THEORIES OF CRIME

CAUSATION

CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Criminological Theory
 Crime Theory

In theory, there is no difference between

theory and practice. But, in practice, there
is.
variously attributed to Chuck Reid or Jan L.A. van de Snepscheut

There is nothing so practical as a good theory.

Kurt Lewin
Criminology

is an advanced, theoretical field of study

 the study of crime, the causes of crime
(etiology), the meaning of crime in terms of law,
and community reaction to crime.
 the science of crime rates, individual and group
reasons for committing crime, and community or
societal reactions to crime
 Applied criminology

- the art of creating typologies, classifications,

predictions, and especially profiles of criminal
offenders, their personalities and behavior patterns

Criminologist - a person who studies criminology

"criminalist" - reconstructs a crime scene or works

with crime scene evidence for forensic purposes
Theory

 In simple terms, theory is an explanation

of something
explains how things actually are as
observed
Ideology

A belief system and a set of core

values or philosophy.
states or explains how things should
be
Theories of Criminal and Deviant Behavior
attempt to explain why an individual commits
criminal or delinquent acts

Theories of Law and Criminal Justice

 explain how laws are made, and how the criminal
justice system operates as a whole
1. Theories are useful tools that help us to understand and
explain the world around us. In criminology, they help us to
understand the workings of the criminal justice system and the
actors in the system.

2. Theories suggest the way things are, not the way things
ought to be. They are not inherently good or bad; however,
they can be used for good or bad purposes.
Theory construction - an informed, creative
endeavor which connects something known
with something unknown; usually in a
measurable way
Theory building - efforts to come up with
formal, systematic, logical, and mathematical
ways in which theories are constructed
Theoretical Integration - efforts to come up with
grand, overarching theories which apply to all
types of crime and deviance.
Theoretical Specification - efforts to figure
out the details of a theory, how the
variables work together

Theoretical Elaboration - efforts to figure

out the implications of a theory, what
other variables might be added to the
theory
 Macro theories

Macro theories of criminal behavior explain the

“big picture” of crime—crime across the world
or across a society
attempt to answer why there are variations in
group rates of crime
also termed “epidemiology” or social structural
theories
 Micro theories

Micro theories of criminal behavior focus on a

small group of offenders or on an individual crime
 attempt to answer why some individuals are
more likely than others to commit crime
Other terms “individual conduct” or processual
theories
3. A theory can try to explain crime for a large social
unit or area (macro), or it can attempt to explain
crime at the individual or smaller unit level (micro).
 Causality

A concept more applicable to the hard

sciences.
Does the appearance of X cause effect Y?
In a perfect relationship, the appearance of X
would always cause the effect Y each and
every time the relationship is seen.
 Probabilistic Causality

A concept more applicable to the social

sciences.
X is more or less likely to cause effect Y
Restated, X tends to cause Y
Necessary Condition
This means that X must be present to
produce effect Y.
If X is not present, Y will not occur.

Sufficient Condition
Each time X is present, effect Y will always
occur.
Variables

 the building blocks of theories; things

that vary; things you can have more
or less of
e.g., crime rates, being more or less
criminally inclined (criminality)
4. Because we are dealing with human behavior,
the social sciences will never be like the hard
sciences. In the hard sciences, the theory of
relativity will not change. In the social sciences,
however, we deal with probabilities. The social
scientist will say things such as, “A severely
neglected child will probably commit, or tend to
commit, delinquent acts.”
Empirical Validity
most important factor in evaluating a theory, and means
that the theory has been supported by research
evidence.

Internal Logical Consistency

theory needs to be presented in a logical manner and to
have clearly stated propositions that agree with or do
not contradict one another
Parsimony
refers to how many propositions, steps, or statements are
involved. How simple is the theory?

Scope
Refers to how much or how many types of crime or
deviance the theory covers

Tautology. Circular reasoning

Testability
To be valid and ultimately useful, a theory must be able
to be subjected to scientific research.

Theories may be untestable if they are tautological,

propose causes that are not measurable, or are so
open-ended that empirical findings can always be re-
interpreted to support the theory.
Usefulness
This refers to the real world applications that the theory
proposes or suggests, and the ability to implement those
applications.

Policy Implications
If the theory is empirically valid, what solutions are
suggested?
5. To be used for maximum effectiveness, theories
must make sense (logical consistency), explain as
much crime as possible (scope), and be as
concise as possible (parsimony). Most important,
the theory must be true or correct (validity).
Having met these basic goals, the theory must
then have some real world applications
(usefulness) and policy implications.
THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION

FOUNDATIONAL THEORIES OF
CRIMINOLOGY
 Classical school

 based on utilitarian philosophy developed in the

18th century

 Crime occurs when the benefits outweigh the

costs—when people pursue self-interest in the
absence of effective punishments. Crime is a
free-willed choice.
 Classical school
This school of thoughts argues:
That people have free will to choose how to act.

