I.D. No.

: ADCLFS83_21
Name of the Candidate: Varsha Amul Bansode
Name of the Subject: INTRODUCTION TO FORENSIC SCIENCE & FORENSIC PHYSICAL
SCIENCES
Total number of pages:

SECTION A
Q.1) Write a detailed note on the classification of fingerprints and explain its application in forensic science.
Describe Henry system of fingerprint classification.

Introduction

Over a century has passed since fingerprints became the industry standard for forensic personal identifica-
tion. In order to identify an individual, it is typically essential to apply fingerprints as a tool to identify their
distinctiveness. In most cases, the hands, a person's primary bodily component, are required to carry out all
criminal acts. Throughout a person's life, their fingerprints remain unchanged and are of a permanent nature.

Since fingerprints are universal in nature, everyone has access to them as a form of identification. Any time a
criminal uses his hands to carry out a crime, he or she leaves markings on the scene of the crime or any ob-
jects that come into touch with his hands at that time. Therefore, there is a probability that fingerprints will
be left behind in any crime, and these imprints serve as proof that the individual who committed the crime
could well be traced.

In light of the scientific breakthrough of DNA fingerprints, fingerprints have remained the industry standard
for personal identification in the forensic domain for more than a century. In innumerable incidents of seri-
ous crime, fingerprints have served as crucial evidence. Criminals attempt to hide evidence that is readily
available to them when committing a crime. However, fingerprints are something that cannot be readily cov-
ered up, so they are crucial in helping to solve crimes.

Human fingerprints are irreplaceable, challenging to modify, and lasting over the course of an individual's
life, making them suited as permanent identifiers of Human Identity. They leave an imprint on everything
they touch and cannot be undone. Police and other officials can easily identify those concealing their identi-
ties using fingerprints, as well as the incapacitated or deceased, like in the case of a natural disaster. Without
prints, there wouldn't be any evidence at a crime scene that could be preserved for a long time.

The Significance Of Fingerprints

It took some time for the judiciary and general population to acknowledge the relevance of fingerprints as a
scientific tool, however this has since become universally accepted. The following characteristics of a finger-
print as evidence have a substantial function:

Unique: The papillary ridges on the fingers, which have intricate patterns that differ from one another, make
them unique. The patterns that are discovered don't only differ from one person to the next; rather, they are
distinct and specific to each person. There has never been evidence of, or anticipation of, pattern duplication.

Permanent: Because fingerprints are permanent, they remain the same throughout the course of a person's
life. The ridges on the fingers begin to form before birth, around the third or fourth month of pregnancy.
Even a person's fingerprints are left behind after death, up until the epidermal layer, the outermost layer of
skin, is destroyed by fire, insects, putrefaction, or any other living thing. Apparently removing the epidermal
layer through surgery is not an option, and neither is destroying the ridges through rubbing, cutting, or burn-
ing. Every person is given a unique identity card based on their fingerprints.

Universal: Since universal fingerprints are a universal kind of identification, everyone has them. Any crime
that a criminal does leaves markings on the site of the crime or any item that the criminal comes into touch
with while performing the crime because the criminal uses his hands. Consequently, there is a risk that fin-
gerprints will be there in any crime. Many perpetrators conceal their fingerprints when committing crimes by
wearing gloves, which makes them harder to catch.

Inimitable: Fingerprints cannot be imitated, since they are unique. Although attempts have been made, no
successful fingerprint forgeries have been documented to date. The investigating officer and specialists can
identify this; scientific progress can bring counterfeiting even closer to perfection, yet full success is quite
challenging.
Classifiable: Since each person has a unique pattern of ridges on their skin, each person's fingerprints can be
easily classified. It is possible to categorise and retrieve records for countless millions of people as needed.

Fingerprints' Nature And Categorization

Friction ridges are seen on the palmar surfaces of the hands and feet. The elevated areas of the skin are repre-
sented by these ridges. Epidermal ridges are what these are characterised. There are several patterns created
by the various paths that these ridges take. The fingerprints were made by these markings, too.

In a fingerprint, distinct ridges create diverse lengths, forms, turnings, joinings, bifurcations, etc., and these
combinations can be combined in practically endless ways. Every single finger has an unique pattern.

Based on their overall forms, these patterns have been grouped into several categories, including:
The Henry System was developed in India and is utilised throughout the majority of the world.
Germany is where the Roschler System was invented.
In South America, this is referred as the Vucetich System.

Approximately 60–65 percent of the population have loop patterns, 25–35 percent have whorls, about 6–7
percent have arches, and about 1-2 percent have composites, according to the Henry System, which is
adopted in India. The whorls, loops, and arches can be concentric, spiral, double spiral, almond-shaped, or
exceptional. The loops is either ulnar or radial.

