THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION

P R E PA R E D B Y: C H R I S T I A N D AV E L . R O I L E S , R C R I M .
Why do some people commit crimes,
while others obey the law throughout
their lives?
 TWO THINGS TO CONSIDERED
IN THE STUDY OF THE CAUSES
OF CRIME:

1. MAN
2. HIS CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR
(Tradio, 1999, p. 29)
 Definition of Terms:
Theory – It is a plausible or scientifically acceptable general
principle or body of principles offered to explain phenomena.
- A system of ideas arranged in rational order that produce
general principles which increase our understanding and
explanations.

Cause- It is a reason for an action or condition.

Etiology – It is a study of causes.
Social norms – Refers to the accepted standards of behavior of
social groups.
Criminal – Generic term used to describe a person who has been
convicted by final judgment.
Crime – It is a generic term used to describe violations of the
Revised Penal Code, special laws, and city or municipal
ordinances.
Human Behavior – It is a voluntary or involuntary attitude of a person in
order to fit the society’s idea of right and wrong.
 Principal division of Criminology

1. CRIMINAL ETIOLOGY
2. Sociology of Law.
3. PENOLOGY
How Criminologist View Crime
1. CONFLICT VIEW
The law is a tool of a ruling class
Crime is a politically defined concept
Real crimes are not outlawed.
The law is used to control underclass

2. CONSENSUS VIEW
The law defines crime
The law reflects public opinion
Laws apply to all citizen equally
3. INTERACTIONIST VIEW
Crimes are illegal because society defines them that way.
The definition of crime evolves according to the moral
standards of those in power.
Moral entrepreneurs define crime
 FOUNDATION OF CRIME
CAUSATION
Early General Theories on the Causes of Crime
1. Demonological/Traditional
2. Classical Criminology
3. Neo-Classical
3. Positivism/Scientific
DEMONOLOGICAL/TRADITIONAL
PRE-SCIENTIFIC THEORY
 Oldest theory in Criminology
 It is the earliest explanations
for deviant behavior attributed
crime to supernatural forces
 One method to determine guilt
or innocence was trial by
ordeal.
 CLASSICAL OR JURISTIC THEORY
Proponents: CESARE BECCARIA and JEREMY BENTHAM
Beccaria suggested that:
(A) People choose all behavior, including criminal behavior;
(B) Their choices are designed to bring them pleasure and
reduce pain;
(C) Criminal choices can be controlled by fear of punishment;
 Basic Elements of Classical Theory:
 Humans are fundamentally rational;
most human behavior results from free
will and rational choice.
 Pain and pleasure are the two central
determinants of human behavior.
Cesare Beccaria  Punishment needs to be severe,
Founder of Classical
School of Criminology certain, and swift to be effective.
Published a book On
Crimes and Punishments.
BENTHAM – based on “UTILITARIAN HEDONISM”
 human behavior was a result of rational thought
processes;
 People choose to act when, after weighing costs and
benefits, believe that their actions will bring and increase
pleasure and reduction of pain (hedonism).
Deterrence - prevents future crime by frightening the defendant
or the public.

The two types of deterrence are specific and general deterrence.

1. Specific Deterrence- This theory holds that after experiencing criminal
sanctions that are swift, and severe, known criminals will never dare
repeat their criminal acts.
2. General Deterrence- It applies to the public at large. When the public
learns of an individual punishment, the public is theoretically less likely
to commit a crime because of fear of the punishment the defendant
experienced.
 NEO-CLASSICAL THEORY
ARGUMENTS:
Crime committed by a less responsible/rational being less
guided by reason and is therefore worthy to some reduction
of punishment
Children and lunatics should be exempted from criminal
liability for children and lunatics cannot anticipate the
outcome of their actions.
Exception for mentally ill
Considers age, gender and social class of the offender
Introduction of mitigating circumstances
 POSITIVIST/ REALISTIC THEORY
Developed by Cesare Lombroso, Enrico Ferri and Raffaele
Garofalo. = They are known to be the Holy Three in
Criminology.

