MODULE 1

Overview of Personal Identification

Personal identification is the process of establishing the identity of an individual
(Tanuj & Krishan, 2013) whether living or dead. It refers to the branches of science like
pathology, genetics, biology, anthropology, physics, odontology unite to derive objective
source of identification.
In this field of study, it highlights the establishment of identity which refers to the
set of physical characteristics, functional or psychic, normal of pathological, that defines
an individual. In connection with, the science of criminalistics has a vital role in
studying the identity of a person. Therefore, it requires the application of the principles
of various sciences in solving problems in connection with the administration of justice.
It is in this event that Dr. Paul Kirk was recognized as the father of criminalistics in
US.
Big fours of personal identification (features of tentative identification) are
determination of:
1. Age
2. Sex
3. Stature
4. Ethnicity
The principal approach towards identification process is by estimating and
detecting characters of the remains that may narrow down the pool of matches.
Objective: To link an unknown body to a known identity.
Approaches:
1. Two sets of evidence have possible origin from the same individual.
2. Two sets of evidence have no possible origin from the same individual.
3. Insufficient information to prove origin.
Stages of Identification:
1. Technique that leads to positive identification
There is positive identification when the match is sufficient to conclude the common
origin of the same individual.
2. Identification by limiting probable matches to the individual

Importance of Personal Identification in Criminal Investigation

Criminal investigation. It is the collection of facts to accomplish the three-fold-

aims – to identify the guilty party; to locate the guilty party; and to provide evidence of
his (suspect) guilt or innocence (Criminal Investigation Manual, 2011).
 The need for personal identification arises in natural mass disasters like
earthquakes, tsunamis, landslides, floods etc., and in man-made disasters such as
terrorist attacks, bomb blasts, mass murders, and in cases when the body is highly
decomposed or dismembered to deliberately conceal the identity of the individual (Tanuj
Kanchan, Kewal Krishan, 2013).
In the field of law enforcement proper identification of the offender and the
victims is a basic rule to consider in the investigation is very important in the
administration of justice. In this aspect they are identified through trace evidence such
as bloodstains, hair, foot/shoe print, fingerprint, bitemarks etc. The identification of
perpetrators contributes to the prosecution of cases.

The Personal Identification Techniques and its Applied Procedures

Criminal Anthropometry

The Anthropometry (Bertillon System) as an identification technique was

developed in late 19th century which is known as Bertillon’s measurement of criminal
man. It is the first scientific method of identification done by measuring various bony
structure of the human body devised by Alphonse Bertillon.

Alphonse Bertillon (Father of Scientific Identification)

Around 1870 a French anthropologist devised a system to measure and records

the dimensions of certain bony parts of the body. These measurements were reduced to
a formula which, theoretically, would apply only to one person and would not change
during his/her adult life. This Bertillon System named after its inventor, Alphonse
Bertillon, was generally accepted for thirty years.
In 1903, Bertillon System never recovered, when a man named Will West was
sentenced to the U.S Penitentiary at Leavenworth, Kansas. There was already a
prisoner at the penitentiary at the time whose Bertillon measurements were nearly
exact, and his name was William West. Upon investigation, there were indeed two men.
They looked exactly the alike but were allegedly not related. Their names were Will and
William West respectively. Their Bertillon measurements were close to identify them as
the same person. However, a fingerprint comparison quickly identified them as two
different people. The West men, it was later discovered were identical twin brothers.

Criminal Anthropology

Anthropological criminology (criminal anthropology) is a combination of the study

of the human species and the study of criminals. It is a field of offender profiling, based
on perceived links between the nature of a crime and the personality or physical
appearance of the offender.
Criminal Anthropology is considered as a positivist approach to criminology by
Cesare Lombroso, an Italian criminologist and psychiatrist. It emphasized on “born
criminal” or criminal type saying that criminals had certain physical characteristics (e.g.,
sloping forehead, large ears) that distinguished them from non-criminals. It is the study
of the being who, in consequence of physical conformation, hereditary taint, or
surrounding of vice, poverty, and ill example, yields to temptation and begins a career of
crime. It is to study the anatomy, the physiology, the hygiene of the criminal, his
productivity, his capability of amendment, to examine into his condition, and to
recognize his rights.
The mid 1800s saw the rise of Darwinism which suggested that humans evolved
from animals through a process of evolution. Darwinism inspired the field of
Anthropological Criminology which suggests criminals are less evolve than others and
can’t’ control their urge to commit crimes. This idea, called atavism, says criminal come
from a group of humans who regressed in evolutionary advancement.
The origin of Criminal Anthropology had been noted in 1885 when the First
International Congress of Criminology was held in Rome. Cesare Lombroso’s
anthropological theory of crime assumes that crime is genetic in nature. Lombroso
assumes that this is an atavistic type of criminal (Wickert 2020). Lombroso published
the results of his investigation in his main work “L’Uomo Delinquente” (The Criminal
Man), first published in 1876. Numerous illustrations illustrate his research work. Certain
body characteristics and skull shapes are associated with certain types of criminal and
crimes. The influence of evolutionary biology on Lombroso’s work is evident in the
conviction that the criminal represents a distinct anthropological type, the “homo
delinquents”. This type of atavistic, that is, a former and more primitive type of human
being who has regressed in evolution, who is immoral and driven by instincts. He is
lazy, insensitive to pain, vain, has cross-eyes, a preference for tattoos, a receding
forehead, a small brain, uses “crooked language” and so on.
Lombroso developed the theory that there were physical traits that linked
criminals to inferior animals on the evolutionary chain. He considered most of their traits
a ‘throwback’ to an earlier evolutionary time, some of these traits were:
1. Taller or shorter than average
2. Longer arms
3. Asymmetry of the face
4. Bumps or protrusions around the head
5. Tattoos on body
6. Sloping forehead

Forensic Anthropology

Origin of the word Anthropology

1. It is first coined by Aristotle, the Greek Philosopher.
2. Etymologically, anthropology is derived from two Greek words ‘anthros’ means
‘human’ and ‘logos’ means ‘study’,
3. Anthropology is understood as Greek Anthropos, meaning man, logy meaning to
speak of, or study of
Charles Darwin. He published his groundbreaking On the Origin of Species and
discussed how natural selection shaped human (and the other animal) evolution and
development.
What is Forensic Anthropology?
Forensic anthropology is the application of the science of physical or biological
anthropology to the legal process.
It is the application of anthropology to criminal investigations.
It involves diverse applications of anthropological knowledge to medico-legal
problems.
It focused on the recovery and analysis of human remains.
What is the role of an anthropologist?
Anthropologists assist in identification primarily by constructing a biological
profile. This includes estimating the age, sex, stature, and ancestry, as well as
identifying specific characteristics, like diseases or injuries. In addition to helping identify
human remains, the anthropologist analyzes injuries that happen around the time of a
person’s death, which can help determine how a person died.

Current Methods of Forensic Anthropology

1. Sex Determination
Sex determination is considered as the first step in establishing a
biological profile. It pertains to the identification and evaluation of characteristics
that show differences between male and female. Sex is primarily determined by
reproductive organs and hormones, secondly by muscles and distribution of hair
and lastly by physiological differences of skeleton like the pelvic bone and skull.
2. Age Determination
The determination of age is important in confirming the correct identity
during mass disaster when numbers of possible matches are greater.
Determining age in children and young people depends on morphological
methods such as radiological examinations of skeletal and dental growth. In
adults, age determination is difficult.
3. Ancestry Determination
Race is referred to a population, but in biological sense the term ancestry
is preferred by anthropologist. From the skeletal features and geographical
location, anthropologist place humans broadly into three major biologic divisions:
1. European (Caucasoid)
2. African (Negroid)
3. Asian (Mongoloid)
Racial differences in the skeleton are the best determined from
examination of the skull. The long bones of the extremities can also be helpful.
People under the same ancestry share certain features but vary a lot within
population. This population differences are studied, and database is created.
Recognition and identification of this physical features leads to the determination
of race. Race can be known by measuring, observing, and analyzing the bones
of individual’s face and skull. Race can be determined through nasal shape and
height, orbital shape, jaw width, dental arch, ratios of long bones, etc.

4. Stature Determination

Stature is a variable which is largely controlled by genetics. Numerous

studies related the fact that diet and health have significant impact on height of
an individual. Stature is highly correlated with the measurements of body. As
mentioned, because of differences in body size and shape, anthropologist used a
population specific formula to calculate height if sex and ancestry is known. If sex
and ancestry of unknown could not be determined, the anthropologist use
generalized formula with greater uncertainty.
Stature can be measured from various body parts such as long bones of
upper and lower extremities, arm span, shoulder length, cephalic-facial
dimensions etc. using radiological or non-radiological techniques.

