NEGROS ORIENTAL STATE UNIVERSITY

College of Criminal Justice Education

(Main Campus II, Bajumpandan, Dumaguete City)

FORENSIC 2 - PERSONAL
IDENTIFICATION TECHNIQUES

IMPORTANCE OF FINGERPRINTS
Topics for Mid-Term

Instructor: TIRSO C. ALAS-AS, MSCJ

CCJE, Instructor
 Defining Fingerprints:
 The skin surface of any human finger consists of a pattern of
dark lines of ridges along with white lines or valleys between
them. The ridges’ structures changes at points known as
minutiae and can be either bifurcated or of short length or two
ridges can end on a single point.
 These details or patterns are unique in every human being.
The flow of this ridges, their features, the intricate details of
ridges and their sequence is what defines the information for
fingerprint identification.
Fingerprint – is a unique identification of every individual
- Consists of friction ridges and furrows
Friction Ridges – involves core and delta
- The basic formation of fingerprint
Core – is the approximate center of the fingerprint pattern
- to find the core you need to find the innermost recurving
ridge
Delta – is a point on the first ridge formation found at or directly
infront of and nearest the center of the divergence of the type
lines.
Recurving Ridge – is one flows in one side of the print and then
does a recurve of U-turn and flows back out the same side of the
print.
Furrows – the other name is valleys or white lines between ridges.
- the uniqueness of a fingerprint can be determined by the
pattern of ridges and furrows.
Sir Henry Faulds – the father of Fingerprint
Dactyloscopy – The study of fingerprint identification
Ridgeology – The study of the uniqueness of friction ridge
structures and their use for personal identification.
Dactylography – The identification of fingerprint
The Importance of Fingerprints
Fingerprint as a system of identification is a relatively new
science. Although fingerprints have been used for over two
thousand years, the present practical means of classifying and
filing them for quick reference was perfected.
Many people mistakenly believe that fingerprints are
primarily a device to catch criminals rather than a means by
which to identify them after they are caught.
 Most persons thought of fingerprinting solely in terms of its
use in the detection and apprehension of criminals. This is only
one of its very numerous uses.
Newer and greater demands have been made for
application of this science and the demand is still growing. The
versatile fingerprint is now in daily use for the identification of
unidentified dead persons whose bodies lie in morgues.
 Fingerprints thus taken have identified thousands of
persons who, otherwise, would have been buried in unmarked
graves.
Experts assigned to Bureaus of missing persons take the
prints of all unidentified dead, forward them to the National
Bureau of Investigation, where identity is established, if
corresponding records are on file.
 Another important government use of fingerprints might be
made in connection with the issuance of passports,. Passports
often have been forged or otherwise tampered with. Signatures
can be forged or altered and so can the personal descriptions and
photographs altered or substituted.
Only the infallible fingerprint is unchangeable, permanent,
fool-proof and positive method of identification.
 In the educational field, fingerprints of candidates for
examinations, degrees and certificates, would prevent with
absolute certainty the fraudulent transfer of diplomas and
certificates, and impersonation at the time of examination would
be rendered impossible.
No mix-up, no confusion of identities is possible when
fingerprints are on record.
 The reliability, simplicity, accuracy and speed of the
fingerprint system have convinced commercial and industrial
leaders of its value, so that today fingerprinting is used in
railroad companies, express companies, banks, insurance
companies, hotels, department stores, mercantile houses, and in
defense plants.
 Discharge employees could not obtain re-employment in the
same company by a mere change of name; undesirable and those
with criminal records are screened out; reduction of the
possibility of sabotage are made possible by the use of
fingerprints.
It makes no difference whether a company is large or small,
whether its operations are simple or highly complex, if positive
identification is required, fingerprinting is the only system which
can be relied on.
 Banks have great need for a method of infallible
identification as do other commercial and industrial companies.
The forger who, with astounding skill, has been able to forge
withdrawals through impersonation, now finds it impossible if
confronted with fingerprinting.
