CONCEPT OF CRIME AND THEORITICAL FOUNDATION OF
CRIME CAUSATION
Prior to the 18th century, punishment was cruel. It
included torture, burning, whipping, branding maiming and
execution. Apparently, the cruel public executions that were
meant to frighten people did not keep them from committing
crimes. Then comes the era of social scientists and thinkers who
introduced the penal reform system and the humane ways of
treating individuals who commit infraction of laws.
Crime is a violation of social rules of behavior as
interpreted and expressed by a criminal legal code created by
people holding social and political power. Individuals who violate
these rules are subject to sanctions by authority, social stigma,
and loss of status.
The history of criminology dates back from the works of
criminological thinkers or theorists in criminology. The origins of
criminology are usually located in the late-eighteenth-century
writings of those who sought to reform criminal justice and penal
systems that they perceived as cruel, inhumane, and arbitrary.
These old systems applied the law unequally, were subject to
great corruption, and often used torture and the death penalty
indiscriminately.
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Theories of crime
The formal development of criminology as a field of
discipline is recent, but the ideas of people who might be called
criminologists can be traced historically. Most of those people
were lawyers, doctors, philosophers, psychologists, and
sociologists whose primary interest was reforming the criminal
law, not in creating a science of criminal behavior. Nevertheless,
their contributions to criminology are immense and for an
adequate understanding of current criminological theories, some
familiarity with these earlier approaches is essential.
Importance of theory
A theory is any system of ideas arranged in rational order
that produce general principles which increase our understanding
and explanations.
The general principles in theory are derived from, and
representatives, of particular facts, those principles are not
dependent upon the particular thing to be explained.
“This means that theories have a life of their own in the
ever-increasing generalities they provide. Theories are like
children. Someone gives birth to them, and they go out into the
world and no longer belong to anyone. Some of them become
ideologies and others become endless puzzles that scientists work
on for centuries.”
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 Ideally, theory should:
 Focus attention on a particular phenomenon
 Fit the known facts about a particular phenomenon
 Contribute to scientific paradigms
 Provide a way it can be tested or falsified
 Establish boundaries and domains by which laws
and truth statements can be generalized and
 Enable propositions which can be added or
compared to those of other theories.
Theory is the foundation of criminology and of criminal
justice, and we study theory to know we are doing what we do.
Theory without research is not science. All research must
be based on theory. People who are uninterested in theory choose
to move through life, or in the case of criminal justice, intervene
people’s lives with only vague notions about why they are doing
what they are doing.
What makes a person “theorist” is their creative ability or
making wordsmith, the ability to describe something that
everyone knows is there, but no one has come along before to
say it exactly like that. The theorist’s creativity is based on what
are called constructs and the art of theory construction is the
translation of constructs into concepts.
The most important task of theory is explanation, which is
also called prediction. An explanation is a sensible way of relating
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the facts about some particular phenomenon to the intellectual
atmosphere of a people at a particular time or place.
Any group of like-minded, receptive people at a particular
time and place is called a School of Thought. Explanations are
always tied to context (inter-subjective reliability) and concepts
(the intellectual words and phrases in use at any given time).
Crime as viewed by criminologists
Crimes are behavior believed to be repugnant to all
elements of society. Included in the substantive criminal law are
written code that define crimes and their punishments, reflects
the values, beliefs, and opinion of society mainstream. Social
harm is that which sets strange, unusual or deviant behavior or
any other action that departs from social norms which is apart
from criminal behavior. The conflict view of crime as viewed by
criminologists is that depicts society as a collection of diverse
groups owners, laborers, professionals, and students – who are
constant and continuing conflict. The definition of crime is
controlled by wealth, power, and position of the upper classes at the
expenses of the poor. However, in the integrationist view of crime
as interpreted by criminologists, it was then in the premise that
people act according to their own interpretations of reality,
through which they assign meaning to things. They learn the
meaning of a thing from the way others react to it, either
positively or negatively and they re-evaluate and interpret their
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own behavior according to the meaning and symbols they have
learned from others. Lastly, they see the law as conforming of the
beliefs of “moral crusader” or moral entrepreneurs, who use their
influence to shape the legal process in the way they see it.
According to Adler, Mueller and Laufer, a crime is any human
conduct that violates a criminal law and it is subject to
punishment. What leads a society to designate some wrong as
crimes and leave other wrongs to be settled in private? For
centuries, “natural laws” philosophers, believing in the universal
rightness and wrongness of certain human behaviors, have held
the view that some behaviors are innately criminal and that all
societies condemn them equally.
If you were to find the answers of why some people
commit crimes, where would you look for answers? Would you
search for events that might have influence a criminal to commit
crimes? There are many approaches in the explanation of crimes
in order to come to an answer to these questions. Among them
are the following:
o Anthropological approach – the study on the physical
characteristics of an individual offender with non-offenders
in the attempt to discover differences covering criminal
behavior.
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o Medical approach – the application of medical
examinations on the individual criminal explain the mental
and physical condition of the individual prior and after the
commission of the crime.
o Biological approach – the evaluation of genetic
influences to criminal behavior. It is noted that heredity is
one force pushing the criminal to crime.
o Physiological approach – the study on the nature of
human being concerning his physical needs in order to
satisfy his wants. It explains that the deprivation of the
physical body on the basic needs is an important
determiner of the commission of crime.
o Psychological approach – it is concerned about the
deprivation of the psychological needs of man, which
constitute the development of deviations of normal
behavior resulting to unpleasant emotions.
o Psychiatric approach – the explanation of crime through
diagnosis of mental diseases as a cause of the criminal
behavior.
o Psychoanalytical approach – the explanation of crimes
based on the Freudian Theory, which traces behavior as
the deviation of the repression of the basic drives.
o Objective Approaches
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 The objective approaches deal on the study of groups, deciding to undertake conventional actions. Motivation may stem
social processes and institutions as influences to behavior. They from a number of different sources of needs, including greed,
are primarily derived from social sciences. revenge, anger, lust, or thrill-seeking. The central issue is that the
o Geographical approach – this approach offender’s decision to commit crime is a matter of rational choice,
considers topography, natural resources, made after weighing the potential benefits and the consequences
geographical location, and climate lead an of the actions.
individual to commit crime. This view that criminal behavior is a function of the human ability
o Ecological approach - it is concerned with the to choose an individual course of action was originally referred to
biotic grouping of men resulting to migration as Classical Theory. Modern variations on this basic theory include

competition, social discrimination, division of labor rational choice and routine activities theory.
and social conflict as factors of crime. Four concepts associated with Classical Theory

o bi approach – deals with the explanation of crime 1. General deterrence

concerning financial security of inadequacy and 2. Special deterrence

other necessities to support life as factors to 3. Incapacitation and;

criminality. 4. Retribution

o Socio – cultural approach – those that focus on Thus, the basic premise of classical theory is that all men and

institutions, economic, financial, education, women have the potential to be criminals if not kept in check by

political, and religious influences to crime. fear of punishment.

THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION Foundations of Classical Theory

A. Cesare Beccaria

The Classical Theory Cesare Bonesana, Marquis of Becaria, was a firm advocate of

To many criminologists, the decision to commit crime (stage a the principle of Utility, which maintains that people are