A perpetrator likely touches several items while committing a crime, and those items are likely to have fin-
gerprints on them that might have been collected during an investigation. In order to identify the location
where he individually touched it during commission of the crime, the investigating officer must reconstruct
the crime scene while envisioning himself as the perpetrator. He must take care to avoid leaving his finger-
prints on any of the items and try to preserve other evidence while doing this.

The procedure for acquiring fingerprints discovered at crime scenes

Primarily, the goal of fingerprint collection is to identifying the suspect, witness, or accused. It is important
to look for fingerprints methodically, which means thoroughly inspecting the suspicious region. Latent,
Patent, and Impressed fingerprints are the three broad categories used to describe the fingerprints that were
discovered at the scene of the incident. An optical magnifier aids in evaluating the quality of fingerprints.
The Polylight System makes it easy to search for fingerprints since it emits radiation in the form of powerful
beams that go from UV to IR. Even this apparatus is mobile and versatile.

Since latent fingerprints cannot be seen with the naked eye, powders are a great way to produce these prints.
The perspiration and oil on the skin's surface produced this print. There are several different powders that are
used, including grey for surfaces with dark colours, black for surfaces with light backgrounds, fluorescent
powder for surfaces with multiple colours, and metallic powders like aluminium, copper, brass, gold, and an-
timony for special surfaces and most often when there are sticky surfaces with fingerprints. Other methods
that aid in acquiring latent fingerprints include chemical methods, laser development, and the fuming of io-
dine, cyanoacrylate, and metallic vapours.

People can see patent fingerprints since they can be created by any touch with blood, oil, dirt, or ink. The
process of pressing fingers on tar, soap, wax, or any other fresh liquid results in imprinted fingerprints, which
are also visible to the unaided eye. These are imprints in three dimensions.

Identification Of Prisoners Act, 1920 – Statutory Recognition Of Fingerprints In India

This act's primary goal is to give legal authorisation for the collection of measures pertaining to fingerprints,
footprints, and pictures of the individual who is allegedly or potentially guilty of any crime. Before the im-
plementation of this Act, it was illegal to take finger prints of known or suspected criminals. However, it has
since verified the dimensions and finger imprints outlined in S.3.
It states that anybody guilty of an offence that carries a sentence of severe imprisonment for a period of one
year or more must submit to having their measures assessed by a police officer. Finger impressions are
sometimes included in the terminology measurements. The Act also mandates that measurements be elimi-
nated upon release or conviction by any court.

According to S.4 of the Act, everyone who has been convicted for a crime that has a mandatory minimum
sentence of one year of solitary confinement or longer must consent to having his measurements taken.

As per S.5, the magistrate has the authority to order anybody to permit measurements for the duration of the
inquiry.

The Indian Evidence Act of 1872

Because of the significance of fingerprints—which are distinct, permanent, universal, unimpeachable, and
classifiable—lawmakers recognised their legal significance and regarded them as reliable evidence. Finger-
prints are acknowledged as a legitimate kind of evidence under the provisions of the Indian Evidence Act,
1872.

The Right Against Self Incrimination and Fingerprints

The policy of Self Incrimination is one of the primary governing concerns with fingerprints. It is debatable
whether taking a suspect's finger prints constitutes self-incrimination.

One of the most fundamental safeguards in criminal proceedings is the privilege against self-incrimination.
For two reasons: first, to ensure the veracity of the statements an accused makes, and second, to confirm that
the statements an accused makes are voluntary. The likelihood of an accused or suspect being coerced or
threatened during an investigative process is considerable, and when someone is coerced to testify, the likeli-
hood that he will provide a false account is increased. False testimony causes a miscarriage of justice by de-
ceiving judges and even the prosecutor.

This right is a crucial defence against torture, and the "Right against Self-Incrimination" is a crucial precau-
tion to make sure the prosecution executes its duty to prove the allegations brought against the prisoner over
the course of the trial.

The majority of the court ruled that the Constitution's framers never meant to obstruct any efficient or suc-
cessful investigations that may bring criminals to justice and instead originally meant to safeguard an alleged
perpetrator from self-incrimination. Likewise, the Indian Evidence Act's Section 73 and the Identification of
Prisoners Act's Sections 5 and 6 both enable the collection of thumbprints and handwritings, and the papers
so obtained do not constitute personal testimony and are not governed by Article 20.

Furthermore, it was stated that providing finger prints, sample handwriting, palm prints, or exposing any
body part do not qualify as "being a witness." Fingerprints may be taken even before the Constitution was
put into effect. Of course, one may argue that fingerprinting violates a person's right to privacy. Moreover,
when a person is asked to provide his fingerprints or a sample of his handwriting by a court or other author-
ity, he is not providing any information relevant to a personal testimony. This individual's testimony is de-
pendent on choice. An accused individual may provide any statement or even refuse to give one, but he or
she cannot dispute providing prints and writing samples.