Fraudulent withdrawals of funds by unauthorized persons
from the accounts of the illiterate and uneducated have been
made time without much difficulty. Lack of a positive means of
identification has made this possible.
 The Civil Service Commission usually requires the
fingerprints of all candidates for appointment to national,
provincial, city and municipal positions. The way in which the
fingerprint is used in such cases varies, but in all cases it
absolutely prevents impersonation.
There have been instance in which appointments to
positions have been made, in which the appointee had never
even take the examination, but where someone else, for a fee,
had taken the examination under the appointee’s name.
 Fingerprints could also eliminate the great difficulties
probate courts have labored in cases involving wills and
inheritance claims. It would be easy for the party drawing a will
to add the fingerprints of those concerned.
In case of eventual contention of the will, it would be easy
for all rightful claimants to establish their identities and their
rights, beyond dispute. Many persons, especially the wealthy, now
are protecting the interests of their descendants through the
employment of fingerprints.
 Lying-in hospitals and maternity homes use the fingerprint,
foot print and palm print systems to guard against baby-mixups
and substitutions.
Physicians and nurses have been greatly perplexed also by
the complete similarity of twins and triplets. But no matter how
much they look alike, the fingerprints, palm prints and foot prints
of twins, triplets, quadruplets, and quintuplets are NEVER alike.
Methods of Identification
At different periods in his history, man has tried a variety of
methods whereby each could be separated from all his fellows,
but none of these methods of identification was adequate until
fingerprinting was adopted.
Thus, among barbarians and savages, tattooing was greatly
relied on, and still is, in some places. But tattoos can be changed,
they can be duplicated, and they disfigure.
 In 1882, at Paris, France, Alphonse Bertillon became head of
the identification service in the office of the Prefect of Police and
he spread a new system of identification called anthropometry.
This system involved the measurements of certain bony parts of
the human body. It was an improvement over all previous methods
and resulted in numerous successful identifications.
However, it had several disadvantages: It took a long time to
learn the system; it was expensive in application; it could be used
for adults only; it was subject to errors and duplications; not
applicable to children, and it was extremely low.
 What the Bertillon system did was to fill a need between
the crude earlier forms of identification and the accurate
infallible fingerprint system which was to came later.
To his credit, Bertillon was the first to put human
identification on a scientific plane, but his system was not so
good as one destined shortly to supplant it. Today the
fingerprint system has taken the place of the Bertillon
anthropometrical method.
 In addition to physical measurements of the human body,
Bertillon devised and included in his identification system a
method of describing people verbally. This method is known by
the French name of Portrait Parle which means “word picture”.
The Portrait Parle method did find widespread use.
Although the many ramifications of it have been discarded
in most of their details, Bertillon’s portrait parle forms the
foundation of our-present day description of criminals and non-
criminals.
The Fingerprint System
Fingerprint is a reproduction on some smooth surface of the
pattern or design formed by the ridges on the inside of the end
joint of a finger or thumb.
If you press your fingers on some colored matter, then on a
piece of paper, you can see these patterns more clearly. Looking
casually at them you might think that there are duplications, but
when you have learned how to take impressions and interpret the
patterns you’ll very quickly see the differences. Not only does no
one else on earth have the same ridge formations as you, but no
one ever had. Not only that, but no two of your own fingers have
duplicate formations.
 There are no two fingerprints in the world that are exactly
alike. What it means is, of course, that no two fingers, out of all
the millions that have been examined through their prints, have
ever been found to be alike.
This is not a startling fact’ when we consider the source of
the ridges and the precise biological facts behind them. Nature
never duplicates anything in all its details. Nature does provide
SIMILAR things, but not IDENTICAL things.
 Consider the leaves of trees, the mango, for example. One
leaf, looked at casually, seems much like another mango leaf. But
critically examined as to its details, you will find differences. If
you put it under a microscope, these differences become even
more noticeable and numerous. Even the two halves of the same
leaf, although similar, are not identical.
Under a microscope, two wings of an insect, two blades of
grass that have grown side by side are not identical. Even in the
space of man-made products, the machine-produced articles will
show differences on critical examination. So it is not astounding
that differences exist in fingerprint.