robbery, attack a rival, or submit a false tax return) is similar to basically rational creatures who choose their own courses of
action. Humans, according to this view, wants to achieve
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 pleasure and avoid pain; crimes must therefore provide only justified if it promised to prevent greater evil than
some pleasure to the criminal. It follows that to deter crime, it created. He stated that there are four (4) main
pain must be administered in an appropriate amount to objectives of punishment:
counterbalance the pleasure obtained from crime.
ON CRIME AND PUNISHMENT: 1. To prevent all criminal offenses
Beccaria stated the following theorem in order for 2. When it cannot prevent crime, to convince offender
punishment not to be an act of violence of one or many against a to commit less serious one
private citizen. 3. To ensure that criminal uses no more force than is
1. It must be essentially public necessary
2. Prompt 4. To prevent crime as cheaply as possible.
3. Necessary
4. The least possible in the given circumstances Modern variations of Classical Theory:
5. Proportionate to the crimes 1. Rational choice theory
6. Dictated by laws The rational choice approach assumes that offenders are
rational beings who make decisions about crime, no matter how
Jeremy Bentham limited their mental ability, information, or time. However, rational
The second major influence on the classical school was choice theory adds to basic classical concepts the view is both
the British philosopher Jeremy Bentham. Bentham offense and offender specific. That crime must be viewed as
created a moral calculus for estimating the likelihood offense specific refers to the fact that offenders react selectively
that any individual would engage in a particular act. to the characteristics of particular offense. The choice of a crime
is made after at least a brief weighing and sorting of this offense
Law and punishment. Bentham, believed that the specific data.
purpose of all law was to produce and support the To say that crime is also offender specific refers to the
happiness of the community it served. Since fact that criminals are not simply driven people who for one
punishment was in itself harmful, its existence was reason or another engage in random acts of anti-social behavior.
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The interaction between the offender and offense provide a basis Cohen and Felson clarify this view by linking crime rates to
for selecting among alternative courses and therefore structure the interaction of three (3) variables which reflect the routine
the offender’s choice of behavior. This interaction is referred to as activities found in everyday American life:
choice restructuring. 1. The availability of suitable targets ( such as home
The rational choice approach is most closely associated containing easily saleable goods.
with the work of criminologists Ronald Clarke, Cornish, Phillip 2. The absence of capable guardians (such as
Cook and others. They argue that law- abiding behavior takes homeowners and their neighbors, friends and relatives)
place when an offender decides to take the chance of violating the 3. The presence of motivated offenders (such as
law after considering his/her personal situation and situational unemployed teenagers
factors. If all these are present, there is greater likelihood that
predatory crime will take place.
2. Routine Activities Theory
This theory originated in the pioneering studies of Cesare Lombroso and the Born Criminal
victimization by Michae Hindelang, Michael Gotftfredson and Cesare Lombroso(1835-1909)- the “ father of Modern
James Garrofalo and has been subsequently refined by the Criminology)- studied the physical characteristics of offenders
research of criminologists Lawrence Cohen and Marcus Felson. convicted and executed for criminal offenses. He concluded that
According to this view, both the motivation to commit crime and serious offenders, those who engaged in repeated assaults or
supply of willing offenders are constant. That is, a certain theft- related activities, were born to be criminals; they have
percentage of the population will always have reason to violate inherited physical problems that impelled them into a life of crime.
the law for reasons of greed, need, gain, and so on. Lombroso claimed that born criminals suffer from
Consequently, the volume and distribution of predatory crimes are atavistic anomalies: physically, they are throwbacks to more
closely related not only to the behavior of criminals but to routine primitive times, when people were more savage.
daily activities of potential victims. According to Lombrosian theory, crimogenic traits could be
Predatory crimes – violent crimes against the person and acquired through heredity, from a “ degenerate family with
crime in which an offender attempts to steal an object directly
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frequent cases of insanity, deafness, syphilis, epilepsy, and
alcoholism among its members.
In addition to heredity, environmental conditions could
also promote crime. Thus, while Lombroso believed that inherited
biological factors were the primary cause of criminality, he also
recognized that environment could affect antisocial behavior.
LOMBROSO’S CONTEMPORARY
Lombroso’s theories sparked great controversy and won
him avid supporters as well as critics. Among them were;
Charles Goring(1870-1919)-a critic of Lombroso. In a
study of 3,000 English inmates, Goring found that criminal
behavior bore a significant relationship to “defective intelligence”.
He stated that this condition was inhe rited; therefore it could
best be controlled by regulating the reproduction of families
exhibiting such traits as “ feeblemindedness, epilepsy, insanity,
and defective social instinct”.
-. Goring concluded that there is no such thing a physical
chemical type. He contradicted the Lombroso’s idea that
criminality can be seen through features alone. Nevertheless,
Goring accepted that criminals are physically inferior to normal
individuals in the sense that criminals tend to be shorter and have
less weight than non-criminals.
RAFAELLE GAROFALO(1852-1934)
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He shared Lombroso’s belief that certain physical
characteristics indicated a criminal nature. He explained deviant
behavior with his concept of moral anomaly- the crimiinal’s lack
of compassionate and altruistic feelings, a condition that has an
organic root. The moral anomaly, said Garofalo, is a psychic force
found more frequently in the so-called inferior races and
transmitted through heredity.
ENRICO FERRI(1856- 1929)-is identified along with Lombroso
and Garofalo as part of the “ Holy Three of Criminology”. A
student of Lombroso, Ferri believed that a number of biological,
social, and organic factors caused delinquency and crime.
ERNEST HOOTON
A supporter of Lombroso, argued that the criminal was
biologically and socially inferior. Hooton concluded that “ in every
population, there are hereditary inferiors in mind and in body as
well as physical and mental deficient; that it is from the physically
inferior element of the population that native born criminals from
native parentage are mainly derived.
Earnest Hooton’s Theory (1887 - 1954) - An
Anthropologist who reexamined the work of Goring and found out
that “Tall thin men tend to commit forgery and fraud, undersized
men are thieves and burglars, short heavy person commit assault,
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rape and other sex crimes; where as mediocre (average) physique to their body builds in a process he called
flounder around among other crimes.” He also contended that somatotyping.
criminals are originally inferior; and that crime is the result of the
impact of environment. Eleanor Glueck- used Sheldon’s three body types and added a
BODY BUILD THEORIES fourth, a “balanced type” that included boys with no discernible
Another early branch of biocriminology was the body build dominant body type.
or somatotype, school. Advocates of this approach argued that Body build theory was rejected by most
criminals manifest distinct physiques that make them susceptible criminologists after controlled research efforts found no
to particular types of criminal behavior. significant relationship between body build and self-
WILLIAM SHELDON- the most well-known proponent of reported delinquency. The work of Lombrosians and
this theory. He linked body type to delinquency. In his analysis of other biological determinists was viewed as
youth, Sheldon discovered the existence of three basic body methodologically unsound, racist, and generally invalid.
types. They are;
a. Mesomorphs- have well- developed muscles and an PSYCHOLOGICAL AND BIOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO
athletic appearance; they are active, aggressive, CRIME
sometimes violent and are the most likely to
become criminals. A. BIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME
b. Endomorphs-heavy built and slow moving. They Biological theories of crime focus on the physiological,
are known for lethargic behavior. biochemical, neurological and genetic factors that
c. Ectomorphs- are tall and thin, less social and are influence criminal behavior.
more intellectual than the other types. Men as living organism has been the focus of number of
Sheldon believed that most people maintained in studies which has the purpose of determining the cause of crime.
their physical structure elements of all three body The biological explanations of criminality assume that individual
builds. He classified convicted offenders according vary in behavior because of their biological structural differences.

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These structural differences may be the result of chromosomes,
genes, chemistry, hormones, or even body type. Modern biocriminologist, charge that mainstream
criminologists ignore the recent advances made in the sciences of
Biology and experimental Psychology. They maintain that
FOUNDATIONS OF BIOCRIMINOLOGY important genetic and reproductive patterns have been
Biological explanations of criminal behavior emerged overlooked in the construction of modern criminological theory.
during the eighteen century. At that time, there was considerable They find that some people acquire neurological and physical
ferment in the scientific community. A great deal of interest abnormalities as early as the fetal stage, which then control their
develop in positivism- the belief that scientific method and subsequent behavior through their childhood and beyond.
empirical analysis should be used to study behavior.
RAY JEFFREY- a leading proponent of biocriminology.
THE EARLIEST BIOCRIMINOLOGISTS
The earliest biocriminologists were concerned with the Biochemical Factors
shape of the head and body. 1. Chemical and mineral factors. Biocriminologists
maintain that minimum levels of minerals and chemicals
Physiognomists, such as J.D. Lavater- studied the are needed for normal brain functioning and growth,
facial features of criminals to determine whether the shape and especially in the early years of life. People with vitamin
placement of the ears, nose and eyes were associated with anti- deficiency or dependency can manifest many physical,
social behavior. mental and behavioral problems.
Phrenologists Franz Joseph Gall & Johann K. 2. Hormonal influences. there have been a number of
Spurzheim- studied the shape of the skull and bumps on the research studies linking violence to abnormal hormone
head to determine whether these physical attributes were linked levels.
to criminal behavior.
L.E.Kreuz and R.M.Rose- found in a sample of inmates that
MODERN BIOCRIMINOLOGY testosterone levels were higher in men who committed violent
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crimes than in other prisoners, though results of comparisons with
a noncriminal control group were insignificant.
Katharina Dalton- popularly linked PMS and delinquency; her
studies of English women led her to conclude that females are
more likely to commit suicide, be aggressive, and be otherwise
antisocial before or during menstruation.
Julie Horney -impressively reviewed the literature on PMS and
crime and found that existing evidence is inconclusive. She
suggests there may be alternative explanations for a PMS-
violence link. For example, it’s possible that the psychological and
physical stress of aggression produces early menstruation and not
vice-versa.
3. Allergies. Cerebral allergies and neuroallergies are
believed to cause the allergic person to produce enzymes
that attack wholesome foods as if they were dangerous to
the body. They may also cause swelling of the brain which
can produce mental, emotional and behavioral problems
including hyperemotionality, aggressiveness and violent
behavior.
Cerebral allergies cause an excessive
reaction of the brain, whereas neuroallergies
affect the nervous system. It also have been
1010613
linked to hyperactivity in children, which may
indicate antisocial behavior and the labeling of
children as potential delinquents.
4. Environmental contaminants. Increasing amount of
lead, copper, cadmium and mercury and inorganic gases
such as chlorine are substances which can cause death at
high levels. At moderate levels, they have been linked to
emotional and behavioral disorders.
Learning Activity – 1
Name: ___________________ Course & Year:_________
I – True or False (Just write T if the statement is True and F if the
statement is False) (2 pts. each)
______ 1. Crime is a violation of social rules of behavior as
interpreted and expressed by a criminal legal code created by
people holding social & political power.
______ 2. The punishment was cruel, prior to the 20 th century?
______ 3. A theory establish boundaries and domains by which
laws and truth statements can be generated.
______ 4. A theory without research is not a science.
1010614
______ 5. Explanation is not sensible way of relating the facts
about some particular phenomenon to the intellectual atmosphere
of a people at a particular time or place.
II - Fill in the blanks. Supply the correct answer of the space
provided. (2 pts. each)
1. _______________ is any system of ideas arranged in rational
order that produce general principles which increase our
understanding and explanations.
2. ______________ is controlled by wealth, power and position of
the upper classes at the expenses of the poor.
3. The objectives approaches deal on the study of groups, social
processes and institutions as influences to __________________.
4. ______________ the explanation of crimes based on the
Freudian Theory, which traces behavior as the deviation of the
repression of the basic drives.
5. ______________ the evaluation of genetic influences to
criminal behavior.
6. The offender’s decision to commit crime is a matter of
__________?
7. The basic premise of classical theory is that all men and women
have the potential to be criminals if not kept in check by
___________.
8. _______________ refers to the fact that offenders react
selectively to the characteristics of particular offense.
1111613
9. ______________ this theory originated in the pioneering
studies of victimization by Michae Hindelang and his companion
and has been subsequently refined by the research of
criminologists Cohen & Felson.
10. _______________ violent crimes against the persona and
crime in which an offender attempts to steal an object directly.
11. _______________ the “Father of Modern Criminology”.
12. Lombroso claimed that born criminals suffer from
___________________.
13. _______________ he contradicted that Lombroso’s idea that
criminality can be seen through features alone.
14. _______________ a supporter of Lombroso, argued that the
criminal was biologically and socially inferior.
15. _______________ she conclude that females are more likely
to commit suicide, be aggressive and otherwise antisocial before
or during menstruation.
III – Essay (10 pts. Each)
1. Differentiate Rational Choice Theory from Routine Activities
Theory.
1111614
2. Explain the three (3) body types according to William Sheldon. 4. Discuss or explain the Earnest Hooton’s Theory.