 Positivist believed that the cause of delinquency could be

identified through the application of the scientific method. They
replaced punishment with individual treatment.
 POSITIVIST/ REALISTIC THEORY
ARGUMENTS:
 Theories sought to explain why an individual
committed crime based on some form of
scientific evidence – the search for facts
Cesare Lombroso;  looks to internal or external influences on
Father of Modern individuals as the primary cause of criminal
Criminology. He behavior.
wrote a book
 A person is socially sick
entitled “Crime: It’s
causes and
Remedies”.
 The Scientific Approach in
Explaining the Causes of Crime
1. Biological Theories of Crime
2. Psychological theories of Crime
3. Sociological Theories of Crime
4. Geographical Theories of Crime
5. Economic theories of Crime
6. Political theories of Crime
 Auguste Comte and Positivism
Auguste Comte – considered as the founder of sociology.
- He applied scientific methods to the study of society. According to
Comte, societies pass through stages that can be grouped on the
basis of how people try to understand the world in which they live.
1. Primitive Societies – People consider inanimate objects as
having life (for ex. Sun is a God).
2. Social stages/Positive stage – People embrace the rational,
scientific view of the world.
 1. Biological Theories of Crime

This refers to the genetic influences, those that are explained

by heredity the characteristics of a person acquired from birth
transferred from one generation to another.
It is the primary basis of the idea concerning criminal
behavior, the concept that “criminals are born.
Focus on the idea that physical body, through inherited
genes, evolutionary factors, brain structures or the role of
hormones, has an influence on an individual involvement in
criminal behavior.
 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY
 Cesare Lombroso’s anthropological theory of crime
assumes that crime is genetic in nature. Lombroso in
particular assumes that this is an atavistic type of
criminal.
The criminal can be distinguished from the non-
criminal by numerous physical and psychological
anomalies.
Lombroso believed that criminals are the throwbacks to
a more primitive stages of human evolution and that the
criminal tendency is inherited.
In Lombroso’s view, criminals exhibits more physical
and mental abnormalities than non criminals, such as
unusual skull sizes and asymmetrical facial structure.

Crime is inherited; it arises from a criminal disposition

 Classifications of Criminals by Lombroso

A. Born Criminals – there are born criminals according

to Lombroso, the belief is that criminal behavior is
inherited.
B. Criminal by Passion – are individuals who are easily
influenced by great emotions like fit of anger.
C. Insane Criminals – are those who commit crime due
to abnormalities or psychological disorders. They
should be exempted from criminal liability.
D. Criminaloid – a person who commits crime due to
less physical stamina/self control.

E. Occasional Criminal – are those who commit crime

due to insignificant reasons that pushed them to do at
a given occasion.

F. Pseudo-criminals – are those who kill in self-

defense.
 PHYSIOGNOMY  It is a study of facial features of criminal
to determine whether the shape of ears,
nose, and eyes and the distance
between them were associated with
antisocial behavior.
 It also compares human faces to animal
faces in the belief that people who had
facial features similar to those of an
animal would have personality traits
Johann Kaspar Lavater (1741–1801) similar to that animal as well.
He concluded that one could determine criminal
behavior through an examination of a person's
eyes, ears, nose, chin, and facial shape
PHRENOLOG
Y It is the study of the shape
of the head through the
examination and
measurement of the
bumps on an individual's
skull to determine whether
these physical attributes
were linked to criminal
behavior.
Franz Joseph Gall developed the
practice of craniology
SOMATOTYPING
THEORY
• Somatotype theory is most
commonly associated with William
Sheldon.
• Somatotyping is the classifying of
people into types according to body
build.
• This theory relates distinctive body
types to personality characteristics
and relates criminal behavior to the
body types.
Sheldon's somatotype theory established three basic body types:
(Endomorph, Mesomorph, and Ectomorph.)
1. Ectomorph –was a thin, introverted person with poor social skills.
Physical Characteristics
• Narrow hips, shoulders, face and chest
• Skinny arms and legs
• High forehead
Personality characteristics:
• Socially awkward Introverted and private
• Self-conscious Artistic
• Thoughtful
2. Endomorph
Physical Characteristics
 Pear-shaped or round with wide shoulders and hips
High body fat in all areas, including arms and thighs
Slim ankles and wrist, adding to the funny characteristics
Personality characteristics
•Outgoing Laid-back
•Funny Attention-seeking
•Loving
3. MESOMORPH
Physical Characteristics
Broad shoulder and narrow waist
 A trim or muscular body with a “strong” feel.
Proportionate facial features
Qualities
Outgoing Competitive Full of life
Courageous Risk taker
GENETIC THEORY