 Throughout the entire field of science the fact of VARIATION
is well known, accepted, and relied upon. The natural law of
variation is an established fact, apparent in fingerprint science as
in all other sciences. There are, “doubles” among men, some of
whom seem to be exact doubles in everything EXCEPT THEIR
FINGERPRINTS.
Thus, fingerprinting is accepted as the only infallible
method of identification.
 There are numerous sets of prints of twins, triplets,
quadruplets, and even quintuplets. None of these fingerprints is
identical to any other one, yet if fingerprints ever were to be
identical, we could surely expect to find them in them.
Even more startling proof of this factor of variation is found
in the fingerprints of Siamese twins, joined together since birth.
 Can fingerprints be changed or obliterated by the use of
corrosive acids or by plastic surgery? YES! Can they be changed to
be exactly like mine or yours or else’s?NO!
If, after using an abrasive or resorting to plastic surgery, the
papillary ridges come back at all, they will be exactly as before.
 If the skin is injured sufficiently deep, the papillary ridges
will not come back at all. What better identification than that
you could ask for? Such a person would be marked for life.
Certain diseases like leprosy affect the papillary ridges on
the fingers and toes. In the final stages of these diseases, the
ridges may be destroyed entirely. Such cases are extremely rare.
Can fingerprints be successfully forged? NO!
What Is the History of Fingerprinting?
According to the U.S. Marshals Service, one of the earliest
uses of fingerprinting for purposes of identification dates to
ancient Babylon, about 4,300 years ago, when merchants used
fingerprints on clay tablets to finalize business transactions.
The first use of fingerprints for forensic purposes in police
investigations dates to 1892, when Juan Vucetich, an Argentine
police official, used fingerprints to identify a criminal for the first
time.
 Ancient cultures in China, Persia, Greece, Egypt and Rome
used fingerprints to establish identity for many purposes,
including as makers’ marks on pottery, as decorations, to sign
business contracts and to make loans between specific
individuals.
They did not use fingerprints to identify an unknown
individual in the general population. Legal records show that
during the Qin dynasty, which lasted from 221 to 206 B.C., the
Chinese gathered hand prints, foot prints and fingerprints as
evidence at a crime scene.
 Over the next several centuries, scientists and other
researchers studied fingerprints for purposes of developing a
taxonomy of types and patterns. The data were useful in many
disciplines and proved to investigators that fingerprints were
unique and could be used to establish identity to a certainty.
Sir Francis Galton is credited with identifying characteristics
of fingerprints that are still used by criminal investigators as of
2014. Forensic use of fingerprints spread rapidly during the 20th
century, and by 1971 the FBI had 200 million fingerprint cards on
file. These became the database for the Automated Fingerprint
Identification System.
 Historical Overview and Scientific Foundation of Fingerprint
Identification
650 A.D. – The earliest known use of fingerprints for identification was
in China. Prints were placed on contracts to provide a positive means
of identification.
1685 Marcello Malphighi – A professor at the University of Bologna,
Italy used a microscope for the first time to examine friction skin and
made observations as to its culture.
1788 – One of the earliest recordings supporting the uniqueness of
fingerprints was found in a medical book of on human anatomical
illustrations by Dr. J. C. A. Mayer.
1823 – Dr. J.E. Purkinje, a Czech Physiologist and Professor of
Anatomy at the University at Breslau published a research paper
where he classified the fingerprint patterns into nine groupings and
many for the rules of this classification are followed today.
1856-1897 – Hermann Welcker, a German anthropologist at the
University of Halle conducted the first study into the permanence of
the details of friction ridges. The study took 34 years.
Late 1800’s – Sir William Herschel of England observed that
fingerprints were unique and unchanging.
1880 – Dr. Henry Faulds, a medical doctor and scientific
researcher of Scottish descent, stated that fingerprints found at
crime scenes, such as prints in blood, could be used to identify
criminals. He also made observations of the uniqueness and
permanence of fingerprints.