3. What are the three (3) variables which reflect the routine 5. Who is Franz Joseph Gall & Johann Spurzheim? Discuss their
activities found in everyday American life? Explain each. contributions.

1212613 1212614

HEREDITY AND CRIMES
Early biological theorists believed that criminality was an
inherited trait passed on in the genes. Although this view has long
lost popularity, many modern criminologists are still interested in
the role of genetics. The methods employed to test the
proposition that criminality was inherited are the following:
A. Family studies
In this method, the family known to have many criminals
was compared with a family free of criminals.
Some studies conducted to prove that children of criminal
parents are more likely to become law violators than children of
conventional parents. They are as follows.
1. Juke Family (Richard Dugdale)
Juke family consist of 6 girls, some of them were
illegitimate. One of them, Ada Juke, was known as “THE MOTHER
OF CRIMINALS”. Dugdale traced the 1,200 descendants for 75
years and found 280 paupers, 60 thieves, 7 murderess, 40 other
criminals, 40 with sexual diseases, 300 infants prematurely born,
50 prostitutes and 30 who were prosecuted for bastardy.
2. Kalikak Family (Henry Goddard)
1313613
Martin Kalikak was an American revolutionary war soldier.
While stationed in a small village, he had an illicit relationship with
a feeble-minded girl. About 489 descendants from his lineage
were traced which included 143 feeble-minded and 46 normal. 36
were illegitimate, 3 epileptics, 3 criminals, 8 kept brothels, and 82
died in fancy.
3. Study of Sir Jonathan Edwards’ Family
Sir Jonathan Edwards was a famous preacher during the
colonial period. When his family tree was traced, none of the
descendants was found to be criminal. Rather, many became
presidents of the United States , governors, members of the
Supreme Court, famous writes, preachers, and teachers.
B. Adoption Studies
This method compared the criminal records of adopted children
who ere adopted at relatively early age with the criminal records
of adopted parents. Several studies indicate that some
relationship exists between biological parent’s behavior and the
behavior of their children.
Hutchings and Mednick was found that the criminality of
the biological father was a strong predictor of the child’s criminal
behavior. An analysis of Swedish adoptees also found that genetic
factors are highly significant accounting for 59 percent of the
1313614
variation in their petty crime rates. Boys who had criminal parents
were significantly more likely to violate the law.
Phrenology of craniology – this is the analysis of the external
formation of the skull that indicates the conformation of the brain
and the development of its various parts in relation to the
behavior of the criminal.
 Criminals constitute a distinct ‘born’ type.
 This type of criminal can be identified by certain physical
anomalies or stigmata or anomalies such as asymmetrical
face, large ears, excessively long arms, flattened nose,
retreating forehead, tufted and crispy
insensibility to pain, eye defects, and other physical
peculiarities.
 The stigmata are the causes of crime but rather the
symptoms of atavism or degeneracy. Thus, according to
Lombroso, atavism and degeneracy are the basic causes of
crime.
 A person who is the criminal type cannot refrain from
committing crime unless he lives under exceptionally
favorite circumstances.
 Not only criminals differ from non- criminals in physical
characteristics but they can also be
according to the type of crime they commit.
Physiology or Somatotype – refers to the study of the body
build of a person in relation to his temperament and personality
and the type of offense he is most prone to commit. This
approach was originated by Ernst Kretschmer and developed by
William Sheldon
The idea of somatotyping was originated from the work
of a German Psychiatrist, Ernest Kretschmer, who distinguished
three principal types of physique as:
a. Asthenic – lean, slightly built, narrow shoulders
b. Athletic – medium to tall, strong, muscular,
course bones
hair, and c. Pyknic – medium height, rounded figure, massive
neck, broad face
Kretschmer related these body physique to various pychotic
behavioral patterns: Pyknic to manic depression, asthenics and
athletics to schizophrenia.
Sheldon is an influenced of the Somatotype School of
Criminology, which related body built to behavior. He became
popular of his own Somatotyping Theory. His key ideas are
concentrated on the principle of “Survival of the Fittest” as a
behavioral science. He combines the biological and psychological
explanation to understand deviant behavior. Sheldon’s
distinguished
“Somatotyping Theory” maintains the belief of inheritance as the
1414613 1414614
primary determinants of behavior and the physique is a reliable
indicator of personality.

Classification of Body Physique by Sheldon Learning Activity – 2

 Endomorphy – a type with relatively predominance of soft,
roundness through out the regions of the body. They have
low specific gravity. Persons with typically relaxed and Name: ___________________ Course & Year:_________
comfortable disposition.
 Mesomorphy – athletic type, predominance of muscle, Essay: (10 pts.)
bone and connective tissue, normally heavy, hard and Explain the family studies of each personalities.
firm, sting and tough. They are the people who are
routinely active and aggressive, and they are the most
1. Juke Family (Richard Dugdale)
likely to commit crimes.
 Ectomorphy – thin physique, flat chest, delicacy through
the body, slender, poorly muscled. They

Physical defects and crime – leaders of notorious criminal

groups are usually nicknamed, in accordance with their physical
defects or handicaps, such funny names as “dorong pilay”,
“asiong bingot” and others. The physical defects were the usual
source of irritation during their childhood days whenever they 2. Kalilak Family (Henry Goddard)
were the subject of mockery by others. As a result, they
developed inferiority complex.

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3. Study of Sir Jonathan Edward’s Family NEUROPHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS

Neurophysiology-the study of brain activity. This

study of criminality has received a great deal of attention since
August 1, 1966, when Charles Whitman, after killing his wife and
his mother, barricaded himself in a tower at the University of
Texas with a high-powered rifle and proceeded to kill 14 people
and wound 24 others before he was killed by police. An autopsy
revealed that Whitman suffered from a malignant infiltrating

4. In your own words, distinguish Family Studies from Adoption tumor.

Studies.
Various brain function patterns that have been related to
criminality:
1. Minimal brain dysfunction(MBD)- is related to
an abnormality in cerebral structure. It has
been defined as abruptly appearing,
maladaptive behavior that interrupts the
5. As a student, do you believe that criminality was inherited? lifestyle of an individual. Included within the
Explain your answer. category of MBS are several abnormal patterns:
dyslexia, visual perception problems,

1616613 1616614
 hyperactivity, poor attention span, temper hallucinations, and psychotic episodes. There is
tantrums and aggressiveness. evidence that people with tumors are prone to
2. EEG abnormality. An depression, irritability, temper outbursts and even
electroencephalogram(EEG) records the homicidal attacks.
electrical impulses given off by the brain. c. head injuries caused by accidents such as
Studies of adults have associated slow and falls or auto crashes had been linked to personality
bilateral brain waves with hostile, hypercritical, reversals involving outbursts of antisocial and
irritable, nonconforming and impulsive violent behavior
behavior. d. a variety of central nervous system diseases,
3. Other brain dysfunctions. Other brain ncluding cerebral anteriosclerosis, epilepsy, senile
dysfunctions have been related to violent crime. dementia, Korsakoff’s syndrome, and Huntington’s
Persistent criminality have been linked to; corea, also have been associated with memory
a. dysfunction in the frontal and temporal deficiency, orientation loss, and
regions of the brain. These regions are affective(emotional) disturbances dominated by
believed to play an important role in the rage, anger and increased irritability.
regulation and inhibition of human behavior
including the formation of plans and intentions
and the regulations of complex behavior.
Clinical evaluations of depressed and
psychopathic subjects showed a significant
number of them had dysfunction of the
temporal and frontal regions of the brain.
b. The presence of brain tumors also have
been linked to a wide variety of psychological
problems, including personality changes,
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 Learning Activity – 3

2. Minimal brain dysfunction

Name: ___________________ Course & Year:_________

I – True or False (Just write T if the statement is True and F if

the statement is False) 2 pts. Each

______ 1. Neurophysiology is the study of blood activity.

______ 2. Dyslexia is a condition in the brain that makes it hard
3. EEG abnormality
for a person to read, write & spell.
______ 3.Minimal brain dysfunction is related to an abnormality in
cerebral structure.
______4. EEG, means electroeconomicground that impluses given
off by the brain.
______ 5. Brain tumors lead brain dysfunction.

4. Brain tumor
II – Define the following: 5 pts. each

1. Neurophysiology

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 GENETIC INFLUENCES
5. Senile dementia Since its inception, biocriminology has been concerned
with genetic influences in criminality. The role of the genetic
make-up plays in human behavior is examined in some detail.

