THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION

MODULE I
What is a theory?
A supposition or a system of ideas intended to explain something, especially one based
on general principles independent of the thing to be explained. A theory is a rational type of
abstract thinking about a phenomenon or the results of such thinking. The process of
contemplative and rational thinking is often associated with such processes as observational
study or research. Theories may be scientific, belong to a nonscientific discipline, or have no
discipline at all. Depending on the context, a theory's assertions might, for example, include
generalized explanations of how nature works.
In everyday use, the word "theory" often means an untested hunch, or a guess without
supporting evidence. But for scientists, a theory has nearly the opposite meaning. A theory is a
well-substantiated explanation of an aspect of the natural world that can incorporate laws,
hypotheses, and facts. The theory of gravitation, for instance, explains why apples fall from
trees and astronauts float in space. Similarly, the theory of evolution explains why so many
plants and animals- some very similar and some very different-exist on Earth now and in the
past, as revealed by the fossil record.
A theory not only explains known facts; it also allows scientists to make predictions of
what they should observe if a theory is true. Scientific theories are testable. New evidence
should be compatible with a theory. If it isn't, the theory is refined or rejected. The longer the
central elements of a theory hold-the more observations it predicts, the more tests it passes, the
more facts it explains the stronger the theory.
What is a crime?
An act or omission in violation of public law forbidding or commanding it. It may be a
felony which is a violation of the Revised Penal Code, or an offense which is a violation of
special penal laws. A crime is an offense that merits community condemnation and punishment,
usually by way of a fine or imprisonment.
What is causation?
Simply, the relation of cause to effect. Causation is a term used to refer to the
relationship between a person's actions and the result of those actions. In a legal sense,
causation is used to connect the dots between a person's actions, such as driving under the
influence, and the result, such as an accident causing serious injuries.
Theories of Crime Causation- These refer to different suppositions, beliefs, or
hypotheses that explain, elucidate, or expound the causes of crimes or the reasons behind their
commission, and their relative effect. It is an abstract concept that systematically describes the
causes or genesis of crimes. These theories often provide empirical insights to anyone who
ventures unto crime analysis.
PRINCIPLE DIVISIONS OF
CRIMINOLOGY
1. CRIMINAL ETIOLOGY –
which is an attempt at
scientific analysis of the
causes of crime.
2. SOCIOLOGY OF LAW –
which is an attempt at
scientific analysis of the
conditions under which penal
or criminal laws develop as a
process of formal social
controls.
3. PENOLOGY – which is
concerned with the controls
and prevention of crime
and the treatment of youthful
offenders.
4. VICTIMOLOGY – This is a
discipline/study which deals
with the nature, causes of
victimization, as well as the
programs for aiding and
preventing victimization.
PRINCIPLE DIVISIONS OF CRIMINOLOGY
1. CRIMINAL ETIOLOGY – which is an attempt at scientific analysis of the causes of crime.
2. SOCIOLOGY OF LAW – which is an attempt at scientific analysis of the conditions under
which penal or criminal laws develop as a process of formal social controls.
3. PENOLOGY – which is concerned with the controls and prevention of crime and the
treatment of youthful offenders.
4. VICTIMOLOGY – This is a discipline/study which deals with the nature, and causes of
victimization, as well as the programs for aiding and preventing victimization.
ANATOMY OF CRIME

INTENT OR
INTENTIONALLY – In
perpetrating a crime by
a person is often
synchronized or harmonized
with MOTIVATION.
MOTIVATION – This shall
mean the
reason, ground, or cause
why a person perpetrates a
crime, thus, creating in
his/her mind
the INTENT to perform it.
DESIRE is a WHISHFUL
thinking differentiated from
INTENT because the intent
is a willingness to do.
MOTIVATION is also
differentiated from
DESIRE because
MOTIVATION is giving or
reason to do the act. Crime
is more
identified with INTENT rather
than MOTIVATION OR
DESIRE
1. INTENT (MOTIVE/ REASON) – Refers to a state of mind, deliberately functioning to reach a
goal-that is, to perpetrate a crime.
INTENT OR INTENTIONALLY – In perpetrating a crime by a person is often
synchronized or harmonized with MOTIVATION. MOTIVATION – This shall mean the reason,
ground, or cause why a person perpetrates a crime, thus, creating in his/her mind the INTENT
to perform it. Crime is more identified with INTENT rather than MOTIVATION.
2. INSTRUMENTALITY (TOOLS) – This is the means or implementation used in the
commission of the crime.
3. OPPORTUNITY (CHANCE) – Is synonymous with carelessness, acts of indiscretion, and
lack of crime-prevention-consciousness on the part of the victim.
Whether a crime incident would happen or not, will depend on the presence and merging
of INTENT, INSTRUMENTALITY, and OPPORTUNITY at the same time and in the same place.
The absence of any one ingredient will mean that there shall be no crime. The most that could
happen is an accident arising out of reckless imprudence, where there is no intent. A freak
crime incident occurs with all three elements present and simultaneously occurring at the same
time and place, though the victim is not the intended one.