Odontology

Relevant History
The history of forensic odontology is written in the bible as it depicts the
scenario in the Garden of Eden. Bringing back the story of Adam and Eve where
the latter convinced Adam to put a bite mark in apple. Therefore, the history of
bite mark evidence (forensic dentistry) began with eating of forbidden fruit in the
Garden of Eden (Balachander, 2015)

Dentist as an expert testimony in courts

A professor, a physician of Harvard University Dr. George Parkman in the
period of 18th century, in addition he was also a real estate speculator and money
lender who failed to return from dinner on November 23 rd, 1849. A suspicion was
made on John White Webster as it was known that he owned some amount of
money from Dr. Parkman. When his laboratory was searched, remains of the
human body were found. Dr. Parkman’s dentist, Dr. Nathen Cooley Keep
identified Dr. Parkman body, by his teeth as a part of upper and lower denture to
the models and showed that grinding adjustments of the lower denture that he
had made for Dr. Parkman. Dr. Webster was found guilty and hanged over. This
was the first case of a dentist in giving an expert testimony in courts of United
States.

Dental Forensics to Death Sentences

Delhi gang rape case. In the history of India, criminal prosecution was
attained using dental forensics in providing evidence leading to death sentences.
Comparison was made on the arrangement of the teeth with the bite mark left on
the victim. According to the dental expert the photographs of bite mark seen on
the victim and structure of the dentition of the accused proved with some
accuracy. Six were arrested and among the five accused, two of the dentitions
matched with a bite mark (Voelker, 2020).

Dr. Oscar Amoedo. He is considered as the Father of Forensic

Odontology who studied at New York Dental College. A delegate to the
International Dental Congress in Paris in 1890 and became a dental instructor
and teacher in Paris and wrote 120 scientific articles. He is the first to write a
comprehensive book on forensic odontology (Voelker, M. A., 2020)
The first use of Forensic Odontology was on May 4, 1897, wherein a mass
forensic identification by dentition was first used at Paris, in the aftermath of the
fire of the Bazaar de la Charite that began around 16:00 h in the afternoon. There
were 1200 people were in the bazaar at the time.

Forensic Odontology

Forensic odontology is the application of dental science to legal

investigation, primarily involving the identification of the offender by comparing
dental records to a bite mark left on the victim or at the scene, or identification of
human remains based on dental records. It is the study and practice of aspects
of dentistry that are relevant to legal problems. (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2009).

Forensic dentists are responsible for six main areas of practice:

Identification of found human remains
Identification in mass fatalities
Assessment of bite mark injuries
Assessment of cases of abuse (child, spousal, elder)
Civil cases involving malpractice
Age estimation

Bite marks are often found on children who are abused, in a fight between
two persons, sexual assault, homosexual activities and rape.
Forensic dentists assist in crime solving by studying teeth and teeth
impressions. Dental records are often used to identify people. Because teeth are
one of the hardest substances in the human body, they are frequently well
preserved. Dental x-rays or records showing filings, position of the teeth, etc. can
help the forensic dentists find a match of teeth to individual. Eighty percent of the
time teeth impressions are used to identify unknown victims.

Three Areas in the Modern Forensic Odontology (Balachander, et.al., 2015)

 1. Evaluation and examination of injuries to the jaws, oral tissues and to teeth
resulting from various causes.
2. Examination of marks to possible identification or subsequent elimination of a
suspect as the predator.
3. Examination of fragments or complete dental remains (including all types of
dental restoration) to a possible identification of the latter.

PHOTOGRAPHY

Photography originated from a Greek word “PHOTOS” meaning “LIGHT” and

“GRAPHOS” which means “WRITE”. In 1851, forensic photography was established in
Belgium and in 1870’s it became an advance technology.
Forensic photography includes methods of photographing the scenes of the
crime, searches, investigatory experimentation, living persons, corpses, documents,
weapons used in crimes, traces of substance, and similar evidence. It makes use of
both recording and investigative techniques.
Forensic photography – sometimes referred to as police photography, forensic
imaging, or crime scene photography. Is the art of producing an accurate reproducing
an accurate reproduction of a crime scene or an accident using photography for the
benefit of a court or to aid in an investigation.
Photography is useful to assess an object’s position and location and its
relationship with respect to other objects which is difficult or impossible to explain in its
entirety. Photographs of the crime scene were able to furnish the desired explanation
for many cases. Today, forensic photography is used to help prosecute a crime
because the photography can capture things such as evidence that can’t physically be
collected. Photos are also useful to capture evidence that possesses time restraints. For
example, the shape of a bloodstain will often change over time.

Procedure in Taking Photographs

a. Overall photos of the scene are taken to show the approach to the area, street
signs, and streetlight locations in relation to the actual scene, street addresses
and identifying objects at the scene. Pictures should also be taken every room in
the house, even if their relationship to the crime scene is not readily apparent.
b. Photograph the scene in a clockwise pattern before altering the body’s position
or any other evidence within the scene. Photograph the scene from the least 2
opposite corners, but from all four corners is even better. This way, nothing is
missed or hidden from view by intervening objects.
c. Photograph the body and the immediate vicinity around the body. If you have a
camera boom, take pictures from ceiling height down of the victim and any other
evidence. This perspective often shows things missed when viewed from ground
or eye level.
d. Keep a photo log
 Forensic photography is an indispensable tool in modern forensic
odonatological protocol which aids in investigative procedures, maintenance of
archival data, and to provide evidence that can supplement medico legal issues
in court. Proper selection and implementation of the appropriate photography and
computer equipment combined with necessary training and correct workflow
patterns make incorporating photography into the field of forensics, an easily
obtainable goal. The role of the forensic photographer is crucial, as a good skill in
photography with updated knowledge of the mechanics and techniques involved
is required for proper documentation of evidence (Gouse et al., 2018).

Use of special imaging techniques: alternate light sources such as lasers,

blue or green lights, and colored filters should be used to detect fingerprints, bite
marks, and footprints.

Steps in Photographic Documentation

1. Secure the scene. In all forensic investigations, the first step is to
secure the crime scene.
2. Evaluate conditions. Photographer should evaluate the available light
and weather conditions and adjust the camera settings appropriately.
Crime scenes vary therefore no single camera setting will work for all
crime scenes.
3. Shoot the scene. Take photograph before anything is disturbed,
progressively working through the scene from outside to close-up
pictures. Many shots should be taken from the entire scene to medium
should be taken from the entire scene to medium shots to show the
relationship of evidence to the overall scene.
4. Photograph the victims. Photograph the victims if present to show
locations injuries and conditions.
5. Photograph the evidence. Each piece of evidence should be
photographed to illustrate where it was found. This establishes the
relationship of the evidence to the victim, the size and without a scale.
6. Evidence markers. Photographs should be taken before evidence
markers are placed, then again after. These initial shots are important
to prove that no one has tampered with the crime scene.
7. Re-shoot for new evidence. If investigators mark new evidence, the
whole series of shots should be repeated, including all evidence shots.
8. Shoot fast. Sometimes environmental factors such as rain, snow, or
traffic can make conditions difficult for photography. He must work
quickly to capture much visual documentation as possible from a
deteriorating scene.
9. Photograph the victim later. If the victim must be moved or requires
treatment, the photographer can go back to document victim’s injuries.
 Special lighting and colored filters can be used to highlight injuries and
healing status.

Preparation of Photograph for Court Exhibit

Photograph for court exhibit vary depending on what case being heard. In trial
preparation and case review, scene and autopsy photographs and reports are
investigated which are necessary for conviction and post-conviction appeals.
Existing documents must be photographed and enlarged before use as exhibit in
court. It should bear proper notations and arrows to illustrate what is being presented for
the clear understanding of those who have interest in the case. The enlarged
photograph paves way for interaction between witness or lawyers which allow more
effective connection with the court in presenting strategy in the case.