Henry System for Classifying Fingerprints

The preliminary approach created by Edward Richard Henry in 1896 has been modified to become the prin-
cipal categorization scheme for fingerprints. Unfortunately, it was only able to handle files with up to
100,000 print sets before it got too laborious. The FBI further altered the algorithm by adding more exten-
sions, but the first categorization phase remains largely unchanged.
A 10-finger categorization method is the main one. Therefore, it should be applied while both hands' prints
are present. The world's fingerprints might be classified into 1,024 groups using this technique.
Each hand's finger is assigned a unique number. The fingers of the right hand are numbered from one to five,
beginning with the right thumb. They are numbered 6 through 10 on the left hand, beginning with the thumb.
As an instance, the left middle finger is numbered 8, while the right ring finger is numbered 4.

The precise finger and the print pattern are used for classification. Only if each finger has a whorl design is it
assigned a value. The finger is assigned a value of zero if it has an arch or loop. If a finger has a whorl, not
all fingers are valued equally. The value assigned to a finger with a whorl design is shown in the accompany-
ing chart.

As per the Henry Classification System, each finger is given a number based on where it is on the hand,
starting with the right thumb at 1 and concluding with the left pinky at 10. The system also gives each of the
fingers with a whorl pattern a numerical value; fingers 1 and 2 are each given a value of 16, fingers 3 and 4
are given a value of 8, fingers 5 and 6 are given a value of 4, and fingers 7 and 8 are given a value of 2. The
final two fingers are given a value of 1.

The value of a finger with a loop or arch design, for instance, is zero. The numerator of a fraction is then
filled with the sum of the even finger values. The denominator is the total of the odd finger values. Each
whorl sum is given a value of 1, with a maximum value of 32 on either side of the fraction. As a result, the
primary categorization is a fraction between 1/1 and 32/32, where 1/1 denotes the absence of whorl patterns
and 32/32 denotes the presence of whorl patterns on all fingers.

The total of the values for fingers 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 is increased by +1. The sum of the values for fingers 1, 3,
5, 7 and 9 is increased by one. The denominator is the odd-numbered finger value, while the numerator is the
even-numbered finger value. A 1/1 main categorization is present in around 25% of the population. This in-
dicates that they either contain only loops, only arches, or both loops and arches.

Conclusion

A century ago, the science of fingerprinting was discovered. One of the fundamental benefits of fingerprints
is that they can rapidly and effortlessly confirm a person's identification, enabling further inquiry. The fin-
gerprint evidence has been acknowledged as a trustworthy piece of evidence. Additionally, they do not alter
and are everlasting. The courts should only ever come to a conclusion after deliberation or after conferring
with an expert.

The court should be meticulous enough to carefully consider the expert's reasoning before confirming finger-
prints. The court is able to reach a verdict about the facts owing to these practical insights. These opinions
serve as a guide for the courts in drawing conclusions, but in the end, the judge must exercise his or her own
legal judgement to the matters at hand. Over the course of the year, fingerprints were extremely important in
identifying the guilty and punishing them.

According to Code Of Criminal Procedure, 1973 S. 293, the Director of the Forensic Bureau's report could
be used as evidence. Essentially, the purpose of this part is to avoid time-wasting assessments. Nevertheless,
the court has the authority to call the report's submitter if specific concerns are raised by the report.

According to S. 45, the court will accept the judgement of experts in that domain when deciding a legal issue
involving foreign law, science or art, handwriting, or finger impressions. The phrase "finger imprint" was
initially left out of the section. The term "finger imprint" was introduced by the Amendment Act of 1899.
According to S. 73, the court may order anybody in attendance to provide his fingerprints if the same are
considered necessary for comparison with the fingerprints under scrutiny by the court.
Q.3) What are the various steps in crime scene reconstruction? Discuss the methods of searching and record-
ing a crime scene.

Introduction
The process of reconstructing a crime scene begins with the development of a theory as to how it happened.
Then, that hypothesis is clarified and put to the test using deductive reasoning. Top-down logic, often known
as deductive reasoning, moves from the general to the specific. "All men are mortal" is a very well example.
Man Socrates is. As a result, Socrates is mortal. The hypothesis is then put to the test by investigating the
scene's evidence utilising meticulous documentation and forensic science.

But it goes farther than that. Interviews with prospective witnesses, surviving victims, and their relatives are
all part of this dynamic, always evolving process. Finding the most accurate portrayal of what transpired and
how it happened frequently requires navigating through a maze of deceit and trickery as new evidence
emerges.

Crime Scene Reconstruction

Reconstructing a crime scene for forensic analysis is the procedure of establishing  what happened before,
during, and after a crime. Through the analysis of physical evidence, scene patterns, and pattern classifica-
tion, crime scenes can be rebuilt. If local, state, or federal law enforcement organisations need help recon-
structing a crime scene. Blood spatter interpretation, trajectory and gunshot reconstruction, accident recon-
struction, and sexual assault reconstruction are a few instances of the various reconstruction categories.