A. The XYY Supermale Studies

The first well-known study of this type was
undertaken by Patricia A. Jacobs, British researcher who
examined 197 Scotish prisoners for chromosomal
abnormalities through a relatively simple blood test known
as karyotyping. 12 of the group displayed chromosomes
which were unusual and 7 were found to have an XYY
chromosome. Normal male possesses an XY chromosome
structure while normal females are XX. Some other
unusual combinations might be XXX, wherein female’s
genetic makeup contains an extra X or female
chromosome. Klinefelter’s male are often possessed of
male genitalia but are frequently sterile and with evident
breast enlargement and intellectual retardation. The XYY
male however, whose incidence in the prison population
was placed at around 3.5% by Jacobs, was quickly
identified as potentially violent and termed as supermale.

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 Studies of XYY males tends to show
supermale.
 Are taller than the average male, often
standing 6’1’ or more
 Suffer from acne or skin disorders
 Are of less than average intelligence
 Are overrepresented in prisons and mental
hospitals
 Come from families with less history of
crime or mental illness
Among such studies are the following:
Physiognomy – this is the study of the relationship between
the facial features and human conduct of person in relation to
his crime.
a. Observation of his physical appearance
b. Measurement of the outward appearance
Both claimed that bald men, bearded woman, shifty eye, weak
chin and arrogant nose are criminal inclination.
Chromosome studies: the XYY controversy.
Sometimes individuals possess a greater or fewer number of
chromosome complement because of problems encountered soon
after conception. Of concern are males with extra y chromosome-
the 47, XYY syndrome. Several early studies on the XYY
phenomena reported that XYY males tended to be very tall
that individuals with a disproportionate inclination to commit crimes of
violence.
But current research has cast doubt on the XYY
hypothesis. However, some evidence shows that the number of
XYY males in secure mental hospitals is higher than would be
expected by chance alone.
B. Twin Studies. The earliest studies conducted on the
behavior of twins detected a significant relationship
between the criminal activities of identical or monozygotic
(MZ) twins and a much lower association on fraternal or
dizygotic( DZ) twins.
Karl Christiansen studies 3,586 male twin
pairs and found a 52% behavior concordance
for MZ pairs and 22% for DZ pairs.
Despite the limitations of the twin method,
the results of these studies are compatible with
the hypothesis that genetic factor s account for
some of the variance associated with antisocial
behavior
In 1920s, Lange studied 30 pairs of same
sex twins – 13 identical and 17 fraternal twins. He
found out that one member of each pair was a
known criminal. Both twins in 10 of the 13 pairs of
identical twins were both criminal; 2 of the 17 pairs
of fraternal twins were both criminal.
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 In Minnesota study of twins reared apart.
Experts’ conclusion was that twins are alike in
personality regardless of how they are reared, that
environment induces little or no personality
resemblance on twin pairs.
The logic of this method is that if there is greater
similarity in behavior between identical twins than
between fraternal twins, the behavior must be due
to heredity.
C. Adoption Studies. In one major study, Barry Hutchings
and Sarnoff Mednick analyzed 1,145 male adoptees born
in Copenhagen, Denmark between 1927 and 1941; of
these, 185 had criminal records. After following up on 143
noncriminal adoptees, they found that the criminality of
the biological father was a strong predictor of the child’s
criminal behavior. Moreover, the researchers found that
when both the biological and adoptive father were
criminal, the probability that the youth would engage in
criminal behavior greatly expanded.
Although the evidence is not conclusive, findings from
twins and adoption studies have given preliminary support
to the association of heredity, environment of criminality.
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C. PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES
When they study crime, psychocriminologists usually
address basic issues of human behavior; why people engage in
violence and aggression; whether there is such a thing as a
criminal personality; and whether childhood experiences influence
adult criminality. However, there is by no means unanimity among
psychologists over the answers to these questions.
Early psychological theory
The very earliest psychological view was that
criminals were possessed by evil spirits or demons. As the
field of psychology developed, early theorists suggested
that mental illness and insanity were inherited, and that
deviants were mentally damaged because of their inferior
genetic make-up.
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 Learning Activity – 4
4. Explain Chromosome Studies the XYY controversy.

Name: ___________________ Course & Year:_________

I – Answer Briefly: (10 pts.)

1. Define physiognomy

5. What are the identity of a person’s that tends to show

supermale?

2. Explain XYY Supermale Studies?

3. Discuss or elaborate Twin Studies and Adoption Studies, and

how do it differ?

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PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME Many people have tendency to behave in;
Psychologists and psychiatrists, same with biologists and 1. Domineering fashion
chemists, also attempted to explain behavior. They tried to find 2. Argumentative tendencies
out whether criminal behavior is caused by such personality 3. Retiring
factors as emotional problems, mental disorders, sociopathy, and One person may be described as;
thinking patterns. a. Hotheaded
b. Sensitive
Psychology of Crime c. Quite excitable
The science of the human mind in any of its aspects,
operations, powers or functions. It is the systematic investigation Maladjusted person- is an individual whose tendency
of mental phenomena, especially those associated with temperament is extreme or whose tendencies are in conflict to the
consciousness, behavior and the problem of adjustment to the extent that tension, strain, or anxiety is characterized as such. His
environment. The aggregate of emotions, traits and behavior personality is not well- integrated, and other things being equal,
patterns regarded as characteristics of an individual or type. he will be less satisfactory being an employee.
The aim of Psychology is to predict the future actions of a Although these tendencies are present in all personalities,
person, and the control of such activities by either adding to the it is the difference in degree that is associated with difference in
subjects make-up so that he may be able to benefit society, or by behavior.
altering the make- up to prevent the subject’s activities from
harming society. As the term applied in law enforcement,
Psychology is the science of the human mind and its operation.
Personality - the sum total of an individual’s mental, emotional
and temperamental make-up.
Temperament- one’s behavior tendency.
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 Learning Activity – 5 3. Define psychology.

Name: ___________________ Course & Year:_________

Essay: (5 pts.)

1. Why people engaged in violence and aggression?

4. What is meant by maladjusted person?

2. Do you believe that mental illness and insanity of person was

5. Who are the authorized person that able to explain the
inherited? Explain your answer.
behavior of criminal.

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Basic Components of Personality
1. The Normal Component
Self- control is the regulatory force in our make-up.
It is very desirable for it helps bring out the best in
us, as well as provide a check on our undesirable
tendencies. The stronger this component of
personality, the more we are inclined to conduct
which is by nature conservative, perfectionists,
serious and calm.
Along this line, one has to remember that “we are
strong in some and weak in others”.
2. Hysteroid Component
People with a strong degree of the Hysteroid
component have a great interest in acquiring
wealth. They seem to judge everything and
everybody in terms of material wealth. These
people like to gamble, not just for the love of it but
for the opportunity to make quick money without
working for it.
An additional mark of their component is that they
tend to push undesirable work assignments onto
others.
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3. The Manic Component
This third component has something to do with
sociability. Most of us like people; enjoy parties,
dinner and luncheons.
The following are some of the descriptions of a
manic component personality:
a. Has usually a large stock of stories, and his
jokes come in endless streams; he is a good
entertainer
b. He is distractible by nature. He is someone who
will sit in his office hoping that someone will
come in and distract him. He wants to be
interrupted. If he has to sit too long without
receiving visitors, he is likely to leave his office
and go out where he can talk to people.
c. This person has a lot of get up and go, lots of
pep and energy. He prides himself in working
long hours, but with one thing wrong; he is
likely to mix too much fun with his work.
The manic is one who is overly sociable. He is a
fine fellow but he doesn’t get much done.
4. The Depressive Component
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 This person is likely to worry about things which
are unrelated to his immediate interest. He is very
cautious and indecisive. In the extreme, he may
entertain thoughts of self- destruction. His
problems are always insurmountable.
5. The Autistic Component
Most businessmen will admit that they were shy
when they were young. Then will hasten to add
that they have overcome their shyness.
Much creative work is done by people with great
imaginations such as are found in shy individuals.
6. The Paranoid Component
This is closely allied with Autistic component.
Autistic and paranoid components have to do with
retreat from reality. The paranoid retreats in an
aggressive fashion rather than in a recessive one.
A paranoid person has a feeling of inferiority but
would not show it. His greatest fear is self-
deflation. To over-compensate for this, he is likely
to defend his opinion vigorously.
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In connection with this component is the disregard
for authority as expressed in the attitude of “down
with everything except me”.
7. The Epiliptoid Component
The epiliptoid individual is a planner and wants to
be an ideal man. These people are quite irritated
when interrupted and may display great anger
when distracted.
He is detached from reality. He may suffer from
black outs period or “out of this world”. This
epiliptoid component as the name implies is related
to epilepsy.
1. Environment – if a child grows up believing that certain
criminal activity is acceptable like drug dealing, prostitution
and gambling, it can enforce their potential for the crime.
Henry Maudsley (1835-1918)- an early pioneer
of the concept of insanity. He believed that insanity
and criminal behavior were strongly linked. He
believed that insanity was a heredity condition that
rendered the affected incapable of controlling their
behavior.
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 II - Essay: 10 pts.

Learning Activity – 6
Discuss Henry Maudsley

Name: ___________________ Course & Year:_________

I - True or False(Just write T if the statement is True and F if the

statement is False) 2 pts. each

______ 1. Hysteriod component is the third component & has

something to do with sociability
______ 2. Manic component is a component that has a great
interest in acquiring wealth.
______ 3. Epiliptoid component, these component belongs to a
people that are quite irritated when interrupted and may display
great anger when distracted.
______ 4. Paranoid component is closely allied with Autistic
component.
______ 5. The normal component is likely to worry about things
which are unrelated to his immediate interest.