Iris Recognition
Iris recognition is one of the most important biometric recognition methods
because the iris texture provides many features such as freckles, coronas, stripes,
furrows, crypts, etc. Those features are unique for different people and distinguishable
which make it possible the differentiation among individuals (Shideh & Salarian, 2019).
It is the process of identifying people by the pattern of their irises through the use of
software and cameras designed to specifically collect iris images.
Iris recognition or iris scanning is the process of using visible and near-infrared
light to take a high-contrast photograph of a person’s iris. It is a form of biometric
technology in the same category as face recognition and fingerprinting.
DNA Fingerprinting
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) Profiling
The analysis of the DNA is known as the most powerful tool for human
identification because of its application in identity testing and parentage determination
(De Ungria, 2003). The development of forensic DNA technology had shown great
relevance in the administration of justice. The use of DNA technology has gained
acceptance in the field of forensic and life sciences, and courts in the USA, Europe and
Asia have availed of DNA evidence in deciding cases. There is no reason, then, why
DNA proof, when relevant under our Rules on Evidence, should be treated differently in
the Philippines (Vilches, 2002).
DNA in sexual assault cases
According to De Ungria (2003), the application of DNA in sexual assault
examines the transfer of biological material, between assailant and victim. The best
biological samples that may be used as DNA evidence are those obtained from the
victim and her clothing worn at the time of the assault. Sperm DNA is generally stable
up to 72 hours in the female reproductive organs, provided that the victim does not
bathe or wash during this time.
Sources of DNA may come from the.
a. Victim
b. Human handlers such as crime scene investigators, medico legal officers,
forensic analysts and lawyers
c. The perpetrator of the crime.
When do we say that the suspect is excluded as source of evidence?
When there is two or more mismatches between the evidentiary stain and
suspect’s reference sample necessarily excludes him as the source of the evidentiary
sample. The result of mismatches does not mean innocence, somehow it shows that
the suspect is not the source of the evidentiary sample.
When do we say that the suspect as possible source of evidence?
When the reference sample of a suspect is consistent with the DNA profile of the
evidentiary sample, then the suspect remains as a candidate source of the sample.
DNA Fingerprinting
DNA fingerprinting, method of identification that compares fragments of
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) also called DNA typing. DNA is the genetic material found
within the cell nuclei of all living things. In mammals the strands DNA are grouped into
structures called chromosomes. Except for identical twins, the complete DNA of each
individual is unique.
A DNA fingerprint is constructed by first extracting a DNA sample from body
tissue or fluid such as hair, blood, or saliva. DNA (DNA fingerprinting) was invented by
Alec Jeffreys in 1984 at the University of Leicester while studying the human myoglobin
gene. It was originally used to detect the presence of genetic diseases and soon came
to be used in criminal investigations and forensic science. The first criminal conviction
based on DNA evidence in the United States occurred in 1988. In criminal
investigations, DNA fingerprints derived from the evidence collected at the crime scene
are compared to the DNA fingerprints of suspects. The DNA evidence can implicate or
exonerate a suspect.
Uses of DNA Base Pattern Identification
1. Indicate paternity and maternity so it can determine biological parenthood.
2. Determine whether a suspect was at a crime scene. DNA can be found in blood,
hair, skin cells, semen or other genetic evidence left at a crime scene.
3. Determine the identity of a victim.
 4. Used in the diagnosis of inherited disorders because early detection of these
disorders allows the parents and medical staff to prepare for proper treatment of
a child.
Problems in DNA Fingerprinting
The repeating patterns can only present a probability of the DNA match retrieved.
The probability might be 1 in 20 billion, so it is a reasonable match, but unlike a
fingerprint, repeating DNA patterns are not completely unique each person. A
probability might also be 1 to 20 billion, and this would leave a lot of doubt. The
probability values assigned help to determine the chance that the DNA fingerprint
belongs to the person in question. There is also room for error in probing techniques
used to acquired the DNA pattern. This present a problem for court cases because it
could give false results. Unlike fingerprints, there is no way to change the DNA
fingerprint. It cannot altered by any known treatment. It is the same for every cell, tissue
and organ in a person. DNA fingerprinting is also a way of giving a quantitative
assessment to an identification match. This allows for a better idea of the reliability of
the results.

Poroscopy

Poroscopy is a method of personal identification in which the characteristics of

sweat pores on the friction ridge impression of palmar and plantar surfaces are
examined.
Friction ridges over their surfaces bear the small openings known as sweat
pores. The latter are connected to ducts of sweat glands. These pores are also unique
to each individual as per many studies and vary in their shape, size, location, and
frequency over the friction ridges. Poroscopy is a method of personal identification in
which the characteristics of sweat pores on the friction ridge impression of palmar and
plantar surfaces are examined (Sharma et al., 2019).

Father of Poroscopy “Edmond Locard”

POROSCOPY – scientific examination of sweat pores/glands.

Greek words:
Poros – a pore Skopien – to examine

Points to Consider
1. Number of Pores
2. Distance between Pores (Interspacing)
3. Size of Pores
4. Shape of Pores
5. Position of the Pores on the ridge

Podoscopy
 Podoscopy is the study of the plantar area of the food for the purpose of
identification. It is the scientific examination or study of the soles of the feet. “A term
coined by Wentworth and Wilder as a possible word, if ever needed, referring to the
study of the soles.”

PODOSCOPY- scientific examination of the sole of the foot.

Greek words:
Podo – Sole/foot Skopein – to examine

Podoscopy is life-size assessment of foot load using the principle of mirror

reflection. It is very useful method to assess posture and foot load in children.
Podoscope can be used for the following measurements: foot load on the supportive
surface; assessment of foot arch; misalignment of foot, ankle, and knee joints.

CHIROSCOPY – is the science which deals with the study of the prints of the palms of
the hand.
Greek word:
Cheir – a hand Skopein – to examine

Sir William J. Hershel (Father of Chiroscopy)

CONGENITAL ABNORMALITIES OF FINGERS AND TOES

MACRODACTYL – it is the enlargement of fingers or toes.

POLYDACTYL – it is a congenital physical anomaly in human having

supernumerary finger or toes.

SYNDACTYL – having two or more fingers or toes joined together, congenital

abnormality.

ORTHODACTYL – in this case the fingers or toes cannot be flexed, ordinarily

because of symphalangy.

ECTODACTYL - the congenital absence of one or more digits. Sufferers may be

born with as few of two fingers and a thumb on one or both hands.

ANKYLOSIS – a bone condition in which the finger joints cannot be bent.

MICRODACTYL – it is the abnormal smallness or shortness of a finger or toe.

Ridgeology

Ridgeology is the study of the uniqueness of all friction ridge skin formations and
their use as a means of personal identification. This term was coined by David
Ashbaugh of the Royal Canadian Mounter Police in 1983.
The term Ridgeology refers to a forensic identification science that is associated
with all the ridges on the volar areas and not just on the fingertips as Dactyloscopy or
fingerprint identification implies.

Dactyloscopy/Fingerprint
History of Fingerprints

The development of fingerprint science predates the Christian era by many

centuries. Prehistoric Indian picture writing of hand with crudely marked ridge patterns,
fingerprints impression on clay tablets recording business transaction in ancient
Babylon, and clay seals of ancient Chinese origin bearing thumb prints, were found as
evidence of early use of fingerprint as identification of persons impressing the prints.
Friction ridge skin impressions were used as proof of a person’s identity in China
perhaps as early as 300 B.C., in Japan as early as A.D. 702, and in the United States
since 1902 (Holder, Jr.,Et.al.).

Consequently, in Japan, a “Domestic Law” enacted in A.D. 702 required the

following: “In case a husband cannot write, let him hire another man to write the
document and after the husband’s name, sign with his own index finger” (Ashbaugh,
1999, p 17-18; Lambourne, 1984, p 24).

In 1880 two major developments were achieved that ushered to a more holistic
acceptance of fingerprint use. Dr. Henry Faulds, an English doctor based in Japan,
wrote to publication Nature on the practical use of fingerprints for the identification of
criminals. His argument was supported by his studies and successful experiments on
permanency of one’s fingerprint. After Fauld’s breakthrough, Sir Francis Galton, a noted
British anthropologist, and scientist Charles Darwin’s cousin, devised the first scientific
method of classifying fingerprint patterns.

It was in 1882 when the first authentic record of official use of fingerprints was
noted in the USA. In 1891, Juan Vucetich, an Argentinian Police, used a system of
fingerprint as criminal identification based on Sir Francis Galton’s studies. Vucetich’s
classification system and individualization of prisoners through the use of fingerprints
were the first practical uses of the fingerprint science by law enforcement personnel
(Holder, Jr.,Et.al.).
Today, the US Federal Bureau of Investigation’s identification files are rapidly
approaching 200 million sets of fingerprints the largest collection in the world.
Origin of Fingerprints

Chinese – are the ones noted to be the first user of Fingerprint.

They use fingerprints as symbolism in the early part of their rituals until they
utilize it in the signing of a contract on the part of the illiterate.
A Chinese deed of sale, 1839, signed with a fingerprint.
In China fingerprint is called “Hua Chi”
“Emperor Te’in Shi (246-210 BC)”- first Chinese ruler who devised a seal carved from
white jade; on one side of it was the name of the owner, and on the other side the
thumb mark of the destitute.

PERSONALITIES IN THE STUDY OF FINGERPRINTS

MARCELLO MALPIGHI (Grandfather of Dactyloscopy)

In 1686, Marcello Malpighi, a professor of anatomy at the University of Bologna,
noted in his treatise, ridges, spirals and loops in fingerprints. He made no mention of
their value as a tool for individual identification. A layer of skin was named after him;
“Malpighi” layer, which is approximately 1.8mm thick. Malpighi is credited with being the
first to use the newly invented microscope for medical studies.
An Italian Anatomist, who published his work “De Externo Tactus Organo”
depicting the construction of the layers of the human skin. He described the ridges
found on the palmar surface of the hand which course in diverse and designs and pores
which served as the mouth of the sweat glands.
Dermis – inner layer Epidermis – outer layer

1788 – JOHANN CHRISTOPH ANDREAS MAYER

A German doctor and anatomist who published book which was an atlas of
anatomical illustrations of fingerprint. His remarks contain a statement which clearly
pronounced one of the fundamental principles of Fingerprint Science although the
arrangement of the skin, ridges is never duplicated in two persons; nevertheless, the
similarities are closer among some individuals
He was the first to state that the prints of two different persons are never alike.
1823 – JOHN EVANGELIST PURKINJE
FATHER OF DACTYLOSCOPY
In 1823, John Evangelist Purkinjie, Professor of Physiology at the University of
Breslau, Germany, published a thesis in which he described nine types of fingerprints
for personal identification.