Arguments:
Criminal traits and predisposition are inherited. The
criminality of parents can predict the delinquency of
children. ( referred to by pseudonyms such as Jukes and
Kallikaks) finding evidence that criminal tendencies were
based on genetics.
Richard L. Dugdale = Studied the Jukes Family

Margaret “ADA” Juke = considered as the mother of all

criminals.

Henry H. Goddard – Studied the Kallikaks Family and

published a book entitled “A Study in the Heredity of
Feeble-Mindedness” in 1912.
 Biochemical Theories
It claims that Crime, especially violence is a function of diet,
vitamin intake, hormonal imbalance or food allergies.

Crime and Sugar

◦ Excessively low levels of blood sugar (hypoglycemia) can
cause the development of negative behavior, mental confusion,
physical weakness, delirium and violence. Excessive
consumption of alcohol can cause hypoglycemia and increase
aggressive behavior.
Cholesterol and Crime
◦ Clinical trials made found a relation between low cholesterol
and aggressive behavior. Low levels of cholesterol are
associated with persons who have difficulties with
internalization of social norms and have a tendency to be
irresponsible.

Vitamins and Crime

oTheory states that low intake of vitamins and minerals can
cause delinquent behavior.
Neurological Theory
◦ The major premise of the theory is that criminals
and delinquents often suffer brain impairment, as
measured by the Electroencephalogram (EEG).
◦ Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and minimal
brain dysfunction are related to anti social-
behavior.
2. Psychological Theories of Crime
◦ These theories of crime focused on the association
among intelligence, personality, learning and
criminal behavior.
 Psychoanalytic Theory

Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory of personality

argues that human behavior is the result of the
interactions among three component parts of the
mind: the id, ego, and superego.
ID
A. It is primitive part of an individual’s
mental make-up
B. It is present at birth
C. It represents unconscious
biological drives for sex, food and
other life sustaining necessities.
D. It follows the pleasure principle: it
requires instant gratification without
concern for the rights of others.
EGO
A. It develops early in life, when a child begins to learn that
his/her wishes cannot be instantly gratified.
B. It is the part of the personality that compensates for the
demands of the id by helping the individual guide his or her
actions to remain within the boundaries of social convention.
C. It is guided by the reality principle: it takes into account what
is practical and conventional by societal standards.
SUPEREGO
A. It is a moral aspect of an individual personality
B. It passes judgment on behavior
C. Conscience tells what is right and wrong.
◦ It forces the ego to control the id and directs the individual into
morally acceptable and responsible behaviors, which may not
be pleasurable.
 Personality Theory
◦Psychologist Hans Eysenck proposed a theory
of personality based on biological factors,
arguing that individuals inherit a type of nervous
system that affects their ability to learn and
adapt to the environment.
 Three Dimensions of Personality