1883 – The personal identification system of Anthropometry was
developed by Alphonse Bertillon.
1890’s – Sir Francis Galton, a noted scientist and anthropologist,
who specialized in genetics, human heredity, and biological
variation, wrote the first book on fingerprints, entitled Finger
Prints. It was published in England, in 1892. His text recorded his
research into the fact that friction skin is unique and permanent.
1892 – Juan Vucetich, while serving as the head of an
identification bureau in Argentina introduced bloody prints into
evidence during a double murder trial in 1892. This was the first
case in which crime scene prints were presented as evidence and
it resulted in a conviction.
1897 – Sir Edward Henry developed a fingerprint classification
system for the storage and retrieval of complete sets of
fingerprints.
1904 – The first fingerprint identification bureaus in the United
States were established.
1907 – The United States Navy began using fingerprints to
established positive identification of service members.
1918 – Dr. Harris Wilder and Bret Wentworth published the
textbook entitled, Personal Identification. They stated that
friction skin are unique.
1924 – The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) established the
FBI Identification Bureau with 810,000 inked fingerprint cards.
1943 – Dr. Harold Cummings and Charles Midlo, both a professors of
Anatomy at Tulane University, authored the text, Fingerprints,
Palms and Soles.Their text details that all areas of friction skin are
unique and permanent.
1952 – Dr. Alfred Hale, published his scientific research into the
formation of friction skin, which explained differential growth, the
random of friction skin, which explained differential growth, the
random formation of the ridges that show uniqueness.
1970’s – The first automated fingerprint identification systems
(AFIS) were developed. By the mid 1980’s, AFIS were well
established in law enforcement agencies throughout the world.
1976 – Dr. Michio Okajima published a research that providing
additional confirmation on how friction skin is formed.
1980 to present – Dr. William Babler of Marquette University has
studied the formation of friction skin and he testified that all
areas of friction skin, including individual ridge units, are unique.
How Does Fingerprinting Work?
In fingerprint work we always record what are
known as rolled impressions and plain impressions on
the standard fingerprint cards.
A plain impression is one made by pressing an
inked finger directly down upon a fingerprint card
without any rolling motion whatsoever. It will record
only the center portion of the friction ridge pattern.
 A rolled impression is one made by rolling an inked finger
from one side of the finger nail to the other. It will record the
entire ridge pattern of the nail joint of the finger.
Fingerprinting uses digital scanning technology to take an
imprint of a person's fingerprints. The most common form of
fingerprinting is rolled fingerprints. This type of
fingerprinting requires the person to thoroughly clean his finger
and roll it on an ink pad before rolling it on a prepared card.
 When fingerprinted, a person uses alcohol to clean
the fingerprint area. The finger is placed on an ink pad
and rolled to ensure ink covers the entire area.
Then the person rolls his finger across a prepared
card, usually at a 45-degree angle, leaving a fingerprint .
 More and more, government agencies and businesses
use digital fingerprint scanners. These scanners do not
require ink.
A person places his finger on an optical or silicon
fingerprint reader and the reader converts the
information into a data pattern. The computer can map
the fingerprint to help identify a person.
 Law enforcement and other agencies use fingerprints
as a way of identifying a person. They use the scanned
fingerprints in a database that compares them to others.
No two people have the same fingerprints. Although
using fingerprints as a method of identification since
ancient times, law enforcement did not begin using it as
a way of identifying criminals until the 19th century.
When Did Fingerprinting Start?
On July 28, 1999, the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation
launched the Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification
System, or IAFIS. It is a national fingerprint and criminal history
system that contains data on 70 million subjects in the criminal
master file.
It also contains more than 34 million civil prints. These civil
entries are typically from the U.S. military or those who have had
federal employment.
What is AFIS?
A computerized system capable of reading, classifying,
matching and storing fingerprints for criminal justice agencies.
Quality latent fingerprints are entered into the AFIS for a search
for possible matches against the state maintained databases for
fingerprint records to help established the identity of unknown
deceased, person of suspects in a criminal case. In 2014,
approximately 55 million prints on file that will provide 10-12
possible matches.