All scene photographs, the outcomes of the autopsy, and physical evidence are essential for proper recon-
struction. Furthermore, keep a record, take measurements, and do sketches. Any reconstruction is only as ac-
curate as the relevant data. Without being able to reconstruct every detail of the events (for a variety of rea-
sons), reconstructing some of them can still be very helpful to the investigation and potential future prosecu-
tion of the incident.

The Procedure

The victim or perpetrators are the focal point of any recreation of a crime scene. Interviews with the victim,
if surviving, and those who were associated with or were close to the victim, if deceased, are required. Their
background, but also their state of mind and physical condition, are all carefully analyzed. It's crucial to con-
sider pictures of the actual crime scene and meticulously note where each item is located. Investigators must
approach crime scenes with an open mind and without changing them. Investigators must start a reconstruc-
tion by asking a few profound questions, such as:

• What occurred?
• What locality was it?
• How did it take place?
• What time did it occur?
• Who were engaged?
• Why did it take place?

The fact that physical evidence always tells a narrative is taken into account by the investigator when they
weigh these considerations alongside forensic evidence and potential motives.

Kinds of Reconstruction

• Reconstruction of a Particular Situation (Traffic Accident, Homicide, Bombing, etc.).

• Recreating a Certain Event (Sequence, Direction, Condition, Relation, Identity).
• Restoration of Particular Physical Evidence (Firearms, Blood, Glass etc.).

Any provided scenario could be reconstructable in full or in part, and the reconstruction might involve multi-
ple approaches (i.e. both trajectory and blood stain pattern reconstruction to locate the position of the victim).
Reconstruction works better in certain scenarios than others. Reconstructing scenes from traffic accidents is
widespread and typically results in accurate reconstructions. Because of their size and compliance with the
laws of motion, vehicles frequently leave a trail of physical evidence before, during, and after collisions. It
could be conceivable to depict the complete course of events, starting with the moment the cars arrive at the
scene of the collision and ending with the moment they come to rest.

Scenes with people moving around are more challenging. While a person's location in the scene at various
moments in time could be identified, their movement through the area cannot be anticipated. Without leaving
any specific traces behind, people can move slowly, swiftly, reluctantly, leap up and down, sprint, skip, tum-
ble down, etc. Despite this, there are sporadic situations in which the quantity and nature of the physical data
does provide some degree of precision in tracking the players' movements; nevertheless, the whims of facial
expression, gestures, and body language are just hard to recreate at all.

Information Required for Reconstruction

In general, it is preferable to arrive at the scene as soon as possible after the occurrence. Physical evidence,
witness accounts, and other specialists' reports are all potential sources of information. All incident photo-
graphs, photos from the autopsy procedure, measurements, sketches, notes, reports, and other pieces of evi-
dence must be examined by the reconstructionist. It is crucial to document the scene completely and accu-
rately. The length and width of a bloodstain, as well as the height and vertical and horizontal angles of bul-
lets into a wall, may all be included in the reconstruction, depending on the kind being done.

RECONSTRUCTION STAGES

Reconstruction is regarded as a method for acquiring facts in science.

Reconstruction often entails a series of events that serve as the prelude to criminal reconstruction. The five
distinct steps that are frequently employed in the reconstruction process are as follows:

Collection of the data: any and all information or documentation retrieved from the victim, witnesses, or the
crime scene. Analysis, organisation, and study of data that includes victim state, evidence condition, clear
patterns and impressions, etc.

Conjecture: Before conducting a thorough investigation of the available evidence, one may construct a the-
ory or conjecture concerning the sequence of events leading up to a criminal act. However, this theory or
conjecture should not be the only one taken into consideration at this time. Only a possibility exists. There
can be a few other reasons as well.

Hypothesis formulation: subsequent data gathering is following a review of the concrete evidence and ongo-
ing research. It is crucial to study the physical evidence and examine the scene. The evaluation of bloodstain
and imprint patterns, gunshot patterns, fingerprint evidence, and analysis of trace evidence are all included in
the scene and evidence assessment. This procedure results in the creation of a hypothesis, which is an author-
itative prediction about the most likely sequence of events.

Testing: After a hypothesis is formed, additional testing is necessary to support or refute the broad interpreta-
tion or particular elements of the hypothesis. This stage involves doing chemical, microscopical, and other
evaluations and tests on samples that were taken at the scene in comparison to established standards and alibi
samples. To support the reconstruction theory, controlled testing or trial of potential physical activity is
needed.

Theory progression: Additional information concerning the victim's or suspect's health, the participants' ac-
tions, the veracity of eyewitness statements, and other details about the events' conditions may come to light
throughout the course of the inquiry. Testing and attempting to prove the theory must take into account all
the verifiable investigation information, physical evidence analysis and interpretation, and experimental out-
comes. It may be thought of as a plausible idea if it has been extensively examined and proven through anal-
ysis.