1.Extroversion/Introversion
People high on the trait of extroversion are sociable and
outgoing and readily connect with others, whereas people
high on the trait of introversion have a higher need to be
alone, engage in solitary behaviors, and limit their
interactions with others.
2. Neuroticism/Stability
In the neuroticism/stability dimension, people high
on neuroticism tend to be anxious; they tend to have
an overactive sympathetic nervous system and even
with low stress, their bodies and emotional state tend
to go into a flight-or-fight reaction. In contrast, people
high on Stability tend to need more stimulation to
activate their flight-or-fight reaction and are therefore
considered more emotionally stable.
3. Psychoticism/Socialization
In the psychoticism/socialization dimension, people
who are high on psychoticism tend to be independent
thinkers, cold, nonconformist, impulsive antisocial and
hostile. People who are high on socialization (often
referred to as superego control) tend to have high
impulse control – they are more altruistic, empathetic,
cooperative and conventional.
 FRUSTRATION-AGGRESSION
THEORY
This theory claims that people who are frustrated
will act aggressively, and people who engage in
aggression are frustrated first.
Frustration = is a behavior directed at anticipated
goals or expectations. It develops when a person
experiences the blocking of some goals.
 Biopsychosocial Model Of Crime Causation

◦ The Biopsychosocial criminology and psychology is a

multidisciplinary perspective that attempts to understand
criminal behavior (and related outcomes, like antisocial
behavior and its consequences) by considering the
interactions between biological (e.g., genetics, hormones,
physiology, brain structure/functioning), psychological, and
sociological factors.
 3. SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF
CRIME
- It generally regards crime as a social phenomenon. And look
at a crime as a social problem, not an individual one.
Some sociological theories emphasize the relationship
between social structures, such as, language, ethnicity and
class, and criminal behavior.
And other often focus on the relationship between crime and
factors such as social inequality; the influence of peers; social
disorganization in a community;; and the role of criminal
subcultures, including gangs.
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Proposed by Albert Bandura,
emphasizes the importance of
observing, modelling, and imitating
the behaviors, attitudes, and
emotional reactions of others.
Social learning theory considers
how both environmental and
cognitive factors interact to
influence human learning and
behavior.
For example:
A. Family Interaction- Studies of family life show that
aggressive children's have parents who use similar tactics
when dealing with others
B. Environmental Experiences – people who reside in areas
in which violence is daily occurrence are more likely to act
violently than those who dwell in low-crimes.
C. Mass Media – Films and televisions shows commonly
depict violence graphically. Moreover, violence is often
portrayed as an acceptable behavior.
 IMITATION THEORY
Gabriel Tarde devised a theory of “Imitation” through which he
tried to explain criminal behavior. He believed that the origins of
deviance were similar to the origins of fads and fashion and that
his “three laws of imitation” can explain why people engage in
crime.
1. The law of close contact - explains that people have a greater
tendency to imitate the fashions or behaviors of those around
them.
2. The law of imitation of superiors by inferiors
3. The law of insertion
Labeling Theory
Labeling theory is concerned with how
some behaviors are labeled “deviant” and
how being given such a label influences a
person’s behavior
• Being labeled as deviant has negative
consequences because labeled people tend
to see themselves as deviant, which leads
them to continue their so-called deviant
behavior
 Differential Association Theory
Developed by Edwin Sutherland and was considered as “Dean of
Modern Criminology”
The theory states that Criminal behavior is learned in interaction
with other persons.\
 Principle part of learning takes place in intimate personal
groups, learning includes: techniques of committing the crime and
the drives, values and motives.
Process of learning delinquency involves same process as any
other learning.
 Principles of Sutherland’s Differential
Association theory Key points;
1. Criminal behavior is learned from other individuals.
2. Criminal behavior is learned in interaction with other
persons in a process of communication
3. The principal part of learning of criminal behavior
occurs within intimate personal groups.
 Routine Activity Theory (RAT)
Routine activity theory, from Cohen and Felson (1979),
emphasizes that crime occurs when three elements
converge:
(1) a motivated offender,
(2) a suitable target, and
(3) the absence of a capable guardian.
 Anomie Theory