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 moral development. The Freudian view on criminal
behavior was based on the use of Psychology in explaining
an approach in understanding criminal behavior – the
Psychological Theory Today foundation of the
Psychologists have considered a variety of
possibilities to account for individual differences – Psychoanalytical theory.
defective conscience, emotional immaturity, inadequate Freud attributed these feelings to man’s personality
childhood socialization, maternal deprivation, and poor structure:
moral development. The Freudian view on criminal a. ID – it is the impulsive part of the personality
behavior was based on the use of Psychology in explaining and unconscious. It represents the unconscious
an approach in understanding criminal behavior – the biological drives for sex, food and other life-
foundation of the Psychoanalytical theory. sustaining necessities. This requires instant
Psychoanalytic perspective- focus is on early gratification without concern for the rights of
childhood experiences and their effect on others. Thus, they must be repressed. It
personality operates according to “pleasure principle”
b. EGO - the component of personality that is
Psychoanalytical theory – this theory blames criminal responsible for dealing with reality. According
or delinquent behavior to a conscience that is either so to Freud, the ego develops from the id and
overbearing that it arouses feelings of guilt, or so weak ensures that the impulses of the id can be
that it cannot control the individual’s impulses and leads to expressed in a manner acceptable in the real
a need for immediate gratification. world. The ego operates based on the reality
Sigmund Freud - Psychologists have considered a principle, which strives to satisfy the id's desires
variety of possibilities to account for individual differences in realistic and socially appropriate ways.
– defective conscience, emotional immaturity, inadequate c. SUPEREGO - The superego is the aspect of
childhood socialization, maternal deprivation, and poor personality that holds all of our internalized
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moral standards and ideals that we acquire
from both parents and society—our sense of
right and wrong. According to Freud, the
Learning Activity – 7
superego begins to emerge at around age five.

There are two parts of the superego:

Name: ___________________ Course & Year:_________
1. The ego ideal includes the rules and
standards for good behaviors. These
behaviors include those which are I – Fill in the blanks. Supply the correct answer on the space
approved of by parental and other
provided after the number. (2 pts. each)
authority figures. Obeying these rules
leads to feelings of pride, value, and
accomplishment.
1. ________________ this inquires instant gratification without
2. The conscience includes information
about things that are viewed as bad by concern for the rights of others.
parents and society. These behaviors
2. ________________ the component of personality that is
are often forbidden and lead to bad
consequences, punishments, or feelings responsible for dealing with reality.
of guilt and remorse.5
3. ________________ a psychologists that have considered a
The superego acts to perfect and variety of possibilities to account for individual differences.
civilize our behavior. It works to suppress all 4. _______________ is the aspect of personality that holds all of
unacceptable urges of the id and struggles
to make the ego act upon idealistic our internalized moral standards & ideals that we acquire from
standards rather that upon realistic both parents and society.
principles. The superego is present in the
conscious, preconscious, and unconscious. 5. The super ego begins to emerge at around in the age of ____?

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II - Essay: Explain the following: (10 pts.)
Social Learning Theory
1. Psychoanalytical Theory
2. Psychoanalytic perspective.
BEHAVIOR AND SOCIAL LEARNING THEORIES
D. Social Learning Theory
Social learning theorists believe that crime is a product of
learning the norms, values and behaviors associated with
criminal activity. It involves a description of the three
mechanisms by which individuals learn to engage in crime
from others; differential reinforcement, beliefs and
modelling.
a. Differential reinforcement of crime. Individuals may
teach others ton engage in crime through the
reinforcements and punishments they provide for
behavior.it is more likely to occur when;
 It is frequently reinforced and infrequently
punished
 Results in large amounts of reinforcement
 Is more likely to be reinforced than alternative
behaviors

Reinforcement maybe positive or negative. In

positive reinforcement, the behavior result in something
good- some positive consequence; e.g. money,attention
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 from parents, approval from friends or an increase in
status.
In negative reinforcement, the behavior results in the
removal of something bad- a punisher is removed or avoided. For
example, suppose one’s friends have been calling her a coward
because she refuses to use drugs with them. The individual
eventually takes drugs with them, after which they stop calling
her a coward. The individual’s drug use has been negatively
reinforced.
b. Beliefs favorable to crime. Other individuals may teach
us beliefs favorable to crime. Surveys and interviews
with criminals suggest that beliefs favoring crime fall
into three categories. And data suggest that each type
of belief increases the likelihood of crime.
1st – some people generally approve of certain minor
forms of crime like consensual sex behavior, gambling,
“soft” drug use, alcohol use, truancy and curfew
violation
2nd-some people conditionally approve of or justify
certain forms of crime including some serious crimes
like for example fighting.it is generally wrong but it is
justified if you have been insulted or provoked.
3rd – some people hold certain general values that are
conducive to crime. these values do not explicitly
approve or justify crime but they make crime appear a
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more attractive alternative than would otherwise the
case.
FOUNDATIONS OF SOCIOLOGICAL CRIMINOLOGY
1. Adolphe Quetelet (1796 - 1874) - Quetelet was a
Belgian Statistician who pioneered Cartography and the
Carthographical School of Criminology that placed
emphasis on social statistics. He discovered, basing on his
research, that crimes against persons increased during
summer and crimes against property tends to increase
during winter.
SOCIAL STRUCTURE THEORIES
Robert King Merton (1910) - Robert Merton is the
premier sociologist of the modern days who, after Durkheim, also
related the crime problem to anomie. He advocated the Strain
Theory, which maintains that the failure of man to achieve a
higher status of life caused them to commit crimes in order for
that status/goal to be attained. He argued that crime is a means
to achieve goals and the social structure is the root of the crime
problem. Merton’s explanation to criminal behavior assumes that
people are law abiding but when under great pressure will result
to crime.
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Strain theory – this theory holds that crime is a function
of the conflict between the goals people have and the means they
can use to legally obtain them. Members of the lower class are
unable to achieve these symbols of success through conventional
means.
The roots of strain theories can be traced to Emile Durkheim’s
notion of anomie. Sociologists Robert Merton used a modified
version of the concept of anomie to fit social, economic, and
cultural conditions found in modern US society. He suggested that
mainstream culture is saturated with dreams of opportunity,
freedom and prosperity; as Merton put it, the American Dream.
Most people buy into this dream, and it becomes a powerful
cultural and psychological motivation. If the social structure of
opportunities is unequal and prevents the majority form realizing
the dream, some of them will turn to illegitimate means in order
to realize it. Otherwise will retreat or drop out into deviant
subcultures.
David Emile Durkheim (French, 1858 - 1917) - He
advocated the “Anomie Theory”, the theory that focused on the
sociological point of the positivist school, which explains that the
absence of norms in a society provides a setting conductive to
crimes and other anti-social acts. According to him, the
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explanation of human conduct lies not in the individual but in the
group and the social organization
SUBCULTURAL THEORIES
1. Albert Cohen (1918) - He advocated the Sub-
Culture Theory of Delinquency. Cohen claims that
the lower class cannot socialize effectively as the
middle class in what is considered appropriate middle
class behavior. Thus, the lower class gathered together
share their common problems, forming a subculture
that rejects middle class values. Cohen called this
process as reaction formation. Much of this behavior
comes to be called delinquent behavior; the subculture
is called a gang and the kids are called delinquents. He
put emphasis on the explanation of prevalence, origins,
process and purposes as factors to crime.
2. Lloyd Ohlin (1928) - He advocated the DOT –
Differential Opportunity Theory. This theory
explained that society leads the lower class to want
things and society does things to people. He claimed
that there is differential opportunity, or access, to
success goals by both legitimate and illegitimate means
depending on the specific location of the individual
with in the social structure. Thus, lower class groups
are provided with greater opportunities for the
acquisition of deviant acts.
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SOCIAL ECOLOGY THEORY
1. Robert Ezra Park (1864 - 1944) - Park is a strong
advocate of the scientific method in explaining criminality
but he is a sociologist. He advocated the “Human
Ecology Theory”. Human Ecology is the study of the
interrelationship of people and their environment. This
theory maintains that crime is a function of social change
that occurs along with environmental change. It also
maintains that the isolation, segregation, competition,
conflict, social contract, interaction and social hierarchy of
people are the major influences of criminal behavior and
crimes.
SOCIAL PROCESSES THEORIES
1. Edwin Sutherland (1883 - 1950) - Sutherland has
been referred to as “the most important criminologist of
the twentieth century” because his explanation about
crime and criminal behavior can be seen as a corrected
extension of social perspective. For this reason, he was
considered as the “Dean of Modern Criminology.” He
said that crime is learned and not inherited.
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He advocated the DAT – Differential Association
Theory, which maintain that the society is composed of
different group organization, the societies consist of a
group of people having criminalistic tradition and anti-
criminalistic tradition. And that criminal behavior is learned
and not inherited. It is learned through the process of
communication, and learning process includes technique of
committing the crime, motive and attitude.
it assumes that persons who become criminal do so
because of contacts with criminal patterns and isolation
from noncriminal patterns.
Learning Activity – 8
Name: ___________________ Course & Year:_________
I – Fill in the blanks. Supply the correct answer on the space
provided after the number. (2 pts. each)
1. ________________ he discovered that crimes against persons
increased during summer & crimes against property tends to
increase during winter.
3333614
2. ________________ he argued that crime is a means to achieve
goals and the social structure is the root of the crime problem.
3. ________________ the theory that focused on the sociological
point of the positivist school, which explains that the absence of
norms in a society provides a setting conductive to crimes & other 3. Social Ecology Theory
anti – social acts.
4. _______________ he advocated the Sub-Culture Theory of
Delinquency.
5. _______________ this theory explained that society leads the
lower class to want things & society does things to people.

II - Essay: Explain the following theories below: (10 pts.)