Deterrence is based upon the notion of the

human being as a hedonist who seeks pleasure
and avoid pain and a rational calculator
weighing up the cost and benefits of the
consequences of each action.
 Classical school
This school of thoughts argues:
Punishment of sufficient severity can deter
people from crime as the cost (penalties)
outweigh benefits and that the severity of
punishment should be proportionate to the
crime.

The more swift and certain the punishment, the

more effective it is in deterring criminal
behavior.
 Prominent Philosophers of Classical
school
Cesare Becarria - author of crimes and
punishment

Jeremy Bentham - inventor of the panopticon

- type of institutional building designed to allow an
observer to observe inmates of an institution without
them being able to tell whether or not they are
being watched.
 NEO-CLASSICAL THEORY

 Contested findings of Beccaria’s free will

theory
absence of free will among mentally retarded
persons, with psychological imbalances,
personality disorders or mentally or physically
disabled causes criminality
regardless of the disorder being inborn or
acquired.
NEO-CLASSICAL SCHOOL
Result
Exempting Circumstances
Not criminally liable
Justifying Circumstances
Criminal action is excused
Mitigating Circumstances
Reduction of criminal liability
 Positivist school
- presumes that criminal behavior is caused by internal
and external factors outside of the individuals
control.
 Crime is caused or determined
placed more emphasis on biological deficiencies,
whereas later scholars would emphasize
psychological and sociological factors
Use science to determine the factors associated with
crime.
August Comte- considered the founder of
sociology and applied scientific methods to
the study of society.

Comte called this final stage the positive

stage, and those who followed his writings
become known as POSITIVISTS.
 Positivist school

 Positivism can be broken in 3 segments which

include:
1. Biological
2. Psychological
3. Social

 - - one of the largest contributors to biological positivism and

founder of the Italian school of criminology is Cesare
Lombroso.
 Two main elements of Positivism

 1. The belief that human behavior is a function

of external forces that is beyond individual
control.

 2. The embrace of scientific method to solve

problems. Positivists rely on strict use of
empirical methods to test hypotheses.
 Positivist school/Italian School
Cesare Lombroso - an italian doctor and sometimes
regarded as the father of criminology. Considered
also as the founder of criminal anthropology.

Enrico Ferri - a student of Lombroso, believe that

social as well as biological factors played a role and
held the view that criminals should not be held
responsible when factors causing their criminality
were beyond their control.
 Positivist school/Italian School

RAFAELE GAROFALO - another follower of Lombroso

who also rejected the doctrine of free will of classical
theory and that the only way to understand crime
was to study it by methods.
traced roots of criminal behavior not to physical
features but to their psychological equivalents,
which he called “moral anomalies.”
 Chicago school

arose in the early 20th century, through the work

of Robert Park, Ernest Burgess and other urban
sociologist at the university of Chicago. Park
and Burgess identified five concentric zones that
often exist as cities grow, including the zone in
transition which was identified as most volatile
and subject to disorder.
THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION

CHAPTER 2
Deterrence and Rational Choice
Theories
 Rational Choice Deterrence

Building on classical theory, crime is seen as a

choice that is influenced by its costs and
benefits—that is, by its “rationality.”
Crime will be more likely to be deterred if its costs
are raised (e.g., more effort required, more
punishment applied), especially if the costs are
certain and immediate.
 Free Will

 The belief that humans are rational, and have

the ability to make decisions according to
each individual’s own will and purposes.
Under this perspective, people can
understand the difference between right and
wrong, and can choose to commit criminal
acts or to follow the law.
 Deterrence Theory

theory states that crime can be controlled

through the use of punishments that combine
the proper degrees of certainty, severity, and
celerity.
Deterrence is a key element in the U.S. justice
system.
 Absolute Deterrence

refers to the amount of crime that has been

prevented simply due to the fact that a
formal system is in place so that an individual
could be legally punished for committing a
criminal act
 General Deterrence

the doctrine that a community or a society of

people can be deterred from committing a
criminal act after having witnessed the
punishment of an individual or individuals for
having committed that act.
Specific Deterrence

This style of deterrence is used with a

specific offender in mind.
if an individual is punished for a criminal
act, then that individual will be less likely to
violate the law in the future
 Elements of Deterrence

Celerity- refers to how quickly an individual is

punished after committing a crime.

Certainty- refers to how likely it is an individual will

be caught and punished for a crime that he or she
has committed.

Severity- refers to how harsh the punishment for a

crime will be.
Proportionality. Punishment should fit the crime
without regard to individual differences.

