small portion of footprint or shoe print is sufficient for comparison. In
case of shoe print, primary markings are caused by the make of shoes, soles and secondary
markings are caused by changes due to usage of the shoe.
 Footprints can be used to determine the stature of an individual.Stature constitutes 15 %
ratio of foot length. Stature = maximum foot length ÷ 0.15
 Weight of person can also be estimated. In males above 14 years, weight is about 60.5%
ratio of foot outline width. Thus weight =Maximum foot outline width = 0.60. In females
above 14 years,weight is about 67 percent ratio of foot outline width. Thus weight
=Maximum foot outline width ÷ 0.67
 Footprints also help to determine the sex of an individual.
 Shoe print or boot print also helps to estimate the height of a person.

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9. Scars

• A scar is a fibrous tissue that appears as a result of healing of wound. It is covered by epithelium
devoid of hair follicles, sweat glands or pigment. A wound that involves the dermis results in scar
formation during healing of the wound. 12

• Features of Scar

 Scar is a permanent mark on the body and is commonly described as identification mark on
the medicolegal injury report and other documents requiring the description of
identification mark. While recording scars for identification, their number, color,
consistency, shape, size and situation over body should be recorded
 Scars cannot be erased or removed completely however, the size and Shape can be altered
by operative procedure such as excision and skin grafting.
 Scars usually assume the shape of wound causing them for example: scars due to incised
wounds are linear. Lacerated wound produces an irregular scar. Stab wound produces oval,
elliptical or triangular scar depending on the shape of weapon. Scar from bullet wounds
would be circular and depressed one.
 Scars due to burns or corrosives are irregular and coarse.
 Drug addicts may have scar marks at cubital fossa due to repeated injections.

• Appearance of Scar

(i Time required for formation of scar depends on the type of injury, its size and location and
presence or absence of infection.

(il) Generally, a clean wound (healing by first intention) heals in 5 to 6 days. Reddish scar will be
apparent in less than two weeks.

(iti) If scar is large and edges cannot be approximated or infection is present the granulation tissue
forms within few days and scar appears within 2 weeks to 3 months.

(iv) Faint scars can be made visible by filtered ultraviolet light or by

magnifying lens.13

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• Age of Scar

Initially the scar is reddish and tender. Age of scar will be less than 2 weeks.

In 2 week - 2 months it becomes pale, soft and tender.

In 2-3 months, it becomes white, glistening, tough and non-tender.

After this no further change occurs and it becomes difficult to determine the age of scar.

• Medicolegal importance of Scars

(i) Scar marks can be used for identification of an individual.

(if) Shape of scar indicates type of weapon used for causing the injury.

(li) Age of scar can be determined. It helps to find the probable time of infliction of wound.

(iv) Type of injury can be commented by examining the scar. For e.g lacerated wound, stab wound
etc.

10.Tattoo marks:

• Tattoo marks are designs produced by multiple small puncture wounds made through the skin with
needles or similar penetrating tools dipped in coloring material.

• Features

The permanency of tattoo marks depends on the depth of deposition of dye and the type of dye
used. If the dye is deposited deeper to the epidermis then the tattoo mark stays longer.

Dyes such as vermilion or ultramarine disappear earlier than India ink.

Body parts protected by clothes retain dye for longer period than exposed parts. For example,
tattoos on hands or forearm disappear early.

Revealing Latent Tattoo Marks: Latent tattoo marks are faded marks and are difficult to be
examined. They can be visualized better by: 1)Use of ultraviolet light, 2) Infrared photography 3)
Rubbing the part and examining under magnifying glass, 4) Evidence of faint or faded tattoo marks
can be detected by histological examination of regional lymph nodes. The lymph nodes near a tattoo
mark show deposit of pigment used for tattooing. 14

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• Complications of Tattoo marks: Tattooing may result in following complications:

 Infection: If the equipment used to create a tattoo is contaminated with infected blood, then
tetanus, hepatitis B, hepatitis C, and HIV infection may occur.
 Scar or keloid formation.
 Skin Allergy.

• Removal of Tattoo Mark: Tattoo mark may be erased or removed by any of the following methods:

 Surgical removal: Surgical excision of the skin having tattoo mark followed by skin grafting.
 Application of carbon dioxide snow over the tattoo mark.
 Electrolysis: Tattoo mark may be removed by applying 2-5 milliamp current with needle.
 Laser beams: Particles of dye get vaporized and the mark gets removed
 Application of caustic substance.

• Medicolegal Importance of Tattoo Marks:

 Tattoo marks can help in identification of a person.

 Pattern or design of tattoo mark may indicate significant features related to the personality
of the individual, his religion, social status, mental makeup, nationality etc.
 Medicolegal issues may arise due to complications of tattooing.

11. Occupational Marks

Occupation marks are the effects of particular occupation on the body of a worker.

• These marks help in identification of the occupation or trade followed by the person. For example,
Cobblers or tailors usually show notched upper incisors from wear and tear.

• Temporary occupational marks: Paints, dyes or chemical or grease etc. at fingertips in case of
painters, dyers, engineers or mechanics respectively.

Examination of the dust or debris under nail beds, in clothes or in earwax may also provide
important clues related to the identification.

• Permanent occupational marks: Needle puncture marks are frequently found on left index fingers
of tailors. Thickening of palmer skin of fingers is seen on the hands of butcher. Certain occupations
result in discoloration of hair. For e.g. indigo and cobalt miners have bluish hairs. 15

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12. Hand Writing:

The act of handwriting is a complex motor skill mastered through practice and repetition. The
writing becomes a pattern of subconscious, habitual formations that are repeated every time an
individual writes something.