4. Differential Association Theory

1. Social Learning Theory

5. Subcultural Theories
2. Strain Theory

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 Principles of Differential Association 2.
 Criminal behavior is learned.
 Learning is a by-product of interaction.
 Learning occurs within intimate groups.
 Criminal techniques are learned.
 Perceptions of legal code influence motives and
3.
drives.

Learning Activity – 9
4.

Name: ___________________ Course & Year:_________

Enumerate and explain the five (5) principles of Differential

Association. (7 pts.each) 5.

1.

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 are benefited by it and they violate it if these laws are
not favorable to them.

Sykes and Matza based their theoretical model

E. Differential Reinforcement Theory – proposed by on these observations.
Ronald Akers in collaboration with Robert Burgess. It is a  Criminals sometimes voice a sense of
version of the social learning view that employs both guilt over their illegal acts.
differential association concepts along with elements of  Offenders frequently respect and admire
psychological learning theory. According to Akers, people honest, law-abiding persons.
learn to be neither ‘’all deviant’ nor ‘all conforming’ but  Criminals draw line between those
rather strike a balance between the two opposing poles of whom they cannot.
behavior.  Criminals are not immune to the
demands of conformity.
F. Neutralization theory – this theory is identified with the
writings of David Matza and Gresham Sykes. They Techniques of Neutralization
viewed the process of becoming a criminal as a learning  Denial of responsibility
experience in which potential delinquents and criminals  Denial of injury
master techniques that enable them to counterbalance or  Denial of victim
neutralize conventional values and drift back and forth
between illegitimate and conventional behavior.
It maintains that an individual will obey or disobey
societal rules depending upon his or her ability to
rationalize whether he is protected from hurt or
destruction. People become law abiding if they feel they

3636613 3636614

CONTROL THEORIES
a. Social Control Theory
Approach made by the social bond or social control theory.
Instead of looking for factors that make people become
criminal, these theories try to explain why people do not
become criminal. Travis Hirschi identified four main
characteristics: attachment to others, belief in moral
validity of rules, commitment to achievement, and
involvement in conventional activities. If those factors are
not present in a person, it is more likely that he or she
might become criminal.
Robert Sampson and John Laub have extended Hirschi’s
theory. An integrated control theory that draws on all of
their insights is presented.
Three major types of control
1. Direct control- exercised by family members, school
officials, coworkers, neighborhood residence, police
and others. It involves monitoring the person’s
behavior to ensure that they comply with rules and do
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not engage in crime. Monitoring maybe direct or
indirect.
a. Direct monitoring- direct surveillance of a parent or
other authoriy figure.
b. Indirect- the parent or authority figure does not
directly observe the person but makes an effort to
keep tabs on what they are doing.
2. Stake in conformity- that which one has to lose by
engaging in crime. People’s stake in conformity has
two components; emotional attachment to others and
their actual or anticipated investment in society.
3. Internal control- a function of beliefs regarding crime
and their level of self- control.
Labeling theory – this theory states that the reaction of other
people and the immediate effects of these reactions create
deviance. Labeling serves as a process of segregation that creates
“outsiders” or outcasts from society, who begin to associate with
others who also have been cast out. This theory serves as a
process where the self-image of a labeled deviant is attached to
him permanently
SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIME
Sociologists emphasize that human beings live in social
groups, and that those groups and the social structure they create
influence behavior.
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Conflict theory
Assumes that society is based primarily on conflict
between competing interest groups – for instance, the rich
against the poor, management against labor, men against
women, adults against children. One of the earliest
theorists to apply this is George Fold.
Radical theory – Karl Marx wrote a very little about crime and
criminal justice, radical theorist of crime causation is generally
based on Mar’x ideas. Among the criminologists to employ Marxist
theory to explain crime and justice were Richard Quinney, William
Chambliss and Anthony Platt. Radical criminologists argue the
capitalism is an economic system that requires people tom
complete against each other in the individualistic pursuit of
material wealth. Crime is caused by class struggle the competition
among wealthy people and among poor people, between rich and
poor people, and the practice of taking advantage of other people.
Social Reaction theory
Commonly called labeling theory, they focus of social
reaction theory is the criminalization process – the way
people and actions are defined as criminal. These labels
reduce the self0-image of the individual.
Social Structure Theories
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Many criminologists view the disadvantaged economic
class position as a primary cause of crime. These theories suggest
that social and economic forces operating in deteriorated lower-
class areas push many of their residents into criminal behavior
patterns.
Social disorganization theory – based on the work of Henry
Mckay and Clifford Shaw of the Chicago school. It links crime
rates to neighborhood ecological characteristics. A disorganized
area is one in which institutions of social control, such as the
family, commercial establishments and schools have broken down
and can no longer carry out their expected functions. Residents in
these areas, experience conflict and despair, and as a result,
antisocial behavior flourishes.
Cultural deviance theory – this theory combines elements of
both strain and social disorganization. According to this view
because of strain and social isolation, a unique lower-class culture
develops in disorganized neighborhoods. These independent sub-
cultures maintain a unique set of vales and beliefs that are in
conflict with conventional social norms.
Albert Cohen postulated the theory of delinquent
subcultures. His position was that delinquent behavior of lower
class youths is actually a protest against the norms and values of
middle class culture. Because social conditions make them
3838614
incapable of achieving success legitimately, lower-class youths
experience status frustration. As result, they join in gangs and
engage in non-utilitarian, malicious and negativistic behavior.
Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin also combined strain and
social disorganization principles into a portrayal of a gang-
sustaining criminal subculture. They agreed with Cohen and found
that independently delinquent subcultures exist within society.
They suggest that delinquency can result from differential
opportunity for lower class youth, hence the theory of differential
opportunity. Such youths may be tempted to take up criminal
activities, choosing an illegitimate path that provides them more
lucrative economic benefits than conventional, over legal options
such as minimum wage-paying jobs available to them.
Walter Reckless (1899 - 1988) - The Containment Theory
assumes that for every individual there exists a containing
external structure and a protective internal structure, both of
which provide defense, protection or insulation against crime or
delinquency. According to Reckless, the outer structure of an
individual are the external pressures such as poverty,
unemployment and blocked opportunities while the inner
containment refers to the person’s self control ensured by strong
ego, good self image, well developed conscience, high frustration
tolerance and high sense of responsibility. (Adler, 1995)
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Karl Marx, Frederick Engel, Willem Bonger (1818 -1940) -
They are the proponents of the Social Class Conflict and
Capitalism Theory. Marx and Engel claim that the ruling class in
a capitalist society is responsible for the creation of criminal law
and their ideological bases in the interpretation and enforcement
of the laws. All are reflected in the ruling class, thus crime and
delinquency are reflected on the demoralized surplus of
population, which is made up of the underprivileged usually the
unemployed and underemployed. Willem Bonger, a Marxist-
Socialist, on the other hand, placed more emphasis on working
bout crimes of economic gain. He believes that profit -motive of
capitalism generates an egoistic personality. Hence, crime is an
inevitable outcome.
Earl Richard Quinney (1934) – He was a Marxist criminologist
who advocated the Instrumentalist Theory of capitalist rule.
He argued that the state exist as a device for controlling the
exploited class – the class that labors for the benefit of the ruling
class. He claims that upper classes create laws that protect their
interest and t the same time the unwanted behavior of all other
members of society. Quinney major contribution is that he
proposed the shift in focus from looking for the causes of crime
from the individual to the examination of the Criminal Justice
System for clues.
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 3. Discuss the three (3) major types of control? Elaborate your
Learning Activity – 10 thoughts.

Name: ___________________ Course & Year:_________

Essay: Answer Briefly. (10 points each)

1. Explain the statement “why do people do not become

criminal”?
4. What is the importance of social disorganization theory?