Prerequisites FOR RECONSTRUCTIONS FOLLOWING THE RELEASE OF A CRIME SCENE

It is important to thoroughly review all applicable crime scene photos, autopsy reports and photos, scene
videotapes, measurements, notes, crime scene reports, and laboratory results of physical evidence testing. It
is ideal to attend the crime scene as soon as possible and make immediate observations of the area and any
trends. It's also crucial to capture a scenario completely and accurately. The best chance for subsequent re-
construction study will come from a direct inspection of the physical evidence to look for any kind of dam-
age, stains, or conditions.

It is important to realise that full reconstructions are frequently impossible. Partial reconstructions, on the
other hand, may be very helpful for the case investigation since they allow for the re-creation of some facts
or features of the events without necessarily allowing for the re-creation of all of them. Reconstruction-de-
rived information frequently contributes to the successful conclusion of a case. Investigators and laboratory
staff must collaborate and work together to document every significant aspect of a scene, perform physical
evidence analysis, conduct a thorough and objective investigation of a case, and share all the information
needed for reconstruction. This also applies to medical examiner staff in death cases. Crime scene investiga-
tion and reconstruction must always be conducted using a team approach paradigm.

Methods of searching and recording a crime scene.

Any site involved with a crime is referred to as a crime scene. Physical evidence that is relevant to a
criminal inquiry can be found at crime scenes. Crime Scene Investigation and law enforcement col-
lect this evidence. A crime scene can be a physical location where the crime occurred or a location
that has evidence from the crime. Scenes aren't always limited to a single location; they can also in-
clude a person, a place, or an object connected to criminal activity.

The safeguarding of the crime scene is the most crucial element of evidence collecting and preser-
vation. This is done to protect the relevant evidence from contamination until it can be documented
and gathered. The condition of the physical evidence at the time it is gathered may have an impact
on the prosecution of a case. The scene is protected from harm as soon as the first police officer ar-
rives on the scene and terminates when the scene is removed from police control.

The following sections can be found at a crime scene:

· Entry Point

· Exit Point

· Line of Approach

· Retrench or actual scene line

Importance of Crime scene

The importance of a crime scene investigation is to help determine what happened and who is re-
sponsible. This is accomplished by meticulously documenting the circumstances at a crime scene.
In addition, by recognising all relevant physical evidence. The ability to recognise and collect phys-
ical evidence appropriately can be crucial in both solving and sentencing violent crimes. The inves-
tigator who saves and examines a crime scene is crucial in determining whether or not real evidence
will be used in the investigation or prosecution of violent crimes.

Documentation of crime scene settings can involve noting transient facts such as if the lights are on
or off, whether the drapes are open or closed, the weather, or whether medical teams have moved
any furniture. Few evidence, such as boot prints or gunshot residue, is fragile and can easily be de-
stroyed or lost if not collected soon. The investigation's scope also includes analyses of potential ar-
guments in this instance, such as suicide or self-defense, as well as documentation of circumstances
that might support or deny these claims.

Protecting the crime scene

Protecting the crime scene is the most crucial component of evidence collecting and preservation.
This is done in order to keep the relevant evidence clean until it could be captured and collected.
The status of forensic evidence at the moment it is acquired can make or break a case's execution.
The scene is protected from the moment the first law enforcement officer arrives on the scene until
the scene is removed from police custody.

The condition of the doors, windows, and lighting or any odours present; any indications of activity;
how EMS or fire personnel have changed the scene; anything crucial about the accused (descrip-
tion, statements, physical condition, mental condition, intoxication, etc. ); and anything essential
about the victim. The scene, as well as any other places that may offer useful evidence (driveways,
adjoining yards, pathways, etc.), must be roped off once it has been stabilised to prevent unautho-
rised people from accessing and potentially contaminating it.

Investigators and other needed staff should be notified and deployed to the scene; however, the
phone at the scene should never be utilised. After the policeman has secured the area, he or she may
undertake one of the following things: Separate witnesses and suspects; do not discuss the events or
the crimes with eyewitnesses or witnesses or let the observers discuss these events; listen intently
but quietly; and protect evidence that may be in danger of being destroyed. The investigators should
be informed of any steps taken.

Preservation of crime scene

Those in charge of acquiring and collecting evidence should make evidence preservation a primary
priority. Both which was before and post-collection evidence are covered by evidence-gathering
protocols. Evidence may be tainted or destroyed if it is not properly kept prior to collection. Evi-
dence may deteriorate if it is not prepared by this method and stored before forensic investigation or
testing, damaging or depreciating it as an information source.

Taking steps to preserve the crime scene and ensure the preservation of proof and traces by pro-
hibiting anyone from entering the area before the investigative team arrives.

Securing the crime scene

Securing the Crime Scene First respondents should ensure the safety of all those present at the
crime scene as well as the proof's integrity. When first responders arrive at the scene, they should
establish the victim’s gadgets, networks, and so on, as well as draw a perimeter around the incident.