Demonological Theory
This is the earliest to explain
in crime and criminal
behavior. It is theorized that
people believe that evil
spirits or demons inside the
human body to commit sins.
Terms like demons, witches
and windigo were used for
people who had turned
criminals. The society
thought that it happened due
to evil influence.
Supernatural powers
were considered the best
explanation behind crime
and seen. It was believed
that a person
did not commit crimes of his
own free will but under the
evil influence
Spiritual vs. Natural
Explanation
Spiritual explanations for
crime is primarily at touch
into religious beliefs and
superstitions and there is a
strong and adherence with
the divine intervention. Even
at the
present, some religious
individuals and groups still
attribute crime to the
influence of the
evil and to the sinful human
nature. The problem with
history is that, because
spiritual
influences cannot be
observed they cannot be
proved. Thus this theory
cannot be
considered scientific.
Natural Explanations for
crime were rooted in
people's ideas about the
nature of
reality in the physical world
based on observation of
nature but we're not specific.
For
Example, the natural world
was thought to include
inherent good and evil, and
crimes of
them were regarded as
crimes against nature or
the natural order rather
than crimes
against the victim or against
God. Seeking explanation for
crime in the natural world
provided a basis for the
development of legal
definitions and treatments of
crime. Natural
explanations of crime make
use of objects and events in
the material world to account
for
what happens.
Demonological Theory-This is the earliest to explain crime and criminal behavior. It is
theorized that people believe that evil spirits or demons inside the human body commit sins.
Terms like demons, witches, and wendigo were used for people who had turned criminals. The
society thought that it happened due to evil influence. Supernatural powers were considered the
best explanation behind crime and sin. It was believed that a person did not commit crimes of
his own free will but under evil influence.
Spiritual vs. Natural Explanation
Spiritual explanations for crime are primarily in touch with religious beliefs and
superstitions and there is a strong adherence with the divine intervention. Even at present,
some religious individuals and groups still attribute crime to the influence of evil and sinful
human nature. The problem with history is that spiritual influences cannot be observed or
cannot be proved. Thus this theory cannot be considered scientific. Natural Explanations for
crime were rooted in people's ideas about the nature of reality in the physical world based on
observation of nature but we're not specific. For example, the natural world was thought to
include inherent good and evil, and crimes of the were regarded as crimes against nature or the
natural order rather than crimes against the victim or God. Seeking an explanation for crime in
the natural world provided a basis for the development of legal definitions and treatments of
crime. Natural explanations of crime make use of objects and events in the material world to
account for what happens.
 SCHOOL OF THOUGHTS / SCHOOLS OF CRIMINOLOGY