Durkheim Anomie theory- is a social condition in

which there is a disintegration or disappearance of
the norms and values that were previously common to
the society. The concept, thought of as “normlessness.
Merton’s Anomie Theory – It states that when society does not
provide the necessary legitimate and legal means that allow
people to achieve culturally valued goals, people seek out
alternative means that may simply break from the norm, or may
violate norms and laws.
For example, if society does not provide enough jobs that pay a
living wage so that people can work to survive, many will turn to
criminal methods of earning a living. So for Merton, deviance,
and crime are, in large part, a result of anomie, a state of social
disorder.
 STRAIN THEORY – Robert King Merton

Certain classes are denied legitimate

access to culturally determined goals and
opportunities, and the resulting frustration
results in illegitimate activities or rejection of
the society’s goal.
 CLASS CONFLICT THEORY
Conflict theory is based upon the view that the fundamental
causes of crime are the social and economic forces
operating within the society. The criminal justice system and
criminal law are thought to be operating within society in behalf
of the rich and powerful elites with resulting policies aimed
of controlling the poor.
 4. Geographical Theories of Crime

Earliest criminology correlates climates, humidity,

wind velocity, rainfall, soil formation and other
geographical factors in the existence of crime and
criminality.
 CRIME MAPPING
Crime mapping is the process through which
crime analysts and researchers use location
information about crime events to detect spatial
patterns in criminal activity.
Adolphe Quetelet (1796 - 1874) - Quetelet was a
Belgian Statistician who pioneered Cartography and the
Cartographical School of Criminology that placed
emphasis on social statistics. He discovered, basing on
his research, that crimes against persons increased
during summer and crimes against property tends to
increase during winter.
5. Economic theories of Crime

Karl Marx (1818-1883) was a philosopher, author, social

theorist and economist famous for his theories
about capitalism and communism. Marx, in conjunction
with Friedrich Engels, published The Communist Manifesto in
1848; later in life, he wrote Das Kapital which discussed
the labor theory of value. Ironically, Marx was eloquent in
describing the exploitation of the working class while
personally failing to maintain a job for a significant period of
time.
 Capitalism – It is an economic and political system in which a country’s trade
and industry are controlled by private owners for profit rather than the state .

Working Class in Marxism

Class Function Properties/Ownership
Working class:
Farmers, Low They do not own any means
Proletariat
skilled factory of production
workers
The wealthy, who own most
Bourgeoisie Capitalist class
of the means of production
Comparison of Communism, Socialism, and Capitalism

Point of
Comparison Communism Socialism Capitalism

The government
Business Most businesses are owns and operates Individuals own and
ownership owned and operated major industries; operate businesses.
by the government. individuals own
small businesses.

None. The Restricted in major Encouraged by

government owns industries; market forces and
Competition and operates encouraged in small government
everything business regulations.
 6. Political theories of Crime

◦Asserts that Crime Causation may be linked with

political ideology such as:
I. Conservatism
II. Liberalism
III. Radicalism
I. Conservatism
It is a political and social philosophy promoting traditional
social institutions in the context of culture and civilization.
II. Liberalism
It is a political and moral philosophy based on liberty, consent
of the governed and equality before the law.
III. Radicalism
Denotes the intent to transform or replace the fundamental
principles of society or political system, often through social
change, structural change, revolution or radical reform.
 Theories on Women Offenders
1. Feminism on Crime Causation and Deviance
Advocates on this theory react and highly criticize the male
dominance explanation of crime causation deviancy. It holds
that crime causation and explanation of deviancy centered
mainly on male offender; thereby, leaving a gap and void as to
the study and understanding of female offender and deviancy.
 2. Feminist School of Thought

There are three (3) feminist schools of thought that emerged

regarding deviance, to wit:
1) Liberal Feminism
2.) Radical Feminism
3.) Social Feminism
1. Liberal Feminism –It has been particularly associated with
the ideas of formal equality and equality of opportunity.