Handwriting can help in identification of a person.

The comparison and evaluation of these individual features of handwriting enables the forensic
document examiners to identify or exclude a writer as the source for any questioned writing.

Handwriting features that examiners evaluate include the size and slope of the writing, pen
pressure, pen lifts, the spacing between words and letters, the position of the writing on the
baseline, height relationships, beginning and ending strokes, and line quality.

A writer's identity cannot be established through a single individual feature in the writing. Rather,
identity is established through a combination of the significant features between the writings, with
no significant differences.

The opinion of handwriting expert is advisory in nature. The court exercise great care and caution at
the time of determining the genuineness of handwriting. Before a Court can act on the opinion
evidence of a handwriting expert two things must be proved beyond any manner of doubt, namely,
(i) the genuineness of the specimen/admitted handwriting of the concerned accused and (li)
handwriting expert is a competent, reliable and dependable witness whose evidence inspires
confidence.

• Opinion as to Handwriting, when relevant. (Sec. 47 in The Indian Evidence Act): When the Court
has to form an opinion as to the person by whom any document was written or signed, the opinion
of any person acquainted with the handwriting of the person by whom it is supposed to be written
or signed that it was or was not written or signed by that person, is a relevant fact.

A person is said to be acquainted with the handwriting of another:

(i) Who has seen the person write, or16

(ii) Who has received documents purporting to have been written by that person in answer to
document written by the witness, or

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(iii) Who has in ordinary course of business received documents purporting to have been written by
that person or such documents have been habitually submitted to him?

But the conviction cannot be based only on the opinion of handwriting expert. The opinion of
handwriting expert can be relied upon when supported by other evidences and corroborates the
circumstantial evidence.17

Methods of proving handwriting: Sections 45, 47, 67 and 73 of The Indian Evidence Act jointly
prescribe the methods of proving handwriting:

 By evidence of the writer himself (Sec. 67 IEA).

 By expert opinion (Sec 45 lEA).
 By evidence of person who is acquainted with handwriting (Sec 47 IEA).
 By comparison of the handwriting in question with the handwriting of an alleged writer (Sec
73 IEA).

• CASE LAW:

In Sukhdeo Singh v State of Maharashtra AIR 1992 SC 2100, it was held that, a handwriting expert is
a competent witness and whose opinion is recognized as relevant under the provisions of the
Evidence Act. There can be no hard and fast rule, but nothing will justify the rejection of the opinion
of an expert supported by unchallenged reasons on the sole ground that it is not corroborated.

The approach of a court while dealing with the opinion of a handwriting expert should be to proceed
cautiously, probe the reasons for the opinion, consider all other relevant evidence and decide finally
to accept or reject it.18

In Shashi Kumar V Subodh Kumar AIR 1964 SC 529, it was held that expert evidence as to
handwriting is an opinion evidence and it can rarely, if ever take the place of substantive evidence.
Before acting on such evidence, it is usual to see if it is corroborated either by clear and direct
evidence or by circumstantial evidence. If the possibilities are against the expert opinion it is of no
value.19

13. Clothes and Personal Article: Clothes and ornaments can provide a valuable source of
identification in case of mass disaster. In living persons, clothes and personal articles do not form
any essential piece of evidence for identification as the individuals can change them at will.

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AIR 1992 SC 2100
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AIR 1964 SC 529
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14. Speech and Voice: Peculiarities of speech e.g. stammering, stuttering, lisping and nasal twang
assist in the process of identification. Voice is also affected in nervous diseases, such as
cerebrovascular episodes, general paralysis of the insane and disseminated sclerosis.

15. Gait: An individual can also be recognized from his gait or body contour but it may be altered by
an accident or disease such as locomotor, hemiplegia, spastic paraplegia.

16. Tricks of manner and habit: This form of identification is generally hereditary e.g. repetitive jerky
movement of the shoulder or muscle of the face.

17. Mental Power, Memory and education: Identification based on these points are also helpful in
establishing the identity of person especially in case of imposture.

18. Miscellaneous Methods of Identification: Electrocardiogram or vectocardiogram may be useful

in the identification of individuals as no two cardiograms are alike. DNA fingerprinting and lip prints
are other modern methods of identification. 20

20

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
263732838_Personal_Identification_in_Forensic_Examinations/link/
02e7e53bc172ac3b59000000/download
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CONCLUSION:
Identification is the determination of the individuality of a person. It deals with the recognition and
verification of a person. This process is done in living or dead persons by recognizing or identifying
certain features or characteristics that are unique to that person. Identification also has certain
medicolegal importance in civil or criminal cases. There are a number of sources by which a person
may be identified which includes race, age, sex, stature, complexion, hair, finger-prints, footprints,
anthropometry, personal effects, deformities, scar, handwriting and mannerism. Sex, age and stature
are primary characteristics whereas personal effects, hand prints and footprints, deformities, scar,
handwriting, mannerism come under secondary characteristics which help in complete identification
of an individual.
 18

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

http://epgp.inflibnet.ac.in/epgpdata/uploads/epgp_content/anthropology/
07._forensic_anthropology/20._personal_identification/et/8371_et_et_20.pdf

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
263732838_Personal_Identification_in_Forensic_Examinations/link/
02e7e53bc172ac3b59000000/download

BOOKS:

DR. V.P SINGH,“FORENSIC SCIENCE” “1ST EDITION 2021” ‘PUBLISHED BY: BHARAT LAW HOUSE
PVT.LTD.’