The following are some of the best procedures for securing a crime scene:

• Secure all electronic devices, as well as personal or moveable devices

• Verify any information related to the offence

• Remove all persons from the crime scene or the world containing proof

• Do not allow a person to access the scene or electronic devices

• Verify the type of incident

• Protect and preserve the proof that is in danger of being lost

• Protect destructible knowledge physically and electronically such as that gadget containing irre-
versible knowledge is safeguarded, documented, and photographed.

The best possible way for ensuring that an investigation is properly done and justice has been done
is scientific crime scene investigation. While using this approach, an inconclusive investigation
won't end abruptly, and the physical evidence retrieved from crime sites can be used to its fullest
potential.
SECTION B

Q.4) Explain the methods of analysis of gunshot residues from shooting hands and targets.

Introduction

Introduction

Gunshot residue (GSR) is a significant piece of evidence that can be utilised in ballistic investiga-
tions to determine factors including firing distance, firearm type, and ammunition used. To get the
information from the evidence, nevertheless, appropriate methodologies and techniques are pre-
ferred due to the little quantity of GSR that may be recovered at crime scenes. Evidence recovery is
another name for this operation. When a firearm is shot, soot or other particles are released from
any aperture of the weapon and dropped nearby.

Relying on the firing range, GSR particles might well be discovered on the shooter's hands, within
the victim's body, or even some distance from the point of impact. GSR particles can be discovered
on the shooter's body and on his clothing in suicide incidents. The weapon's chamber, barrel, and
barrel outside may potentially contain GSR particles. The air may also include GSR particles.

Gunshot Residue-GSR

After firing, firearms leave behind a variety of residues, such as substances from the primer, explo-
sive, oxidizers, reducing agents, sensitizers, fuels, and binders. These substances are frequently re-
ferred to together as "gunshot residue" (GSR). The term "GSR" in modern forensic practice espe-
cially refers to particle residues that are produced by substances contained in the primer, such as
metal oxides. This difference is frequently expressed by the term "primer discharge residue." The
primer ignites the propellant. The organic gunshot residue is produced as the propellant burns and
produces the gas that propels the bullet out (OGSR).

The shooter's hands get both the GSR and the OGSR. The secondary transfer is the term that de-
scribes the process of transferring particles to neighbouring objects or clothes. It might be difficult
to interpret analytical data, whether they are positive or negative, due to the likelihood of secondary
transfer and environmental interferences. Due to the additional information, it contains from a
source of evidence that is not subject to secondary transfer, the interpretation of OGSR might in-
crease the probative value of GSR evidence.
Primer residues are the primary focus of current laboratory-based forensic analytical techniques that
examine gunshot residue. The chemical components of a typical primer are lead styphnate (the ini-
tiator), antimony sulphide (the fuel), and barium nitrate (the oxidizer), and they mix violently to ig-
nite the gunpowder in a cartridge. Metal stubs covered with carbon tape can be used to collect the
lead, antimony, and barium-containing small particles that are created as the priming components
evaporate and condense.

Integrating scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with x-ray spectroscopy—typically energy disper-
sive x-ray spectroscopy—allows researchers to detect the presence of GSR on a stub (EDS). Find-
able particles having a smooth, rounded shape and the appropriate size range can be found using the
SEM. EDS recognises particles comprising the three target metals and assesses the chemical com-
position.

Why it is important?

Gunshot residue (GSR) on a suspect's clothes is a prime determinant of whether a witness's evi-
dence will be acknowledged or disregarded in court. Conclusive identification becomes an impor-
tant subject in forensic analysis in order to meet the court's requirements. Consequently, since many
years ago, the research on GSR has been crucial in forensic testing. An assessment of the shooting
range is one of the crucial events involving gunshot fatalities, such as suicide, homicide, or uninten-
tional firing.

In fact, the link between the victim's distance from the gun when shot and the accompanying soot
pattern on the victim's clothing could greatly assist in the investigation of a crime scene. Due to the
intricacy of the shooting process, including factors like distance and firearm type, the pattern and
density of GSR vary. According to the distance from the fired cannon, the estimated number of par-
ticles, the mutual proportions of the GSR chemical classes, and the size of the GSR particle on the
sample's fabric changed.

GSR is typically fired from a gun's muzzle in a fairly rough pattern, and the bigger particles will
travel farther through air resistance than the smaller ones before coming to a stop on the test fabric.
Furthermore, only the heaviest particles, such as grains of burned and unburned propellant, reach
the target as firing distances increase. Consequently, a distinctive soot pattern may aid in identifying
the fired gun due to the unique GSR patterns, sizes, and amounts that varied according to the kind
of weapon.

As a result, the study explored the video spectrum comparator's (VSC) potential as a simplified tool
for viewing the pattern distribution of GSR. The powerful VSC imaging equipment is used to scan
the GSR particles. Two essential elements of VSC are the spot light source and signal integration,
which facilitate the detection and capture of even weak luminescence in the infrared part of the
spectrum. Similarly, with minimal handling of the evidence required, VSC can identify and capture
the burned imprint left by gunshot powder on dark clothes.