1856 – HERMAN WELCKER

He took the prints of his own palms and after forty-one years (1879) he printed
the same palms to prove that prints do not change except for some scratches due to old
age.
1858 – SIR WILLIAM JAMES HERSCHEL (FATHER OF CHIROSCOPY)

The English first began using fingerprints in July of 1858, when Sir William
James Hershel, Chief Magistrate of the Hoogly district in Jungipoor, India, first used
fingerprints on native contracts. On a whim, and with not though toward personal
identification, Hershel had Rajyadhar Konai, a local businessman, impress his handprint
on a contract.
The idea was merely, to “frighten him out of all thought of repudiating his
signature.” The native was suitability impressed, and Hershel made a habit of requiring
palm prints and later, simply the prints of the right index and middle finger on every
contract made with locals.

1880 – Dr. Henry Faulds

Dr. Henry Faulds, from Beith, North Ayrshire, was the Surgeon-Superintendent of
Tsukiji Hospital in Tokyo, Japan, and took up the study of ‘skin-furrows’ after noticing
finger marks on specimens of ‘prehistoric’ pottery.
A learned and industrious man, Dr Faulds not only recognized the importance of
fingerprints as a mean of identification but devised a method of classification as well.
In 1880 he advocated the use of fingerprint in the detection of crimes. His article
“On the Skin – Furrows of the Hand” points out his observation that chance prints left at
the scene of the crime would provide for positive identification of offenders when
apprehended. He discussed fingerprints as a means of personal identification, and the
use of printer’s ink as a method for obtaining such fingerprints.
He is also credited with the first fingerprint identification of a greasy fingerprint left
on an alcohol bottle.

1882 – GILBERT THOMPSON

In 1882, Gilbert Thompson of the U.S. Geological Survey in New Mexico, used
his own thumb print on a document to prevent forgery. This is the first known use of
fingerprints in the United States.

1883 – ARTHUR KOLLMANN

In the late 1800’s, Kollmann of Hamburg Germany, was the first researcher to
address the formation of friction ridges on the fetus and the random physical stresses
and tensions which may have played a part in their growth.

1888 – FRANCIS GALTON

Sir Francis Galton, a British Anthropologist and a cousin of Charles Darwin,
began his observation of fingerprints as a means of identification in the 1880’s. He
devised a practical system of filing based on the ridge patterns.

In 1892, he published his book ‘Fingerprints’, establishing the individuality and

permanence of fingerprints. It included the first classification system for fingerprints.
Galton’s primary interest in fingerprints was as an aid in determining heredity and racial
background.

According to his calculations, the odds of two individual fingerprints being the
same were 1 in 64 billion. Galton identified the characteristics by which fingerprints can
be identified. These same characteristics (minutiae) are basically still in use today and
are often referred to as Galton’s details.

He was able to discover the three families of fingerprint patterns – Arch, Loop &
Whorl. He is also credited for being the first scientist of friction skin identification who
established the first Civil Bureau of Personal Identification in London, England.

1891 – Juan Vucetich

An Argentine Police Official began the first fingerprint files based on Galton
Pattern types. He developed his own system of classifying prints that was officially
adopted in Argentina and was used in most Spanish Speaking Country.
In 1892, Inspector Eduardo Alvarez, taking direction from Vucetich took digital
impression in crime scene. This led Vucetich in making the first criminal fingerprint
identification. He was able to identify a woman by the name of Rojas, who had
murdered her two sons and cut her own throat to place blame on another person. Her
bloody print was left on a door post proving her identity. She confessed of the murder.

1897 – Azizul Haque and Hem Chandra Bose

On 12 June 1897, the Council of the Governor General of India approved a

committee report that fingerprints should be used for classification of criminal records.
Later that year, the Calcutta (no Kolkata) Anthropometric Bureau became the world’s
first Fingerprint Bureau.

1900 – Sir Edward Richard Henry (Father of Fingerprints)

On 2 April 1891, Henry was appointed to the office of the Inspector General of
the Bengal Police. In 1892 the police force adopted the anthropometric measuring
system devised by Bertillon for the identification of criminals.
Henry became interested in the work of Galton and others concerning the use of
fingerprints to identify criminals. Henry and Galton exchanged regular letters during
1894 discussing the merits of fingerprints.
In January 1896, Henry issued an order to the Bengali Police that criminal
records forms should not only display a prisoner’s anthropometric measurements but
also the prisoner / s rolled fingerprint impressions.
 With the assistance of Azizull Haque and Hem Chandra Bose, Edward Henry
devised his classification system between July 1896 and February 1897. The Henry
fingerprint system enable fingerprints to be easily filed, searched, and traced against
thousands of others. The simple system found worldwide acceptance within a few
years.
On July 1, 1901, the first fingerprint Bureau in the UK was established at
Scotland Yard. His system of identification finally replaces the Bertillonage system of
identification in France (Anthropometry of Alphonse Bertillon).

NEHEMIAH GREW

Published a report before the Royal Society of London England describing the
ridges and the pores of the hands and feet.

MARRY E. HOLLAND
The first American Instructress in Dactyloscopy.

1912 – DR. EDMOND LOCARD (FATHER OF POROSCOPY)

Professor at the University of Lyons in France, Locard established the Institution

of Criminalistics in 1910.
He made a remarkable statement on contact trace evidence; “when two objects
come into contact there is an exchange of material from each to the other”.
Locard studies and investigated identification using the position and variation of
pores as unique ridge characteristics. He presented evidence of identification in one
case at Court using poroscopy, even though the impression already contained many
characteristics in agreement.

1883 – Mark Twain (Samuel Clemens)

In his book, Life on the Mississippi, a murderer was identified using fingerprint
identification.

Henry P. Forest – Chief Medical Examiner of New York Civil Service Commission and
an American Preacher in fingerprint science in the US for the New York Civil Service
Commission to prevent applicants from having better-qualified persons to take the test
for them.

Fingerprint Event in the Philippines

1. Mr. Jones – he first taught fingerprint in the Philippine Constabulary in the

year 1900.
2. Bureau of Prison – records show that in 1918, CARPETAS (Commitment
and Conviction Records) already used of fingerprint.
 3. Lt. Asa and N. Darby – established a modern and complete fingerprint files
for Philippines Commonwealth during the reoccupation of the Philippines by
the American Forces.
4. Generoso Reyes – First Filipino Fingerprint Technician employed by the
Philippine Constabulary.
5. Isabela Bernales – First Filipina Fingerprint Technician.
6. Capt. Thomas Dugan, New York Police Department and Flaviano
Guerrero, FBI Washington gave the first examination in fingerprinting in
1927, and Agustin Patricio of the Philippines, top the examination.
7. People of the Philippines vs. Medina – first conviction based on fingerprint
leading judicial decision in the Philippine Jurisprudence.
8. Plaridel Education Institute – now known as the Philippine College of
Criminology, the first government recognized school to teach the Science of
Fingerprint and other Police Sciences.
9. The First National Bureau of Identification (1924) – was created by the act
of Congress. The bureau was established with the U.S. DOJ (Washington
D.C.)

DEVELOPMENT AND PRINCIPLES OF FINGERPRINTS

The system of identification using fingerprints is based on the fact that no two
individuals have the same finger, palm or footprints and rest upon three fundamentals –
formation, uniqueness, and persistence.
Formation
Fingerprints develop early in the fetal life before birth. Pads (bumps) form on the
babies’ fingers and palms between 6 and 13 weeks of its life. Where these bumps
occur, how the baby moves around inside the womb and how fast and big the baby
grows all effect how the fingerprint patterns and ridges form and ensure the unique
properties of fingerprints are never duplicated.
Uniqueness
The details of a person’s prints are unique to them and only them. Even
IDENTICAL TWINS do not have the identical fingerprints.
Persistence
A person’s fingerprints will remain the same throughout their life. If superficial
damage occurs the skin will grow back in the same arrangement as at birth. Therefore,
fingerprints are reliable means of identification at all stages of a person’s life. They are
even one of the last features to decompose after death.
Dogmatic Principle of Fingerprints
1. PRINCIPLE OF INDIVIDUALITY (VARIATION, UNIQUENESS). This principle
states that no two fingerprints of different persons or the neighboring fingers of
the same person have ever been found to be identical or exactly alike in all
aspect that the ridges appearing in fingerprint patterns of identical twins are
never found to be identical to each other.
2. PRINCIPLE OF CONSTANCY (PERMANENCY, IMMUTABILITY). This principle
states that the papillary ridges are immutable, perennial and individual from the
third month of the embryonic while the child is still at the mother’s womb, and it
will never change until decomposition sets in after death.