 Data includes not only fingerprints, but also criminal
histories, physical characteristics, mug shots, aliases and
scar/tattoo photos.
All data is voluntarily submitted by state, local and
federal law enforcement agencies.
What Is DNA Fingerprinting?
DNA fingerprinting is a forensic process that involves
extracting DNA from the nucleus of cells and comparing the
tiny differences between DNA found on evidence and any
suspects. The technique uses results to prove whether people are
guilty or innocent.
Since the same DNA is found in each cell of the human body,
DNA fingerprinting can include skin, hair or even cheek cells found
in saliva. Innovators seek ways to speed up this process and use
less DNA.
 DNA fingerprinting is a chemical test that shows the genetic
makeup of a person or other living things. It’s used as evidence in
courts, to identify bodies, track down blood relatives, and to look
for cures for disease.
 DNA is short for deoxyribonucleic acid, which is inside of
every cell in your body. It’s a chain of chemical compounds that
join together to form permanent blueprints for life.
These compounds are called bases, and there are 4 of them.
They pair up with another to form what are called base pairs. Your
DNA has about 3 billion of these couples. The way they’re strung
together tells your cells how to make copies of each other.
 The complete set of your compounds is known as a genome.
More than 99.9 % of everyone’s genome is exactly alike (100% if
you are identical twins). But the tiny bit that’s not is what makes
you physically and mentally different from someone else.
DNA fingerprinting uses chemicals to separate strands of
DNA and reveal the unique parts of your genome. The results show
up as a pattern of stripes that can be matched against other
samples.
Uses of DNA Fingerprinting
Since it was invented in 1984, DNA fingerprinting most often
has been used in court cases and legal matters. It can:
Physically connect a piece of evidence to a person or rule
out someone as a suspect. Show who your parents, siblings, and
other relatives may be. Identify a dead body that’s too old or
damaged to be recognizable.
 DNA fingerprinting is extremely accurate. Most countries
now keep DNA records on file in much the same way police keep
copies of actual fingerprints. It also has medical uses. It can:
Match tissues of organ donors with those of people who need
transplants. Identify diseases that are passed down through your
family. Help find cures for those diseases, called hereditary
conditions.
Fingerprint Test
To get your DNA fingerprint, you would give a sample of
cells from your body. This can come from a swab inside your 
mouth, from your skin, the roots of your hair, or your saliva,
sweat, or other body fluids. Blood is usually the easiest way. Lab
workers treat the sample with chemicals to separate the DNA,
which is then dissolved in water.
 
 While DNA fingerprinted was initially developed in the early
1980s, the first time the technique was used to catch a criminal
was in 1987. Starting in 1989, DNA fingerprinting has since
exonerated many people through the Innocence Project.
The older method used for DNA fingerprinting was
restriction fragment length polymorphism, which required a lot of
DNA, but a newer method called microsatellite analysis allowed
scientists to analysis DNA with a limited amount of genetic
material.
 Deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, is a long molecule in the
form of a double helix that exists in the cells of life. The
molecule carries the instructions needed for cells to reproduce,
develop and function.
Almost each person's DNA is unique like a fingerprint with
the only exception being identical twins.
How Do You Obtain DNA for DNA Fingerprinting?
To obtain DNA for DNA fingerprinting, a sample of cells
from skin, hair, blood, saliva or semen is collected. 
The white blood cells from the sample are broken open
using detergent, and then the usable DNA is separated from all
the other cellular material. Subsequently, the extracted DNA is
cut into smaller pieces using restriction enzymes.
 Restriction enzymes cut the DNA at a specific sequence,
which produces either blunt or sticky ends, resulting in many
fragments of different length, called restriction fragments length
polymorphisms, or RFLPs.
The RFLPs are put into agarose gel and are then sorted
according to size, using gel electrophoresis. When the current is
turned on in the electric field, the negatively charged RFLPs move
across the gel towards the positive end. The smaller fragments
move further across the gel than the larger ones.