How samples are collected for GSR evaluation.

It is easy to practise collecting samples for GSR analysis. Primarily, a thin acetate band is fixed to a
1 cm wide strip of double-sided sticky tape. The sticky surface may be easily manipulated thanks to
the acetate band. To guarantee that any GSR particles that may be concealed in the skin folds or in-
side the hair follicles are revealed, the skin should be stretched as much as practicable throughout
sample collection. Even though the adhesive has lost its tackiness, it is still vital to cover the tested
area at least three times. Though there is no longer any evident adhesiveness, the adhesive is fairly
soft and granules can still be driven into the surface. For the analysis of the evidence, it is also cru-
cial to be consistent in the amount of times the region is covered.

When a gun is fired, a large amount of debris also leaves the muzzle in addition to the projectile.
These gunshot residues (GSR) may contain a variety of primer residues, projectile residues, and in-
complete combustion and partially burnt gunpowder particles. Examining and analysing GSR on
pieces of evidence can help determine whether a hole or other flaw is compatible with having been
produced by a gunshot (or other firearm-related projectiles). Once at the Laboratory, the Firearms
Division can assess GSR patterns on items of evidence to ascertain the range from the muzzle to the
target.

Furthermore, touching a weapon, discharged ammunition components, or coming into contact with
another object that has GSR on it can all result in the transmission of GSR to a person. The exis-
tence of GSR on a person could reveal crucial details associating that person to an action that could
have exposed them to this residue. As a very basic guideline, if a person is still capable of moving
around after four to eight hours, it is improbable that residues will still be there unless special pre-
cautions have been taken to preserve the evidence (e.g. bagging the hands).

On some points of interest, such as the dead, clothing, or other immovable things, the residue might
linger for prolonged periods of time. Numerous factors must be considered, and the choice to take a
sample should be based on the information provided for the investigation. The crime scene investi-
gators will gather samples for an outside laboratory to analyse since the Laboratory does not do this
kind of examination. A list of independent laboratories that would perform this test for a fee is pro-
vided from the Laboratory.

GSR distribution patterns

Shooting distance is a crucial factor that must be taken into account during ballistic examinations.
To examine the pattern distribution and dispersion of GSR particles at close ranges, many series of
experiments were conducted. External elements like wind and shooting angles were taken out to re-
duce the number of parameters that influence the pattern distribution of GSR. VSC is a good tool to
analyse the sample without destroying the evidence because there are only small samples of evi-
dence at actual crime scenes. The results showed that each firearm's soot and GSR dispersion pat-
terns are distinct, despite the fact that this experimental investigation was only able to use a single
brand of ammunition.

The GSR particles reached the target and created blackening or sooting at close range of firing dis-
tances. It appears that using different firearms, diverse patterns of blackening soot zone were cre-
ated surrounding the bullet entry. The pattern of soot produced by the revolver revealed the thick-
ness of the soot as a result of the target's proximity to the cloud of residues that was released well
before the bullet.

Conclusion

The findings from the research could well be extended to retrieving evidence in actual case investi-
gations. In this analysis, this was established using a visual approach that used VSC that various
pattern distributions created by various weapons revealed a plethora of information, including soot
and length of distribution as well as numbers of GSR particles generated. This study reveals how
different each firearm's shooting test is. As a corollary, it aids the investigators in deriving shot dis-
tances and assessing the used firearms.
Q.5) What is the importance of glass as evidence in forensic science?
Introduction
The transfer evidence that is most usually discovered at crime scenes is glass. The majority of the
time, it appears in burglary, hit-and-run, gunshot, housebreaking, theft, etc. scenarios. Broken glass
is quickly transferred to things and people present at the crime scene, making it feasible to associate
a suspect to the incident, the items, and the people there. Glass analysis primarily entails categoris-
ing, separating, and individualising the glass evidence. Identification is yet another term for classifi-
cation. It is crucial to pinpoint the precise source of each evidence sample since many sources of ev-
idence samples might well be found at the very same crime scene.

After categorization, discrimination is being used to exclude evidence that does not fit the prove-
nance. The procedure of individualization indicates that each sample is distinct from others in its
class. Each evidence sample has distinctive qualities that set it apart from the class of evidence, ac-
cording to the law of uniqueness. Glass individualization could only be accomplished by physical
matching. Glass evidence may well be uniquely identified by physically comparing known broken
sample fragments with the sample under investigation, which rules out all other origins. If a physi-
cal match cannot be established, alternative analytical techniques are used. Comparing different
physical qualities, optical properties, and elemental analysis methods are some other methods used
in the forensic study of glass.