Some attempts of destroying Ridges and Disguised

JOHN DILLENGER – US notorious public enemy No. 1, who tried to remove his
fingerprints with acid but failed. Post-mortem fingerprints were taken when he
was shot by FBI agents proved that he was Dillenger.
ROBERT JAMES PITTS – gained fame as the man without fingerprints knowing
from an inmate of a possible destruction of fingerprints. He contacted a doctor.
He removed the skin up to the generative layer and serve thin into incisions on
each side of Pitts chest. Scar tissue was developed. After a year later, he was
picked up and police amazed to find that he has no fingerprints. The Texas
Department of Public Safety was able to affect identification out of the second
joints of his fingers. He is also known by the name of Roscoe Pitts.

3. PRINCIPLE OF INFALLIBILITY - This states that the fingerprint can never be

forged or copied. Fingerprint is reliable means of identification.

The Friction Skin

Friction Skin is the epidermal hairless skin found on the ventral/lower

surface of the hands and feet covered with minute ridges and furrows and
without pigment and coloring matters. It is the skin covering of the palms of the
hands and the sole of feet. These are strips of skin on the inside of the end joints
of our fingers and thumbs by which fingerprints are made.
The inner surfaces of the hands and the soles of the feet are covered with
patterns formed by raised ridges of skin known as the friction or papillary ridges.
The study of fingerprints, or dactyloscopy, form only one privileged section of the
wider of lophoscopy: dactyloscopy is the more widely used section in practice
even though prints from the soles of the feet are as characteristics as
fingerprints; they are less often used for identification purposes due to their low
rate of occurrence.
The pattern formed by the papillary ridges are important since they are
already formed in the fetus by the fourth month of pregnancy, and they do not
change until death. These patterns cannot be altered, except by accident,
mutilation, or very serious skin disease, as they are formed in deep layers of the
dermis.

Structure of the Skin

Skin is an essential organ of the human body. Finger, palm, and sole
areas of the epidermis display a series of friction ridges taking various forms and
shapes. These volar areas of the skin are known to display friction ridge skin.
Depending on the surface considered, we generally refer to them as fingerprints,
palm prints and sole prints.
The skin consists of two main layers: the outer skin or epidermis, and the
inner or true skin, known the dermis. The epidermis is constantly being worn
away and replaced by new skin generated by the upper layer of the dermis a
papillary layer (stratum mucosum) which is the source of the ridges known as
‘papillary ridges’. The sweat glands, located in the dermis, discharge sweat at the
skin surface through sweat pores found at the top of the ridges.

Fundamental Layers of the Skin

1. EPIDERMIS – the outer covering of the skin
Two Main Layers of the Epidermis:
1. Stratum Corneum – outer layer
2. Stratum Mucosum – immediately beneath the covering layers.
2. DERMIS. The inner layer of the skin containing blood vessel, various glands,
and nerves. It is where the dermal papillae are found.

The Ridge Characteristics

Ridge Characteristics (also known as minutiae). This refers to the

details of ridge structures, formation and elements which differentiate from one
fingerprint from another, and which impart individuality to each print.
Identification by fingerprints relies on pattern matching followed by the
detection of certain ridge characteristics, is also known as Galton’s details, points
of identity, or minutiae, and the comparison of the relative positions of these
minutiae points with a reference print, usually an inked impression of a suspect’s
print.

Kinds of Ridge Characteristics

1. Bifurcation – a single ridge that divides itself in two or more branches.
It sometimes called fork
2. Converging Ridge – a ridge formation characterized by a closed
angular end and serves as a point of convergence (meeting of two
ridges that were previously running side by side).
 3. Diverging ridges – two ridges that are flowing side by side and
suddenly separating or spreading apart.
4. Enclosure (lake or eyelet) – a ridge that divides into two branches
and meets to form the original ridge.
5. Ending Ridge – an end point of a ridge with abrupt ending.
A single friction ridge that terminates within the friction ridge structure.
6. Recurving or Looping ridge – a kind of ridge formation that curves
back in the direction from which it started.
7. Sufficient Recurve – a recurving ridge complete in it shoulder and is
free from any appendage.
8. Appendage – a short ridge found at the top or summit of a recurving
ridge.
9. Rod or Bar – a short or long ridge found inside the innermost
recurving ridge or loop pattern.
10. Obstruction Ridge – short ridge found inside the innermost recurving
ridge that spoiled the inner flow towards the center of the pattern.
11. Fragmentary Ridge – a ridge of extremely short length having
frequent breaks.
12. Short Ridge
13. Crossover or bridge – a short ridge that runs between two parallel
ridges.
14. Ridge Dots – an isolated ridge unit whose length approximates its
width in size.

Focal Points of Fingerprint Patterns

FOCAL POINTS are enclosed within the pattern area.

PATTERN AREA Is that part of a loop or a whorl in which appear the core, delta, and
ridges used in the classification of a loop.
TYPELINES. The two innermost ridges which start or go parallel, diverge, and surround
or tend to surround the pattern area. When there is a definite break in a Typelines, the
ridge immediately outside of it is considered as its continuation.
CORE – the inner terminus or the approximate center of a fingerprint pattern.
DELTA. The outer terminus or that point in a ridge at or in front of or nearest the center
of the divergence of the typelines.

6 DELTA FORMATIONS
1. A bifurcating ridge
2. A dot
3. An ending ridge
4. A short ridge
5. A converging ridge
6. A point on a long ridge
Component Parts of Fingerprint Patterns
RIDGE SURFACE. The component of the friction skin that forms the fingerprint
impression.
1. RIDGES are the tiny elevation or hill like structures found on the epidermis
layer of the skin containing sweat pores.
2. FURROWS are the canal like impression, or a depression found between the
ridges which maybe compare with the low area in a tire thread.
SWEAT PORES is a small opening found anywhere across the ridge surface where the
sweat comes out.
SWEAT DUCT is a long host like structure that serves as the passageway for the sweat
that exits at its mouth, the pore.
SWEAT GLANDS are found in the dermis layer of the skin which is responsible for the
skin which is responsible for the production of the sweat (watery substance).

Bones of the Hand

The human hand has 27 bones: the 8 bones of the carpus, or wrist, arranged in
two rows of four; the 5 bones of the metacarpus, or palm, one to each digit; and the 14
digital bones, or phalanges, 2 in the thumb and 3 in each finger. The carpal bones fit
into a shallow socket formed by the bones of the forearm.

TERMINAL PHALANGE Is the bone that is covered with the friction skin having all the
different types of patterns and located near the tip of finger.
MIDDLE PHALANGE Is a phalange of the finger located at the middle of terminal and
basal phalange.
BASAL PHALANGE is a phalange of the finger located at the base portion just below
the middle phalange.
RIDGE FORMATION
Ridges begin to form on the human fetus during the 3 rd to 4th months of the fetus
(5 to 6 months before birth)
DERMAL PAPILLAE – Irregular blunt pegs composed of delicate connective tissues,
protruding, and forming the ridges of the skin, each containing a small opening or pores.

The Fingerprint Patterns

The classification of fingerprints into distinct groups based on general similarities

allows the fingerprint examiner to search for an unidentified fingerprint within a specific
section of the fingerprint file rather than having to search the whole file.

There are numerous fingerprint classification systems in use throughout the

world today. These systems are all based on three fundamentals ridge formations
described by Purkinje, Galton, Vucetich and Henry. They are arch, the loop – radial and
ulnar, and the whorl.
 Individuals generally have a mixture of pattern types on their fingertips, with
some correlation between the left and right hands. There is also evidence that the
general fingerprint pattern may be genetically determined. While the loop pattern is the
most common pattern, classification of individuals by assigning a pattern type to each of
the ten fingers in an ordered fashion, serves as a first line of differentiation, however, no
such classification is likely to be unique.

Patterns are the first level of detail used in the identification process and
recognition of the various fingerprint patterns are essential to the fingerprint officer.

PERCENTAGE OF APPEARANCE OF FINGERPRINT PATTERNS

ARCH (5%) LOOP (60%) WHORL (35%)
PLAIN ARCH RADIAL LOOP PLAIN WHORL
TENTED ARCH ULNAR LOOP CENTRAL POCKET LOOP WHORL
DOUBLE LOOP WHORL
ACCIDENTAL WHORL

ARCH PATTERNS: Its Characteristics

a. No Core
b. No Delta
 Ridge counting not applicable
 Ridge tracing no applicable
1. Plain Arch – a pattern in which the ridges flows from one side to the other
without recurving, usually having a slight upward curve in the center,
making the pattern like an arch.
2. Tented Arch – a pattern where one or more ridges at the center forms an
up trust or make a sufficient rise giving the pattern of a “Tent” giving an
angle of 90 degrees or less.

2 LOOP PATTERNS: Its Characteristics

a. 1 core
b. 1 delta
c. With looping or recurving ridge that passes between the delta and the core
d. With at least 1 ridge count
 Ridge counting is applicable
 Ridge tracing is not applicable
1. Radial Loop – a loop in which the downward slope or the slanting ridges runs
towards the direction of the thumb.
 Radial Bone – the inner bone of the forearm that runs to the wrist on the side
where the thumb is located.
2. Ulnar Loop – a loop in which the downward slope or the slanting ridge runs
towards the direction of the little finger.
 Ulna Bone – the bone running to the wrist located or situated on the little
finger.
4 WHORL PATTERNS: Its Characteristics

1. Plain Whorl – a pattern consisting of two deltas and which at least one ridge
makes a turn through one complete circuit. An imaginary line drawn between
the two deltas must touch or cross at least one of the recurving ridges within
the pattern area.