 An alkali causes the hydrogen bonds to break and the DNA
to become single-stranded, resulting in the nucleotides becoming
free.
These free nucleotides are used to pair up with probes. The
agarose gel is then covered by a piece of nylon. Thin paper towels
are used to absorb the moisture from the gel. The DNA fragments
slowly get transferred to the surface of the nylon in a process
called blotting.
 Radioactive probes are then washed over the nylon surface.
These probes join with DNA fragments that share the same
composition. Finally, a photographic film is placed on the nylon.
The probes mark on the film, at the places where they connected
with the RFLPs.
On developing the film, dark bands that represent the length
of the hybridized RFLPs are found. The DNA fingerprints of two
people can then be compared by placing the film on a light
surface and analysing the difference in the lengths of the RFLPs.
DNA Fingerprinting Methods
Up through 1984, the only method of establishing and
authenticating personal identification was by the fingerprint
process.
Since no two humans have been found to have identical
pattern of ridges on their fingers, this method has been
universally accepted as a means of personal identification. What if
you are looking for a set of fingerprints that have not been
classified and put into the world wide computerized system for
fingerprint identification?
 In 1984, Sir Alec Jeffreys at the University of
Leicester in England was able to distinguish differences
among individuals based solely on their DNA composition.
Since this advancement in forensic science was
announced in 1985, there has been tremendous progress
made in the methodology of extracting the DNA samples
from such things as blood, saliva, personal items and in
the identification of human remains.
FINGERPRINT IDENTIFICATION
is the method of identification based on the different
patterns of human fingers, which is actually unique among each
person. It is the most popular way of acquiring details of any
person and is the most easy and convenient way of identifying a
person.
An advantage of fingerprint identification method is that
the fingerprints pattern remains same for a person through out
his/her life, making it an infallible method of human
identification. The study of fingerprint identification is
Dactyloscopy.
 Fingerprint Identification
is the method of identification using the impressions made
by the minute ridge formations or patterns found on the
fingertips.
No two persons have exactly the same arrangement of ridge
patterns, and the patterns of any one individual remain
unchanged throughout life. Fingerprints offer an infallible means
of personal identification. Other personal characteristics may
change, but fingerprints do not.
 Fingerprints can be recorded on a standard fingerprint card
or can be recorded digitally and transmitted electronically to the
FBI for comparison.
By comparing fingerprints at the scene of a crime with the
fingerprint record of suspected persons, officials can establish
absolute proof of the presence of identity of a person.
Where Fingerprints May be Found
Fingerprints can be found on practically any solid surface,
including the human body. Analysts classify fingerprints into three
categories according to the type of surface on which they are
found and whether they are visible or not: Fingerprints on soft
surfaces (such as soap, wax, wet paint, fresh caulk, etc.) are
likely to be three-dimensional plastic prints; those on hard
surfaces are either patent (visible) or latent (invisible) prints.
 Visible prints are formed when blood, dirt, ink, paint, etc.,
is transferred from a finger or thumb to a surface.
Latent prints can be found on a wide variety of surfaces:
smooth or rough, porous (such as paper, cloth or wood) or
nonporous (such as metal, glass or plastic).
Meaning of Latent Prints
- Are impressions left by friction ridge skin on a surface.
Note: Prints may be collected by revealing them with a dusting
of powder and then lifted with a piece of clear tape.
 Latent prints are formed when the body’s natural oils and
sweat on the skin are deposited onto another surface. Latent
prints can be found on a variety of surfaces; however, they are
not readily visible and detection often requires the use of
fingerprint powders, chemical reagents or alternate light sources.
Generally speaking, the smoother and less porous a surface
is, the greater the potential that any latent prints present can be
found and developed.
 How Fingerprints are Collected
Collecting Patent Prints
Patent prints are collected using a fairly straightforward
method: photography. These prints are photographed in high
resolution with a forensic measurement scale in the image for
reference.
Investigators can improve the quality of the images by using
low-angle or alternate light sources and/or certain chemicals or
dyes during photograph.