Importance of glass as evidence in forensic science

Glass increasingly provides a major contribution to our routine, everyday lives. The most frequent
type of glass found at crime scenes is broken and shattered. Glass fractures and shatters during the
conduct of the crime into shards or into tiny particles that serve as trace evidence and may give a
substantial lead for the investigation. It's plausible that either a deliberate or unintended act caused
the glass to break.

Fractography, or the study of glass cracks, is of utmost relevance for forensic purposes since it may
deliver critical information and inspire a variety of evaluations to look into the case, particularly in
shooting situations when a firearm is involved. A glass pane with several cracks also has a good
chance of supporting an investigation. Air guns are being utilized in various situations due to their
ease of accessibility. It has been established that air guns have been used in a number of incidents.

For the investigation of various crimes, including burglary, arson, hit-and-run incidents, gunshot,
and assault, glass or glass pieces serve as tangible evidence of tremendous value. The phrase "Trace
Evidence" refers to a wide range of physical evidences.

The examination of glass fracture has long been a topic of curiosity to the forensic community since
it allows the investigators to discover a variety of factors, including the source of the fracture, the
direction of the impact, and the angle of the impact. The analysis of surface fracture to find the
cause of such fracture is termed as “fractography.”

Any projectile that strikes the surface of the glass experiences stretching and compression, such as a
bullet or stone. The breaking of the glass occurs when the tensile stress limit is reached. T he reper-
cussions of the stone or bullet results in two distinct types of fractures referred as radial and concen-
tric (also known as spiral) fractures. Cone fracture is the term for the crater-shaped hole that forms
as the high-velocity projectile pierces the glass pane. You can see the cone's appearance at the hole's
broad exit side.

The form of the chip pattern (also known as the mist zone) surrounding the hole in this instance in-
dicates the direction of impact. Additional phenomenon that could be seen in the broken glass pane
include mirror zones, stress markings, and hackle marks. These frequently provide the investigators
a lot of assistance when looking into a range of crimes.

Trends and observations can help identify the type of weapon that might be crucial to a forensic in-
quiry. It can quickly tell the difference between the fracture pattern produced by an air rifle and a
standard weapon.

Determining the sequence of the shootings:

By taking into account the termination sites of the radial fracture, an investigator can determine the
order of the shots. Radial fractures caused by the initial shot will completely expand, however those
caused by subsequent bullets will halt or cut off when they come into touch with existing fractures.

Glass analysis is essential in a variety of ways. Glass shards at a crime scene must always be re-
trieved and examined since they provide many hints about what actually transpired during the
crime. At a hit-and-run accident scene, headlight glass fragments might provide information about
the offending car. Additionally, the direction in which the initial gunshot was fired through the glass
may well be established by the police using glass pieces. Even the tiniest glass particles can provide
these hints when they are analysed.

The background of forensic investigation of glass evidence

Wide variety of glass evidence, notably tiny glass shards, shattered glass, window panes, headlights,
etc., can be found at the crime scene. Every piece of glass has a unique composition, which is sig-
nificant for the forensic investigation of glass. Glass could shatter in so many varying forms, and
forensic examination can identify the direction in which it has broken. Early forensic analysis meth-
ods include physical, microscopic, and elemental methods.

Physical examination: The very first step in any glass study is to identify the glass using its physical
and optical characteristics, such as its hardness, isotropism, and amorphous structure. Physical ob-
servations such as colour, surface characteristics, fluorescence, and sample glass thickness are made
during the early phases of examination. Physical inspection is crucial in the process of comparing
the questioned sample with the glass evidence collected from a crime scene.

Measurement of density and refractive index are common techniques that were initially used to
glass examination. To estimate density, the majority of forensic science laboratories use the sink-
float method. This technique involves dropping a piece of glass under investigation into a liquid so-
lution of bromobenzene and bromoform. The glass fragment would neutrally float in the liquid mix-
ture if the density of the glass and the density of the liquid mixture are the same. This approach has
significant drawbacks, hence an alternate density determination method based on Stoke's law was
developed.

The preliminary study of surface characteristics of glass shards is done using microscopic methods.
For this, both stereo- and light-microscopes are usually applied. It is possible to see the layers of
glass shatter using light microscopes. Glass pieces are first visually inspected using fibre optic light,
and then they are studied using a stereo microscope.
The confirmatory investigation for establishing the chemical texture of glass evidence is elemental
analysis. Destructive processes make up the majority of elemental analyses. Atomic absorption
spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), inductive coupled plasma spectroscopy (ICP),
and neutron activation analysis are a few instances of techniques used in elemental analysis. They
were mainly applied during the initial phases of glass analysis.

Conclusion

Glass has been utilised as evidence in criminalistics for more than a century, and its evidential value
is constantly rising. Breakthroughs in the detection of physical matching, physical and optical at-
tributes, and elemental analysis have changed the face of glass forensic investigation. In the present
era, forensic glass analysis has evolved to the next level and will strive to do so in the years to
come.