Elements of a Plain Whorl:

1. A complete circuit
2. Two deltas
3. At least one circuiting ridge is touched or crossed by an imaginary line
traversing between the two deltas.

2. Central Pocket Loop Whorl – a pattern which possesses two deltas with
core or more ridges forming a complete circuit which may be oval, spiral,
circular, or any variant of a circle.

Elements of a Central Pocket Loop Whorl:

1. At least one recurving or obstruction at right angle
2. Two deltas
3. No recurving ridges within the pattern area are touched or cross by an
imaginary line drawn between the two deltas.

Double Loop Whorl – a pattern consisting of two separate and distinct loop formations,
with sets of shoulder and two deltas.

Elements of a double loop whorl:

1. Two separate loop formation
2. Two separate and distinct shoulders
3. Two deltas

Accidental Whorl – a pattern consisting of a combination of two different types of

patterns such as a loop and a whorl, a loop and a central pocket loop whorl, or any
combination of two different loop and whorl type pattern but it cannot be a combination
of a plain arch with any other pattern. It can have two or more deltas.
Elements:
1. Combination of two different type of pattern with the exceptions of the plain
arch.
2. Two or more deltas.
Searching, Developing and Examination of Latent Prints
Nature of Latent Prints
The latent prints, deposited by the fingertip pattern, is a complex mixture of
natural secretions and contaminations from the environment. Three types of glands are
responsible for the natural secretions of the skin, the sudoriferous eccrine and apocrine
glands, and the sebaceous glands.
The sudoriferous glands are distributed all over the body and produce the sweat.
Secretory body each gland of each gland is formed of a long-coiled tube situated in the
subcutaneous layers of the skin. The glands transverse the epidermal layers to open at
the summits of the papillary ridges to form sweat or sudoriferous pores. Sweat is an
aqueous produced by the cells of the secretory body without loss of cell cytoplasm for
the eccrine glands in contrast with apocrine glands – this explains the difference in
chemical composition between these two types of secretion. Eccrine sweat is
approximately 98.5 percent water, the remainder being principally made up of mineral
salts, e.g., sodium chloride, organic acids, urea, and sugars.
LATENT PRINTS has been defined as the marking of oily matter or perspiration from
the skin glands left upon surface which the hands and fingers may have touched. It is
best described as a combination of chemicals which is exuded by the pores on the
surface of the skin.
CHANCE IMPRESSION – these are impressions left by chance at the crime scene.
Types of Evidentiary Fingerprints
1. VISIBLE PRINTS – often impress on dust, blood, oil or grease.
a. Patent Impression. A visible impression found in blood.
b. Plastic Impression. A visible impression on the surface of soft objects and
plastic material, such as melted paraffin from a pitch, paste on envelope and
stamps. It is usually molded into the surface of material such as putty or
modeling clay.
2. INVISIBLE PRINTS – those prints that are made due to the sweat present in the
fingers and thumb of a person that is transferred to any object that he holds.
a. Latent Print/Impression. Fingerprint impressions which is not readily visible.
The term is commonly applied to all chance or unintentional impressions that
are of evidentiary value.
b. Smudge Prints. Those prints that are indistinct due to sliding motion of the
fingers at the time they are impressed.
c. Fragmentary Prints. Those prints that show only a portion of the pattern or
of the friction skin.
Factor Affecting Latent Fingerprints
1. Climatic Condition. Too much exposure to the elements would reduce the
chance of their being recovered due to the following:
 a. Heavy condensed moisture such as rain, snow or drew will immediately erase
fingerprints.
b. Excessively high temperature caused by direct rays of the sun during summer
months can destroy them in a matter of few minutes.
c. Wind due to warm temperature will cause the disappearance of fingerprint
evidence because of the increased evaporation of watery substance.
d. Dust accumulated on finger impressions obliterates the identification of ridge
characteristics.

2. Subject Factor. This refers to the physical characteristics of the individual. The
distinction is deciphering finger marks left by a male or female human being. The
friction ridges or prints belonging to young female adults are found to be finer
than those of men.
3. Nature of the surface. Latent fingerprints left on a smooth nonporous surface
will formally retain their usefulness longer than those impressed on a porous
surface. These very rough surfaces may retain the deposits of latent print
residue, but it is impossible to decipher the ridge characteristics left behind due
to the nature of the receiving surface.
Purposes of Sweat
1. Regulate temperature of the body
2. Moisten the skin
3. To remove waste and other skin toxic materials
4. Means of identification
Searching Latent Prints
The search of latent prints at a crime scene gives a big challenge to every police
officer assigned as fingerprint technician. Crime scene processing is very vital in order
to search for evidence like latent prints. Recognition of the areas where one is most
likely to find latent prints is an extremely important step in the examination of latent print
evidence.
Latent Print Development
Latent print development requires knowledge and skills to ensure its relevance in
crime detection and investigation. Once the potential area which is most likely to yield
fingerprint evidence is selected, a variety of techniques such as physical and chemical
methods can be used to process the surface and to develop friction ridge impressions.
Steps in the examination of any potential latent print
1. Visual examination (followed by photography if appropriate).
2. Fluorescence examination (followed by photography if appropriate).
 3. Selection and application of an appropriate enhancement method(s) – physical
and/or chemical and/or digital enhancement followed by photography after each
process.
Materials needed for the Collection of Latent Print

1. Fingerprint Powders – refers to the powder used in developing latent prints

found at the scene of the crime. They are normally found in two; the black and
the white or gray, which is applied depending upon the contrasting
background.
2. Fingerprint Brushes – used for developing latent prints using non-magnetic
powder. There are three variations of brushes used: the fiber glass, magnetic
and feather type.
3. Magnetic Wand – use in powdering latent prints using magnetic powder.
4. Fingerprint Lifting Tape – refers to a tape used for lifting developed latent
prints which is quite harder than an ordinary tape.
5. Latent Print Transfer Card – refers to a card used in preserving lifted latent
prints which either white or black in background.
6. Fingerprint Cameras – use in photographing the developed latent prints

Basis of Selecting the Powder

1. COLOR – for proper or appropriate contrast
2. ADHERENCE – avoid of slip and stick

One of the oldest, most common and most readily available methods for the
development of latent fingerprints are that of dusting a surface with a fine powder of
contrasting color. The use of powders depends on the object upon which the search is
being conducted. A wide range of powders is commercially available and their
formulation differs with each manufacture.

TYPES OF LIFTING TAPES

1. HINGE LIFTERS – come in many different color backgrounds to allow for the
visualization fingerprints developed with different color powders.
2. Rubber lifters – is a plastic cover with adhesive side.
3. Cellophane tape – is a high quality clear transparent tape.
Latent Print Techniques
1. Physical Development
When we touch something we leave behind some of our sweat and this in turn
can leave behind an impression of the ridge detail on your fingerprint, thus leaving a
fingerprint impression.
A fingerprint can be left on many types of surfaces. It can be made visible by
brushing it with a powder or treating it with chemicals in a lab. Similarly, if the fingers are
 coated with ink or another substance such as paint, oil or blood, than a permanent
impression may be left on a particular item

Procedures in Developing Latent Prints

1. Select the proper powder to conform to the properties of the surface and to give good
photographic contrast.
2. Pour a small amount of powder onto a piece of paper or into a shallow bowl.
3. Touch the tips of the brush to the powder being careful not to pick up too much. Gently
tap a brush to remove any excess.
4. Apply the powder to the surface gently, using short strokes. When a print begins to
appear, begin making the brush strokes to conform to the pattern of the ridges. If the
print is too faint, try adding additional powder as necessary.
5. Once the print is fully developed, remove all the excess powder from the brush by the
first tapping, then wiping it back and forth on a clean sheet of paper.
6. Next, go back over the latent with the clean brush to remove any excessive build up
between the ridges.
7. Photographed the developed latent print.

2. Chemical Development
A visual chemical reaction between the reagent and one or more of the constituents of
human perspiration, to yield to a colored, luminescent, or radioactive product. In this manner the
ridge detail becomes visible and the prints can be photographed and further manipulated.

IODINE FUMING. A development method which involved process of sublimation and

absorption. The iodine crystal is capable of fuming to gas without passing the liquid state, thus it
is subjected to heat the process of sublimation becomes faster and such will liberates a violet
iodine vapor which will be absorbed by the fingerprint secretion residues producing a yellow
brown prints.
Cyanoacrylate Fuming. This method is used for the development of latent prints on
surfaces as diverse as plastics, electrical tape, and garbage bags. Styrofoam, carbon paper,
etc.
Cyanoacrylate (Super Glue). Cyanoacrylate vapor develops fingerprints on a wide range of
surface. It produces a white deposit as a result of polymerization with the latent fingerprint.
Water acts as catalysts for the polymerization.
Iodine Dusting Method. Iodine crystals are found into fine grain powder and dusted onto
the surface containing latent fingerprints with a fingerprint brush.
Iodine Fuming Gun Method. It is conducted using either a glass of hard plastic tube. Fresh
calcium chloride crystals should be used as a drying agent.