Collecting Latent Prints
One of the most common methods for discovering and
collecting latent fingerprints is by dusting a smooth or nonporous
surface with fingerprint powder (black granular, aluminum flake,
black magnetic, etc.).
If any prints appear, they are photographed as mentioned
above and then lifted from the surface with clear adhesive tape.
The lifting tape is then placed on a latent lift card to preserve the
print.
 However, fingerprint powders can contaminate the
evidence and ruin the opportunity to perform other techniques
that could turn up a hidden print or additional information.
Therefore, investigators may examine the area with an
alternate light source or apply cyanoacrylate (super glue) before
using powders.
The (3) major patterns of Fingerprint
1.)Arches – An arch has friction ridges that enter on the other side
of the finger and cross to the other side while rising upwards in
the middle. They do not have typelines, deltas or cores. 5% of the
worldwide population has lops type of fingerprint.
There are two sub-types of arch patterns
Plain arch – No Delta or Core present
- In this pattern a consistency of flow can be observed. It starts on one side of the finger
and the ridge then slightly cascades upward. This almost resembles a wave out on the ocean
and then the arch continues its journey along the finger to the other side.
 The plain arch pattern is the simplest of the fingerprints to discern.
 A pattern shows a smooth rise in the center and a gentle upward curve.
Tented Arch – Has a delta in the center
- The similarity between this pattern and the plain arch is that it starts on
one side of the finger and flows out to the other side in a similar pattern.
However, the difference is that the tented arch lies in the ridges in the
centre and is not continuous like the plain arch.
 They have significant up thrusts in the ridges near the middle that arrange
themselves on both sides of an axis. The adjoining ridges converge towards
this axis and thus appear to form tents.
2.) Loops - The ridges make a backward turn in loops but they do not twist.
This backward turn or loop is distinguished by how the loop flows on the hand
and not by how the loop flows on the card where the imprint is taken. This
imprint on the fingerprint is similar to the reverse image that we see when we
look at ourselves in the mirror. A loop pattern has only one delta.
-These can be seen in almost 60 to 65% of the fingerprints that are
encountered.
There are two sub-types of Loops
Ulnar loops – The loop basically opens towards right or the ulna
bone (little finger)
- These are named after a bone in the forearm called ulna.
This bone is on the same side as the little finger and the flow of
this pattern runs from the thumb towards the little finger of the
hand.
Radial Loops – When the open end of the loop ridges points in
the direction of the thumb side of either the right or left hand.
3.) Whorls - Some of the ridges in a whorl make a turn through at least one
circuit. Therefore any pattern that contains two or more deltas will be a
whorl.
-These can be found in about 25 to 35% of the fingerprints that are
encountered.
  - A circuit of whorl can be circular, spiral, oval, or any other variant of a
circle.
There are four sub-types of Whorl:
Plain whorl - The ridges in these whorls make a turn of one
complete circuit with two deltas and are therefore circular or
spiral in shape. This is the simplest form of whorl and also the
most common.
Central pocket loop whorl - These whorls consist of at least one re-curving ridge or an
obstruction at right angles to the line of flow with two deltas and if an imaginary line is
drawn in between then no re-curving ridge within the pattern area will be touched or cut.
 These whorl ridges make one complete circuit and may be oval, circular, spiral or any
variant of a circle.
 It is a pattern which for the most part looks like a loop, but which has a small whorl
inside the loop ridges.
Double Loop whorls – It has two distinct and separate shoulders for each
core, two deltas and one or more ridges that make a complete circuit.
 Consists of two separate loop formations.
 There are two deltas in each double loop whorl.
 Because of the presence of two loops in each of these patterns, these are
sometime called as composite patterns.
Accidental Whorl – Whorls containing ridges that match the characteristics
of a particular whorl sub-grouping.
 A pattern consisting of a combination of two or more types of pattern
 A pattern which possesses of two or more different types, except a plain
arch, with two or more deltas.
Composite Whorl– It is a combination of two or more than two
pattern
- only 1-2 % of all fingerprints are composite