2. What are the four (4) main characteristics that people might
become criminal? Explain each.

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5. Can you explain the advantages and disadvantages of Social Geographical factors
Disorganization Theory? Criminologists correlated climate. Humidity, wind,
velocity, atmosphere pressure, rainfall, nature of soil, and
other geographical factors to the existence and
development of the explanations formulated by
criminologists about the contribution of geography on
crimes.
1. North and south pole.
According to Quetelet’s “thermic law of
delinquency”, crimes against persons
predominate in the south pole during warm
season while crimes against property
predominate in the north pole and cold
countries.
2. Approach to the Equator
According to Montesquieu, criminality increases
in proportion as one approach the equator, and
drunkenness as one approach the north and
south pole.
3. Season of the year
Crimes against persons are more in summer
than in rainy season. Climatic conditions directly
affect one’s irritability and cause criminality.
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 During dry season, people get out of the
houses more, and there is more contact and
consequently more probability of personal
violence.
4. Soil formation
More crimes of violence are recorded in fertile
level lands than in hilly, rugged terrain. In these
places are more congregations of people, and
there is more irritation. And there is more
incidence of rape in level districts.
5. Month of the year
There is frequently incidence of violent crime
during warm months from April to July having
its peak in May. This is due to may festivals,
picnics, and other sorts of festivities wherein
people are more contact with one another.
6. Temperature
Studies show that the number of arrests
increases quite regularly with the increase of
temperature. Increase of temperature affects
the emotional state of the individual and leads
to fighting.
7. Humidity and atmosphere pressure
According to survey, large numbers of assaults
are to be found correlated with low humidity
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and a small number with high humidity. It was
explained that low and high humidity are both
vitally and emotionally depressed to the
individual.
8. Wind velocity
Studies explained that during high wind, arrests
were less. It may be due to the presence of
more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere that
lessens the vitality of men to commit violence.
The Social Contract Theory
This theory in law as revealed by Denny F. Pace 2007 is
called a “social contract”. This contract says that in order for
everyone to receive justice, each person must give up some of his
or her freedom. This theory holds that unless the individual is
willing to share his or her freedom. There will not be an equitable
distribution of individual rights. Most people in the larger society
are willing to talk about sharing freedom, but often not at the
expense of their own. If a citizen or a member of the criminal
justice establishment believes and in understands the social
contract theory, then the application of law has a different
meaning. Only if the idea of give-and-take about right is
understood by both the criminal justice functionary and the citizen
will there be an effective contact between the two if a democratic
function is to prevail. If a person is not willing to concede some of
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application of law. People often misinterpret this sharing of power
as the trading of power to the government.
Four types of sociological theories
1. Social structure theory
2. Social process theory
3. Social conflict theory
4. Rational theory
Social structure theory
The notion of social structure as relationship between
different entities or groups or as enduring and relatively stable
pattern of relationship emphasizes the idea that society is grouped
into structurally related groups or sets of roles, with different
functions, meanings or purposes. One example of social structure
is the idea of “social stratification”, which refers to the idea that
society is separated into different strata (levels) guided (if only
partially) by the underlying structures in the social system. It is
important in the modern study of organizations, because an
organization’s structures may determine its flexibility, capacity to
change, and many other factors. Therefore, structure is important
issue for management. Social structure may be seen to influence
important social systems including the economic system, legal
system, political system, cultural system and others. Family,
religion, law, economy and class are all social structures. The
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“social system” is the parent system of those various systems that
are embedded in it.
Society: self-contained, self-sufficient population
united by social relationships, bounded from other
population by geographic locations.
Stratification: unequal distribution of valued goods
or holdings in a population.
Network: pattern of relationships in a population of
actors.
Social structure variables: pattern of relationships,
size of institutions, income distribution and currency of
social relationships. Social disorganization theory focuses
on urban conditions that effect crime rates. It also holds
that high employment, high dropout rates, low income
levels, and large number of single parent households
contribute to crime.
Social Process Theory
Within the social progress theory are 3 major classes namely:
social learning theory, social control theory, and social reaction
theory. Each of these theories seeks to explain criminality and the
perpetration of criminal act through the viewpoint of criminality as
a social process. The differential reinforcement theory is one of
the various theories under the social learning theory created by
Ronald Akers and Robert Burgess in 1966. The differential
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reinforcement states that the process of learning deviant behavior
and the process of learning conventional behavior is the exact
same process. Neither criminals nor typical members of society
are raised to be completely bad, neither completely deviant, nor
completely conforming. Instead, there is a balance between these
that is revised and reevaluate as time goes on, and as a social
group is adopted. Essentially, a person’s behavior is conditioned
through reinforcement, either positive or negative. Negative
reinforcement discourages the behavior while positive
reinforcement encourages the behavior’s continuation. These
reinforcement comes from and/or family shun the behavior, is
often dies off; however, if peers or family learned by these people
through modeling. Thus, a child who grew up with an older
brother who steals is more likely to feel encouraged to steal. The
younger boy encouraged by the association with his brother.
According to Akers, “deviant behavior can be expected to the
extent that it has been differentially reinforced over alternative
behavior… and is defined as desirable or justified”.
Social Conflict Theory
The history of conflict theory can be traced back to
thinkers such as Machiavilli or Thomas Hobbes, both of homes
viewed humanity cynically. In its current form, conflict theory
attempts to refute the functionalist approach, which considers that
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societies and organizations function so that its individual in group
plays specific role, like organs in the body.
There are basic assumptions (society is eternally conflict,
which might explain social change), or moderate once (custom
and conflict are always mixed). The moderate version allows for
functionalism to operate as an equally acceptable theory since it
will accept that even negative essence of conflict theory is best
epitomized by the classic ‘pyramid structure’ in which an elite
dictates term to the large social classes places a key part. The
following are four primary assumption of modern conflict theory:
1. Competition – competition over scarce
resources (money, leisure, sexual partners, and
etc.) is at the social relations.
2. Structural and inequality – inequalities in power
and reward are built into all social structures.
Individuals and groups that benefit from any
particular structure strive to see it maintained.
3. Revolution – change occurs as a result of
conflict between social class’s competing
interests rather than through adaptation.
4. War – even a ward is a unifier of the societies
involved, as well as war may set end to whole
societies.
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Rational Theory
Known also as the rational choice theory adopts a
utilitarian belief that a person is reasoning actor who weighs
means and ends cost and benefits, and makes a rational choice. 2. What month of the year that crimes are more likely to occur?
Rational choice has a sprung form older and more experimental And why? Explain.
collections of hypothesis surrounding what have been essentially,
the empirical findings from nay scientific investigations are into
the workings of human nature.

Learning Activity – 11

3. What is the difference between Social Contract Theory from

Name: ___________________ Course & Year:_________ Social Structure Theory?

Essay: Answer Briefly. (10 points)

1. Do you believe that crimes against persons are more in

summer than in rainy season? Elaborate your idea.

4. Enumerate the four (4) types of Sociological Theories? Explain

each.

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5. Discuss Rational Theory. ECONOMIC THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION
ECONOMIC CRIME
Economic crimes can be defined as acts in violation of
criminal law designed to bring financial reward to an offender.

Two orientations toward property crime

A. Occasional property crime. This occurs
when there is an opportunity or
situational inducement to commit crime.
Opportunities are available to all
members of social classes

1. Occasional criminals- are not professional

offenders, nor do they make crimes their
occupation. They do not rely on skills or
knowledge; they do not organize their daily
activities around crime and they are not
committed to crimes as a way of life.

Economists analyze the way in which individual attitudes towards

risk affect the extent of illegal behavior. In most of the early
literature, the economic models of crimes are single- period
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individual choice models. Individuals are assumed to be rational
decision-makers who engage in either legal or illegal activities
according to the expected utility from each activity. An individual’s Learning Activity – 12
participation in illegal activity is explained by;
1. The opportunity cost of illegal activity
2. Factors that influence the returns to illegal activity Name: ___________________ Course & Year:_________
3. By tastes and preferences for illegal activity.
Essay: 20 points
Economic Model of criminal behavior- sees the criminal as
committing crime if the expected gain from criminal 1. In your own words, explain how the criminal have the
activity exceeds the gain from legal activity; generally opportunity to commit crime. Elaborate.
work.

POLITICAL THEORY OF CRIME CAUSATION

Political theories recognize that any crime theory maybe

linked with some political ideology; ( conservative, liberal or
radical) and therefore maybe used for political purposes. For
example, criminologist seem to associate biological and
psychological theories more closely with a conservative ideology
and align some some sociological and economic theories more
closely with a liberal or radical ideology. Consequently,any theory
of crime can be viewed as a political theory.

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 psychopathic behavior. However, the main direct cause of criminal
behavior in individuals would be family/ immediate environment
THE CRIME, CRIMINAL & THE LAW and schools/social groups, personality, and moral development.
What is a crime? The word crime originates from Latin This is explained with the help of social-personal-moral
meaning “I decide” or “I give judgment”. Crime is a breach of dimensions of criminal behavior.
laws and rules. It is deviant behavior that violates prevailing
norms and cultural standards. Why do people commit crimes?
Criminology has an aspect to study criminality, personality and There are seven primary reasons for criminal activity:
criminals. The reasons and conditions under which criminality 1. Necessity – a person who is extremely poor can commit
takes place and the possible methods of prevention is the concern the crime of stealing to satisfy oneself
of some social scientist. According to Saberi Roy on the different 2. Emotional – hate crimes are on the increase and can be
dimensions of criminal behavior and understanding the mind of associated as crime of passion when a person kills their
criminals, criminals have distinct psychological features and are spouse or lover due to extreme emotion
either exceptionally calm and composed or overly aggressive and 3. Convenience – something that is free from discomfort, for
temperamental. Some criminals have extraordinary intelligence example, a criminal is looking at an expensive jewelry on a
wherein many criminals have average and low intelligence. counter and the clerk walks away-the criminal would feel
However, criminal behavior is not caused by aggression alone as at ease
there are several other factors that add to criminal behavior. 4. Ignorance of the law
Biologist has tried to provide a genetic explanation of criminal 5. Mental illness – any people who have mental problem
tendencies suggesting that crime may run in the genetic cannot truly understand what they are doing is breaking a
explanation of criminal tendencies suggesting that crime may run law
in the family or hardcore criminals have genetic aberrations. The Pre-disposition – some people’s personalities and life choices will
change in the levels of neuro-chemicals in the body can lead to prompt them to lead a life of crime
criminal behavior of some neuro-chemicals such as dopamine and
serotonin that are directly associated with aggression and Four broad definitions of Criminal Behavior:
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 1. Legal criminal behavior – actions that are
prohibited by the state and punishable under
the law.
2. Moral criminal behavior – refers to action that
violates the norms of religion and morality.
3. Social criminal behavior – refers to the actions
that violates the norms of customs and
traditions and are punishable by the
community.
4. Psychological criminal behavior – refers to the
actions that may be rewarding to the persons
but inflict pain or loss on others its criminal
behavior that is anti-social behavior.
PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOR
Ecological patterns
o Rural and sub-urban areas have much lower crime rates,
than large metropolitan centers, suggesting that the urban
problem-overcrowding, poverty, social inequality.
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General patterns
Gender patterns
- Males are stronger and better able to commit violent
crime.
- Hormonal differences make males more aggressive.
- Girls are socialized to be less aggressive than boys and
consequently develop moral values that strongly
discourage anti-social behaviour.
- Girls have better verbal skills and use them to diffused
conflict.
- Males are grateful greater personal freedom and
therefore have more opportunities to commit. Girls are
subject to greater parental controls.
Class patterns
- Communities that lack economic and social
opportunities and social opportunities also produce
high levels of stress and strain, and residents may the
turn to criminal behaviour to relieve their frustration.
- Family life is disrupted, and law-youth groups and
gangs thrive in a climate where adult supervision has
been undermined.
- Socially disorganized neighborhoods lack the ability to
exert social control over their residents. Lack of
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 informal social control significantly increases the
likelihood that resident will engage in criminality.
- Crime rate is high in deteriorating areas where the
disadvantage and the affluent life in close proximity. In
these neighborhoods, social differences are magnified, Learning Activity – 13
and less affluent residents perceive a feeling of relative
deprivation that results in a higher crime rate.
Age pattern Name: ___________________ Course & Year:_________
- Young people are part of youth culture that favors risk,
taking, short-run hedonism, and other behaviors that I – True or False (Just write T if the statement is True and F if the
may involve them in law violation. The high-risk statement is False) 2 pts. each.
lifestyle of most youths ends as they mature and
become involve in forming a family and a career. ______ 1. Psychological criminal behavior refers to action that
- Adolescent is psychologically immature and is therefore violates the norms of society.
unlikely to appreciate the wrongfulness of their anti- ______ 2. Legal criminal behavior these are the actions that are
social acts or their destructive consequences. prohibited by the state & punishable under the law.
- Youth have limited financial resources and may resort ______ 3. Social criminal behavior refers to the actions that may
to theft and drug dealing for income. be rewarding to the persons.
- Young people have the energy, strength and physical ______ 4. Crime is a breach of law and rules.
skill needed to commit crime, all of which erode with ______ 5. Crime is originated from the Greek word “I decide”.
age.
- Adolescents are aware that the juvenile justice system II – Essay: 10 points each
is not punitive as the adult court system and are
therefore more likely to risk committing criminal acts. 1. Why do people commit crime? Explain from your own words.