Basic Steps in Collecting Latent Fingerprints at the Crime Scene

The latent fingerprint at the crime scene left behind by a suspect or victim may identify who
was at a crime scene and what he or she touched. It is important for defense attorneys to know,
and to inform the judges, that the techniques used to locate and identify fingerprints are far from
a perfect science. Understanding how fingerprints are located and lifted helps attorneys
recognize if defective analysis was performed by investigators on fingerprint technicians.
 Locating Latent Fingerprints
Locating a latent fingerprint often requires vigilance. Latent fingerprints are suspected to
be present on the point of entry, objects attacked and point of exit.
The following are situation where latent prints maybe present:
1. Suspected murder weapon
2. Robbery note
3. Victim’s skin in an assault case
4. Broken window pane
5. Safe vault
6. Cell phone held in a hand

The type of fingerprint left behind usually determines the amount of time and effort
investigation must put into locating the print. Consequently, the type of surface where the latent
fingerprints are located serve as a basis in determining what appropriate development method
is applied.

Lifting the Developed Latent Print

Lifting a latent print is a means to make a permanent impression of the fingerprint. Lifting a
print can be accomplished on either flat surfaces or round surfaces. Lifting a print usually
involves a rubber tape with an adhesive surface which is applied to the fingerprint, leaving an
imprint on the tape. Often times, a flat object, such as a ruler, will be slowly swiped across the
top of the tape to ensure that there are no bubbles or ripples in the tape that will affect the
imprint. Next, the tape is carefully peeled off the surface and a plastic cover is placed on the
adhesive side of the tape to prevent disruption of the print. Identification information and a
description of the location of the print should be written on the back of the tape or card.

Methods of Fingerprinting a Living Person

The skin is known as the largest organ and the first line of protection in the human body. It
covers the body from head to toe and is referred to as friction ridge skin. Obtaining legible
recordings of these areas of the skin is vital for subsequent comparisons to latent impression
recovered from crime scene, for comparison against previous records, or for input into
automated fingerprint identification system (AFIS).

Inked prints, record prints, standards, and exemplars are all terms that are used to describe
the recording of these unique details. In taking the inked fingerprints of a living person, it
considers the recording of the rolled impression and plain impression.

Rolled Impression is an impression made or place in the fingerprint which is taken

individually by rolling the ten fingers of the subject 180 degrees from tip to the second joints.
Plain Impression is an impression made simultaneously that serves as a reference
impression.

Purpose of Plain Impression:

- To serve as a guide in checking the rolled impression whether or not the rolled
impression were properly place on their respective boxes.
 - To check on the ridge characteristics of the plain impression, if the rolled impression is
somewhat faint, or indistinct due to bad condition of the friction skin either temporary or
permanently deteriorated or in case of a doubtful or questionable prints.
- To check the minute details of the ridge characteristics for purposes of classification and
identification.

Fingerprint Sensor is an electronic device used to capture a digital image of the

fingerprint pattern. The captured image is called a live scan.

Biometrics (Biometric Authentication) refers to the identification of humans by their

characteristics or traits.

Post-mortem Fingerprinting
One of the most challenging, and also rewarding, aspects of latent print examination is
the determination of the identity of deceased individuals. Most human remains are available for
examination soon after death. Hence, fingerprint identification is relatively simple and the
standard procedure of black printer’s ink and post mortem fingerprint cards are utilized.
However, when a body is burned, decomposed, macerated, or mutilated more scientific
measures are employed. The nature of the samples utilized will differ depending on the
condition of the skin and the remains.

1. Fingerprinting the newly dead (Flexible and Intact Fingers)

When the fingers are flexible it is often possible to secure inked fingerprint impression of
a deceased person through the regular inking process on a standard post-mortem fingerprint
card. Identification may then be accomplished by:
1. Fingerprint comparison of deceased inked fingerprints and known inked
fingerprints for TID (Tentative Identification)
2. An automated search of deceased fingerprints through AFIS (Automated
Fingerprint Identification System).
In all cases where inked impression is to be made, care should be exercised to see that the
fingers are clean and dry before inking. If necessary wash the digits with soap and water and
dry thoroughly.
2. Fingerprinting the Dead, Where stiffening of the finger and/or Early
Decomposition are Present
When the hands of the deceased are clenched due to post mortem rigor or the fingertips
are wrinkled or decomposition has begun, and/or where there are combinations of these
conditions, the following techniques may be employed:
1. Breaking the Rigor:
In the event the rigor cannot be overcome, it will be most helpful to improvise or secure a
spoon-shaped tool for holding the cut square or cut strips while printing the fingers.
2. Injection of Tissue Builder:
 The method of simple, injection of the tissue builder, glycerin, or water, is accomplished
by the use of a hypodermic syringe. The hypodermic needle is injected at the joint of the finger
up to the tip of the finger, care being used to keep the needle below the skin surface. The
solution is injected until the finger bulbs are rounded out, after which they are inked and printed.
3. Removal of the Skin of Fingertips or Disarticulation of Fingers:
With the onset of decompositions, both the flesh and skin may become soft or flabby as
well as fragile. In such cases, and if the ridge details are discernible, the following techniques
may be employed:
a. Gently remove the skin of the fingertips and air dry them or harden them with
hardening solution. The skin may then be placed over the gloved examiner`s fingers
and the inking procedure employed.
b. The use of putty such as duplicast or micro-sil can be used to reproduce the ridge
pattern or ridge characteristics.
c. Sometimes it is more appropriate to disarticulate the terminal phalanx at the langeal
joint, in which case, after drying, the epidermis is peeled from the joint and mounted
between glass slides and then photography is utilized to capture the ridge detail and
or ridge characteristics.
Basic Materials for Fingerprint
1. Ink Roller – refers to an instrument used for spreading the ink slab or inking plate.
2. Ink Slab/Inking Plate – refers to a piece of metal or a plane glass with as much as ¼
thick and 6 or more inches long where the fingerprint ink is distributed for fingerprinting.
3. Card Holder – refers to a gadget used for clipping the fingerprint card to avoid
movement of the card to avoid movement of the card during printing.
4. Fingerprint Ink – refers to an especially manufactured ink for purposes of taking
fingerprints.
5. Fingerprint Card – refers to a simple instrument for cutting latent prints tapes and for
other purposes.
6. Scissors – refers to a simple instrument for cutting latent print tapes and for other
purposes.
7. Rubber gloves – to protect the technician`s fingers from leaving his own prints on the
object or on the scene.
8. Fingerprint Table - a table intended for taking fingerprints
9. Fingerprint Pointers – use for pointing the ridges in the conduct of ridge counting.
10. Fingerprint Camera – use in photographing the developed latent prints
11. Forensic Optical Comparator – an equipment use to compare two fingerprints at the
same time
Problems in Fingerprinting Living Person
Reasons for Poor Impression:
1. Poor Ink – resulting in the ridges being too light to count or trace
2. Dirty Finger or equipment – presence of foreign materials which may result from failure
to clean thoroughly the inking equipment or the fingers, may cause false markings,
distorted ridges or disappearance of characteristics.
 3. Improper rolling – failure to roll the fingers fully one sided to the other resulting in
incomplete prints which may cannot be fully identified.
4. Rolling more than once
5. Too much pressure
6. Slippage - this happens when the fingers are allowed to slip or twist resulting in smears,
blurs and false patterns.
7. Over inking – using too much ink resulting obliteration of the thin layer with the roller.
8. Incomplete Inking – failure to ink the entire bulb of the finger, from joint to tip from the
side of nails, resulting in the possible omission of deltas and core.
MODULE 11
Fingerprint Classification and identification
Classification and identification is very important in the field of criminal detection and
investigation. In order to accomplish this stage, several processes must be done first in the
fingerprints like the conduct of ridge counting and ridge tracing which is utilized for the further
examination of fingerprints.
In the ridge counting and ridge tracing process, the location of core and delta is very
significant hence this topic is provided to guide the learners.
Rules in locating the delta
a. A bifurcation may not be selected as a delta if it does not open toward the core. A
bifurcation should be first ridge formation in front of the divergence of the typelines and it
must open towards the pattern area.
b. When there is a choice between two or more possible delta, the one nearest to the core
be selected.
c. When there is a choice between two or more possible delta one of which is a bifurcation,
the bifurcation should be selected.
d. The delta may not be located on the middle of the ridge running between the typelines
towards the core, but at the end of the ridge.
e. When a pattern shows a series of bifurcation opening towards the core at the point of
divergence of the typelines, the bifurcation nearest the core is chosen as the delta.
f. In case of ridge near the center of the typelines despite several bifurcating ridge opening
towards the core, the delta is located at the point of the first bifurcation just in front of the
divergence of the typelines.
Rules in locating the core
a. The core on the shoulder of the recurving ridge father from the delta.
 When an innermost recurving ridge contains a rod or an ending ridge rising as
high as the shoulders of the loop, the core is place on the summit of the rod
b. When the innermost recurving ridge contains an uneven number of rods rising as high
as the shoulder line or even higher the core is placed upon the end of the center ridge
whether it touches the recurve or not.
c. When the innermost recurve contains an even number of ridges which are rising high or
higher than its shoulder line, the core is placed upon the end of the center ridge whether
it touches the innermost recurve or not.
 d. When the innermost recurve contains an even number of ridges which are rising as
higher than its shoulder line, of two central ridges, the core is placed upon the end of the
second ridge which is father from the delta.
Rules in Ridge Counting
RIDGE COUNTING – the process of counting the ridges that touch the imaginary line drawn
between the delta and the core of a loop.
RULES IN RIDGE COUNTING:
a. Locate the exact points of the core and delta
b. Count all the ridges which touch or cross an imaginary line drawn between the core and
the delta.
c. Incipient ridges are never counted no matter where they appear the general rule is that
in order to be counted; the width of the ridge must be equal to the width of the other
ridges in the pattern under consideration.
Ridges Subject to Ridge Counting
1. A ridge island or a dot gives one ridge count
2. A short ridge is given one ridge count
3. A long ride is given one ridge count
4. An abrupt ending ridges is given one ridge count
5. A bifurcating ridge is given two ridge counts when it was cross in the opening or at the
center of the bifurcation.
6. Ridge enclosure is counted as two ridges.
RIDGE TRACING
Refers to the process of tracing the ridges of a whorl pattern from the left delta to the
right delta.
Rules in Ridge Tracing
1. Look for the left delta and traced the delta towards the front of the right delta
2. When the ridge being traced abruptly ends, drop to the next ridge just right below the
original tracing ridge and continue the tracing ridge and continue the tracing until it reach
the opposite side.
3. When the delta is a dot, same thing should be done in number 2 procedure.
4. When the ridge being traced is a bifurcation always follow the lower branch until tracing
is completed.
5. Determine whether the tracing ridge flows inside or outside the right delta.
6. Count the number of the intervening ridge (between the tracing ridge and the right delta).
Types of Whorl Tracing
INNER (I). A. whorl pattern whereby the tracing ridge runs or goes inside or above the right
delta (3 or more intervening ridges going inside the right delta)
OUTER (O). A whorl pattern whereby a tracing ridge runs or goes below or outside the right
delta. (3 or more intervening ridges going outside the right delta).
MEETING (M). A pattern whereby having two or less intervening ridges regardless of whether
the tracing ridge flows below or above the right delta. (2 or less intervening ridges either it goes
in or out the right delta).
BLOCKINGS is the process of writing below each pattern the corresponding symbol of the
fingerprint pattern in the spaces provided in the card conspicuously or in capital letters
purposely to facilitate the attainment of the Primary Classification.
Blocking is the manner of inserting the appropriate information consisting letters and
symbols in the boxes for each fingerprint patterns.
SYMBOLS IN BLOCKING OF FINGERPRINT PATTERNS
INDEX FINGERS OTHER FINGERS