◦ According to this school of thought, women’s deviance is a

rational response to the gender discrimination that women
experience at work, in marriage and other relationships (e.g.
lack of opportunity leads to lack of education/employment,
which leads to deviance). (Lacey, P.7: Paper Feminist Legal
Theory).
2. ) Radical Feminism – According to this school of thought,
patriarchy, meaning that, male domination over females, keeps
women more attached to the family, children and home.
Women are supposed to be domestically bound so that when they
detach from domestic roles, they are most likely to be singled out
as a deviant.
In the case of prostitution for instance, women are most likely
to be arrested and charged than their male counterpart because of
the domestic perception labeled against them. Gender inequality
plays a vital part here, although, under the law, they should and
must be equally guilty. Radical feminists consider sexual difference
as having a certain priority in social life.
3) Social Feminism – this school of thought argues that women
deviancy is the by-product of exploitation of capitalism and
patriarchy. Fewer economic resources, opportunities, and low
paying jobs availability are just left over of men who dominate
capitalism. Women are exploited by capitalism and patriarchy
and as a result, they are left with only fewer opportunities.
These factor lead to deviancy.
Female Criminality
Freda Adler (Sisters in Crime: The Rise of Female Criminal)
published in 1975, proposes that the global acceptance of equality
between men and women allowed women to be as crime prone as men.
She believed that increased in economic and political opportunities for
women have forced their way to be more visible to crimes, more
particularly white-collar crime, and, thus, to be as crime prone as men.
Now, we shall dissect the theory advanced by Freda Adler. Her theory
on female criminality is anchored on:
1. Opportunity, and;
2. Accessibility
 According to Adler’s theory, females commit crime based on
accessibility and opportunity inherent in a number of situations. Those
situations are often influenced by the female’s socio-economic status. As
females gained more independence in society, their access to more
serious criminal opportunities increased. (Adler, 1975).

Applicability of Adler’s Theory to Typical Crimes

1. Prostitution - for instance: Women have bodies to market, so, in order
to feed their needs, they become prostitutes. Here, they have easy
opportunity to make quick bucks or money without sweating it out, just
like an ordinary worker do, and they can easily have access to such
activity because sex easily sell.
2. Shoplifting: Women love shopping, if not shopaholic. So, when women
do not have the means to buy her stuff she loves, shopping provides her the
straightforward opportunity to steal. Women’s passion for shopping can be
viewed as an access which gives window of opportunity to commit crimes in
a mall or department store.

3. Murder: This crime that female may commit usually involve with someone
with whom she had relationship. Victims are usually male with whom the
female have had an intimate relationship, spouses or children. According to
Adler, female criminals have a relationship with their victims, thereby
providing an opportunity for the crime. This crime could be caused by mental
illness, sexual or emotional abuse, rejection by family members or peers,
financial difficulties or other similar factors.
Life Course Theory (Developmental Theory)

It see crime as the result of a developmental process

that starts before birth and continues throughout a
person’s life. It seeks to understand the interaction
between individual factors such as genetics and
personality, and social factors such as family and
community well-being.
Suggest that criminal behavior is a dynamic process,
influenced by individual characteristics as well as social
experiences, and that the factors that cause anti-social
behaviors change dramatically over a person’s life span.
Positive Stages of Life = Life in conformity with the law.

Educational Conventional
Intact Family
success Friends

Jobs Self-control Sobriety

Social
Marriage Maturity
Capital
Negative Stages = An individual may tend to be involved
with various criminal activities.

Dysfunctional Early
Poverty
Family Parenthood

Unemployment Deviant Peers

END!
“I can do all things through Christ who
strengthens me.” Philippians 4:13
 NOTE:
WALANG MAHIRAP SA
TAONG MAY PANGARAP!