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2. Explain the statement “Ignorance of the Law Excuses no One”.
3. Why is that males are more likely to commit violent crime than
girls? Explain
CAUSES OF CRIME
There are certain factor in our societies, culture (family
values), system (educational, political of criminal activities, law-
enforcement), economy and so on that endorse the potential of
criminal activities of an individual. Usually a combination of these
factors is behind a person who commits crime. Reasons for
committing a crime include greed, anger, jealousy, revenge, or
pride. Some people decide to commit a crime and carefully plan
everything inn advance to increase gain and decrease risk. These
people are making choices about their behaviour, some even
consider a life of crime better than a regular job-believing crime
brings in greater rewards admiration, and excitement – at least
until they are caught.

The Root Causes of Committing a Crime

1. Poor parenting skills
Children who are neglected or abused are more likely
to commit crimes later in life than others.

2. Peer influence
A person’s group strongly influences a decision to
commit crime. Youth may abandon schoolmates in
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 favor of criminal gangs, since membership in a gang
earns respect and status in a different manner.
3. Drugs and alcohol
Both drugs and alcohol impair judgment and reduce
inhibitions (socially defined rules of behavior), a giving
a person greater courage to commit a crime.
4. Income and education
Because of poor educational backgrounds,
employment histories consisted of mostly low wage
jobs with frequent periods of unemployment. Many
prisoners could not read or write above elementary
school levels at all. The most common crimes
committed by these inmates were robbery, theft, drug
trafficking and shoplifting.
5. TV violence
The act was shown in the movies and televisions
specially the character portrayed by the actors are
being fantasized by the viewer’s giving ways to
simulate and apply most likely to reality.
6. Easy access
The availability of handguns in society as firearms
could easily purchase in black market that provide a
simple means of committing a crime while allowing
offenders some distance or detachment from their
victims.
7. Hot weather
Warmer temperature boosts aggression hormones
(epinephrine and testosterone).
their
THE CRIMINAL
On the basis of the definition of crime, a criminal may be
defined in three ways:
• A person who committed a crime and has been convicted
by a court of the violation of a criminal law. (legal definition)
• A person who violated a social norm or one who did an
anti-social act. (social definition)
• A person who violated rules of conduct due to behavioral
maladjustment. (psychological definition)
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Criminological Classification of Criminals
Based on Etiology
• Acute Criminal is one who violates a criminal law because
of the impulse or fit of passion. They commit passionate
crimes.
• Chronic Criminal is one who commits crime acted in
consonance of deliberated thinking. He plans the crime ahead
of time. They are the targeted offenders.
Based on Behavioral System
• Ordinary Criminal is considered the lowest form of criminal
in a criminal career. He doesn’t stick to crime as a profession
but rather pushed to commit crimes due to great opportunity.
• Organized Criminal is one who associates himself with
other criminals to earn a high degree of organization to enable
them to commit crimes easily without being detected by
authorities. They commit organized crimes.
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• Professional Criminal is a person who is engaged in
criminal activities with high degree of skill. He is usually one
who practices crime as a profession to maintain a living.
Based on Activities
• Professional Criminals are those who practice crime as a
profession for a living. Criminal activity is constant in order to
earn skill and develop ability in their commission.
• Accidental Criminals are those who commit crimes when
the situation is conducive to its commission.
• Habitual Criminals are those who continue to commit crime
because of deficiency of intelligence and lack of self – control.
Based on Mental Attitudes
• Active Criminals are those who commit crimes due to
aggressiveness.
• Passive Inadequate Criminals are those who commit
crimes because they are pushed to it by reward or promise.
• Socialized Delinquents are criminals who are normal in
behavior but defective in their socialization process or
development.
Based on Legal Classification
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• Habitual Delinquent is a person who, with in a period of
ten years from the date of his release or last conviction of the
crimes of serious or less serious physical injuries, robbery,
estafa, or falsification, is found guilty of any of the said crimes
or a third time oftener.
• Recidivist is one who, at the time of his trial for one crime,
shall have been previously convicted by final judgment of
another crime embraced in the same title of the Revised Penal
Code.
Classifications of Criminals by Lombroso
1. Born Criminals – there are born criminals according to
Lombroso, the belief that being criminal behavior is inherited.
2. Criminal by Passion – are individuals who are easily
influenced by great emotions like fit of anger.
3. Insane Criminals – are those who commit crime due to
abnormalities or psychological disorders. They should be
exempted from criminal liability.
4. Criminoloid – a person who commits crime due to less
physical stamina/self self control.
5. Occasional Criminal – are those who commit crime due
to insignificant reasons that pushed them to do at a given
occasion.
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6. Pseudo-criminals – are those who kill in self-defense.
Definition of terms:
Alternative behavior – a reinforcement procedure usually
designed to reduce a given behavior by increasing alternative
behavior while withholding reinforcement to the unwanted
response.
Cynicism – an attitude of scornful or jaded negativity, especially
a general distrust of the integrity or professed motives of others,
the public cynicism aroused by governmental scandals.
Deviant behaviors – is a behavior which does not adhere to
widely accepted social or cultural norms. For example, murder is a
form of extreme deviant behavior that violates the cultural norm,
which states that it is unacceptable to kill another human being.
Functionalism – is a theory of the mind in contemporary
philosophy, developed largely as an alternative to both the
identity theory of mind and behaviorism.
Geographic location – is a coordinate system that enables
every location on the earth to be specified by a set of numbers.
The coordinates are often such chosen that one of the numbers
represents vertical position, and two or three of the numbers
represent horizontal position.
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Notion – general understanding vague or imperfect conception or
idea of something; a nation of how something should be done.
Social interaction – refers to a particular form of externalities in
which the actions of a reference group affect individual’s family,
neighbors, friends or peers.
Social disruption – a term used alternation or breakdown of
social life, often in a community setting. For example the
closing of a community grocery store might cause social
disruption in a community by a removing a ‘meeting ground’
for community
Learning Activity – 14
Name: ___________________ Course & Year:_________
I – True or False (Just write T if the statement is True and F if the
statement is False) 2 pts. each.
______ 1. Some people commit crimes just because of greed and
revenge?
______ 2. Is gansterism create to commit crimes?
______ 3. Taking drugs and alcohol helps to prevent crimes?
______ 4. A social definition of crime is a person who violated
rules of conduct due to behavioral maladjustment.
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______ 5. Acute criminal are those who continue to commit crime
because deficiency and lack of self – control?
II – Fill in the blanks. Supply the correct answer on the space
provided below. (2 pts. each)
1. ___________________ are those who practice crime as a
profession for a living.
2. ___________________ he plans the crime ahead of the time.
3. ___________________ are individuals who are easily
influenced by great emotions like fit of anger.
4. ___________________ a behavior which does not adhere to
widely accepted social or cultural norms.
5. ___________________ a term used alternation or breakdown
of social life, often in a community setting.
III – Essay : 10 points each
1. Who are the Recidivist? Explain
2. Who are the most likely to commit crime like robbery, theft,
drug trafficking and shop lifting? Explain.
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3. Differentiate Active Criminals from Habitual Criminals? References:
Elaborate.

Alviola, A (2014). Intro to Criminology and psychology of crimes.

Wiseman’s Book Trading, Inc.

Baldeuza, F. L. (2015). Crimes and criminal. Wiseman’s Book

Trading, Inc.

Bautista, F. & Gevarra, R. (2013). Sociology of crimes and ethics.

Wiseman’s Book Trading, Inc.

Eduardo, J. P. (2015). Fundamentals of criminology. (1 st ed.).

Jobal Publishing Honse.

Siegel, L. J. (1989). Criminology book. (3 rd ed.). New York: West

Publishing Company.

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