PLAIN ARCH A a

TENTED ARCH T t

RADIAL LOOP R RH- / LH-\

ULNAR LOOP U RH- \ LH- /

PLAIN WHORL W w

CENTRAL POCKET LOOP C c

DOUBLE LOOP WHORL D d

ACCIDENTAL WHORL X x

NOTE: the diagonal symbol should be used in loops (Radial and Ulnar).
Fingerprint Classification Formula
The original Henry System, as it was adopted by Scotland Yard in 1901, converted ridge
patterns on all 10 fingers into a series of letters and numbers arranged in the form of a fraction.
Key Major Primary Secondary Sub-Secondary Final

Major Primary Secondary Sub-secondary Final

Procedure in Classifying a Set of Fingerprints
Fingerprint Classification
The sorting of fingerprints into file groups so that a file may be set upon the basis of
fingerprints alone. Fingerprints are classified by general shape (arch, loop, or whorl), position in
finger, and relative size.
1. Primary Division

Is the summation of all numerical value assigned to whorls appearing in fingerprint chart
which are numerators and denominators plus the pre-established fraction of 1/1. It is always
represented by numerical value.

Steps to be followed:
a. Look for the Whorl Pattern
b. Pairing of the ten fingers print impression into five groups that is:
Pair 1 Right thumb and right index Finger 1 and 2

Pair 2 Right middle and right ring Finger 3 and 4

Pair 3 Right little and left thumb Finger 5 and 6

Pair 4 Left index and left middle Finger 7 and 8

Pair 5 Left ring and left little Finger 9 and 10

c. Assigning Numerical Value

(1) Patterns with numerical value꞊ All whorls such as Plain, central double and
accidental whorl
(2) Patterns without numerical value꞊ The loops (radial and ulnar) and the arch (plain
and tented)

Pair 1 16

Pair 2 8

Pair 3 4

Pair 4 2

Pair 5 1

d. Determining the numerators and denominators

(1) Numerators are fingers with even numbers such as 2, 4, 6, 8, 10
(2) Denominators are fingers with odd numbers such as 1, 3 ,5 ,7 ,9
e. Sum all the numerators and denominators numerical value plus the pre-established
fraction of 1/1 to complete the primary division.

2. Secondary Division

This division is obtaining by writing the Capital letter symbols (taken from the index
fingers) and the small letters (from thumb, middle, ring and little finger)
a. By capital letters- all letters appearing at the index finger with the right as the
numerator and left index denominator. (A, T, U, R, W, C, D, X)
 b. Small letters- only letter r (radial), a (plain arch), and t (tented arch) are included. (r,
a, t)
3. Sub-secondary Division

This is done by ridge counting of loops and ridge tracing of whorls appearing in the
index, middle, and ring fingers of both right and left hands. It is represented by only letters
using the I-M-O system for the whorl and the I-0 system for loop.
It only shows that arches (plain and tented) are not included in the ridge counting and
tracing but it is represented by a symbol dash (-)
Whorl patterns: Plain, Central, Double or Accidental whorls will be ridge traced and the
result will either be Inner (I), Outer (O) or a Meeting (M).
Loops patterns: Radial and Ulnar will be ridge counted and the answer will be
dependent on what finger they appear.
Index finger: 1-9꞊ I

10 or more ꞊ 0

Middle finger: 1-10 ꞊ I

11 or more ꞊ 0

Ringer finger: 1-13 ꞊ I

14 or more꞊ 0

4. Major Division

This is similar to Sub-secondary division though it is applies to the thumb only and ridge
counting has been modified
(1) Whorl patterns꞊ Ridge tracing I, O, M
(2) Loop patterns꞊ Ridge counting S, M, L
(3) Arch patterns꞊ Dash (-)

Tables for Loop Patterns

Tables A Tables B

1-11꞊ S 1-17꞊ S
12-16꞊ M 18-22꞊ M
17 or more ꞊ L 23 or more꞊ L

5. Final Division
 This is done by ridge counting of loops and whorls from the two little fingers. In this
division whorls are ridge counted not to be ridge traced.

Loops- ridge counted in its conventional ways

Whorls-
a. Plain whorl and central pocket loop whorl shall be treated as ulnar loop from
the hand of origin.
b. A double loop whorl is ridge counted to an upright loop; and
c. An accident whorl is ridge counted in all but the least ridge count will be used.
6. Key Division

This division is derived by getting the ridge count of the first loop formation appearing in
the ten fingers except the two little fingers. In case of absence of a loop, the first whorl will
be ridge counted following the rules of ridge counting a whorl under final division.

The Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS)

The Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS) is a biometric identification (ID)
methodology that uses digital imaging technology to obtain, store, and analyze fingerprint data.
The AFIS was originally used by the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) in criminal
cases. Lately, it has gained favor for general identification and fraud prevention.
The Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS) is a computer system that
processes and searches latent fingerprints through a ten print database. A searchable database
of finger and palm print record used to verify the identity of users of system or of criminals, or to
link unsolved crimes.
AFIS is a type of biometric system that uses digital imaging to capture a fingerprint,
which then can compared to a database of fingerprint records to help determine the identity of
an individual it is a biometrics system commonly used in law enforcement where sets of prints
recovered in the crime scene were compared against the database of known and unknown
prints (Quijano, E., PNP AFIS).
Importance of AFIS
A.F.I.S. is a useful TOOL which can assist crime investigators in many areas, such as:
Identifying crime scene suspect
Identifying “liars” (suspects who give officers a false name)
Identifying deceased parties
Identifying unknown parties
Fingerprint images and fingerprint classification details including minutiae (major ridge path
deviations locations) are electronically stored in a computerized database.
Full sets of ‘ten print’ fingerprint records, after being examined by a trained technician,
are stored on AFIS. Each fingerprint image is ‘filed’ based on its pattern type (similar to Henry
Classification System), its core-delta distance* (applicable to loops and whorls only) and
minutiae.