Retribution. Making the punishment fit the

crime. Also referred to as “an eye for an eye.”
 Boot Camps

Programs used in place of incarceration

 based upon a military model of discipline
and order
designed to have a deterrent effect on
young offenders
generally failed to yield long-term
reductions in recidivism
 Scared Straight

began in the 1970s

the belief that taking young offenders or
potential offenders to a prison environment, and
exposing them to the realities of prison life, could
prove beneficial in reducing delinquency
Scared Straight did not produce the expected
results
 Shock Incarceration

This approach generally uses a

combination of a brief prison sentence
followed by probation.

brief exposure to the realities of

incarceration will deter the offender from
further criminality
 Rational Choice Theory

1980s formulation of classical criminology

 this version adds a new dimension that

emphasizes the expanding role of the
economist in criminological thought. The
emphasis is placed on the expected reward for
committing a crime, and other associated costs
and benefits surrounding criminal activity.
 Utilitarian Hedonism

The theory that explains that a person always

acts in such a way to seek or choose pleasure
and avoid pain. (Jeremy Bentham)
 Expected Utility Principle

Economic theory which states that people will

act in a manner that increases their benefits
and reduces their losses.
This ties in closely with classical criminology
and, by definition, rational choice theory,
where people seek to increase their pleasure
and reduce their pain.
 Routine Activities Theory

This theory states that for crime to

be committed, three elements must
be present: an available target, a
motivated offender, and a lack of
guardians.
 Crime Prevention Through
Environmental Design (CPTED)
This refers to a set of practices designed to
make potential criminal targets less attractive.

The belief that crime is a rational act is used to

make a potential target less attractive to a
criminal, and thus not a “rational” target
 Broken Window Theory

states that visible signs of crime, anti social behaviour,

and civil disorder create an urban environment that
encourages further crime and disorder including
serious crimes
suggests that policing methods that target minor
crimes such as vandalism, public drinking, and fare
evasion help to create an atmosphere of order and
lawfulness, thereby preventing more serious crimes.
 Important Theories
• Crime Pattern Theory
– How do offenders find targets?
– How can we keep offenders from targets?
• Routine Activity Theory
– What are the proximate conditions leading to crime?
– How can we alter them?
• Rational Choice
– How do offenders make decisions?
– How can we influence them?
• Situational Crime Prevention
– What types of prevention are available?
– Which should we apply?
 Environmental Criminology
Traditional Criminology studies the origins of the offender’s
criminal propensity.
Environmental Criminology studies the other elements of the
criminal event.
EC stresses the importance of:
decision making by offenders and others
routine activities
environment imposed constraints
place imposed constraints
situation imposed constraints
EC assumes that offenders and victims generally use time
and space in a normal (not unique or pathological) way.
 Crime Pattern Theory

Offenders travel like everyone else

They go no farther than they need to
They find targets in their normal travels
They do not use unusual methods of travel
They try not to travel huge distances
They often do not make special efforts to find
targets
Probability of Target Selection
Routine Activity Theory
When offenders &
targets meet at
places repeatedly
without controllers
crime concentrations
appear.

Crime
3 Repeat Types:
Place • Targets/Victims
• Offenders
Manager • Places
A First Cut at Prevention

Remove one of these

elements
Place
Manager

Add one of these controllers

Which of your partners can help with these tasks?

 25 Crime Prevention Methods
INCREASE RISK REDUCE PROVOCATIONS
Extend guardianship Reduce stress
Assist natural surveillance Avoid disputes
Reduce anonymity Reduce emotional arousal
Use place managers Neutralize peer pressure
Strengthen formal surveillance Discourage imitation

INCREASE THE EFFORT

Harden targets
Control access to facilities
REDUCE REWARDS Screen exits REMOVE EXCUSES
Deflect offenders Set rules
Conceal targets
Control tools/weapons Post instructions
Remove targets
Alert conscience
Identify property
Assist compliance
Disrupt markets
Control alcohol & drugs
Deny benefits
Rational Choice
 Offenders make choices like everyone else
 Balance of pain & gain, risk & reward, effort & ease.
 Fast and frugal “guestimates” will do
 Proximate Decision-making
 Ends v Means Rationality
 Evidence
Evaluations of situational crime prevention
Variability in displacement and diffusion of
benefits
Association of offenders with opportunities
 Key Shoreditch Trust Interventions:
Infrastructure Change:
Crime Prevention/Designing out Crime
Urban Realm Improvements

Locality/Neighbourhood Management:
Safer Neighbourhood Office
 Notable Individuals
 Beccaria, Cesare: (1738-1794) Italian nobleman, prominent in the
eighteenth century, wrote On Crimes and Punishment (1764).

 Bentham, Jeremy: (1748-1832) Jurist and philosopher, prominent

in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, advocated
abolishing the death penalty.

 Cohen, Lawrence E.: Collaborated with Marcus Felson in

developing the routine activities theory.

 Felson, Marcus: Collaborated with Lawrence Cohen in

developing the routine activities theory.