 CLASSICAL SCHOOL
 POSITIVIST / ITALIAN SCHOOL
 NEOCLASSICAL SCHOOL
 CHICAGO SCHOOL
I. CLASSICAL SCHOOL OF CRIMINOLOGY
The classical school of criminology arose in the late 1700s and early 1800s. The legal
systems around the 1700s did not work very well. The legal systems were subjective, corrupt,
and harsh up to the time of the development of the classical school of criminology. These
unacceptable conditions led to a revolt against the arbitrary, harsh, corrupt system, thus
allowing for new ideas and insight to be put forth. Enlightenment is a place where the classical
school set its roots and alleged that humans are rational beings and that crime is the result of
free will in a risk versus reward position.
There were many people who helped shape the. classical school. Two of the most
important of these people are Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham, With the principles of
Cesare Beccaria and the philosophies of Jeremy Bentham, the classical school was erected
and put into effect.
Cesare, Marquis de Becarria- Bonessa/ Cesare Beccaria
The classical school of criminology was founded by Cesare Beccaria, an Italian theorist.
Beccaria was born an Aristocrat in Milan, Italy on March 15th, 1738. Being an aristocrat is
simply being born wealthy or of high social class and, usually, having a title. He and two of his
friends, Pietro and Alessandro Verri, formed the society called "The Academy of Fists." The
mission of this group was to wage a relentless war against things such as economic disorder,
petty bureaucratic tyranny, religious narrow-mindedness, and intellectual pedantry.
Of the essays written by Beccaria with the help of his friends, On Crimes and
Punishment is Beccaria's most noted essay. On Crimes and Punishments was originally titled
Dei deliti e delle pene. There are ten principles that are used to summarize Beccaria's
arguments and ideas that he thought would make the criminal justice system work in a more
efficient, effective, and all-around nondiscriminatory way. These principles are:
A. He felt that legislatures should define the crimes and set forth the punishments for the
specific crimes. Instead of allowing the laws to be vague and left to the discretion of the judicial
system. Because judges had an immense amount of discretion when ruling over proceedings,
Beccaria suggested that the judge's only task should be to determine guilt or innocence and
then follow the predetermined sentence set forth by the legislature.
B. The next principle was that of proportionality. He felt that the punishment of the crime
should be proportional to its seriousness. In other words, “time should fit the crime."
C. Beccaria thought that the purpose of punishment should not be retribution. Instead, he
believed Punishment should be based on deterrence. He felt that if people saw punishments
being carried out, it would allow onlookers to be deterred from criminal activity. When the
harshness of the punishment exceeds the necessity to achieve deterrence, Beccaria believed
that it was unreasonable.
D. Beccaria thought torture was inappropriate and allowed the weak to incriminate
themselves and the strong would be found innocent before they were adjudicated. This unjust
punishment inflicted on offenders allowed crime to be increased instead of deterred.
E. Beccaria also called for adjudication and punishment to occur quickly. He felt that if a
crime was committed and the offender was adjudicated in a prompt manner that the concept of
crime and punishment would be associated with each other.
F. Beccaria thought if a punishment was certain then society would have a better impression
of the criminal justice system. This allowed potential offenders to know the punishment before
making a rational decision to commit a crime.
G. Beccaria pushed for laws to be published so that the public would be aware of the laws,
know the purpose of the laws, and know the punishments set forth by the laws.
H. He also accentuated torture and secret accusations to be abolished or eliminated
because they were cruel and unusual punishments.
I. Beccaria called for imprisonment instead of capital punishment or the death penalty.
J. He also emphasized jails becoming more humane and the distinction between the elite and
the underprivileged being eradicated from the law. This was based on the idea of sovereignty
lying in the hands of the people and all members of society being seen and treated equally in
the application of the law.
Jeremy Bentham.
Jeremy Bentham was born in 1748. Bentham started putting together an all-inclusive
code of ethics The issue he came across was he thought the tank was too non-utilitarian, so he
placed prominence on the real problem of eradicating or at least diminishing crime.
Bentham created the concept of the hedonistic calculus because he believed in the
person's capability to judge the impact of punishment on themselves and their ability to make a
choice regarding the pursuance of pleasure and the evasion of pain. Hedonistic calculus is
defined as the idea that the main objective of an intelligent person is to achieve the most
pleasure and the least pain and that individuals are constantly calculating the pluses and
minuses of their potential actions.

He conjectured that the punishment for crimes should prevail over the pleasure the
person would get from committing criminal activity. That meant that the person would ultimately
be deterred from the actions that criminal activity the person would have made bad they are not
a free will, rational person.

What is utilitarianism?
Utilitarianism is the doctrine
that the purpose of all action
should bring about the
greatest happiness for the
greatest number of people. It
means that human beings are
hedonistic act only in their own
self-interest.
What is felicitous calculus or
moral calculus?
This is used for estimating the
probability that a person will
engage in a particular
kind of behavior. People weigh
the possibility that a particular
behavior pattern or action
will cause current or future
pleasure against the possibility
that it will cost current or
future pain. In response to the
question of why a person
commits a crime, Bentham
would probably be applied at
the pleasure that the person
anticipated from the criminal
act was much greater than the
subsequent pain that might be
expected from it.
What is utilitarianism?
 Utilitarianism is the doctrine that the purpose of all actions should bring about the
greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. It means that human beings are
hedonistic and act only in their own self-interest.
What is felicitous calculus or moral calculus?
This is used for estimating the probability that a person will engage in a particular kind of
behavior. People weigh the possibility that a particular behavior pattern or action will cause
current or future pleasure against the possibility that it will cost current or future pain. In
response to the question of why a person commits a crime, Bentham would probably be applied
at the pleasure that the person anticipated from the criminal act was much greater than the
subsequent pain that might be expected from it.
Contributions of Classical School to Criminology:
a) It is known as the first organized theory of crime that links causation to appropriate
punishments
b) It followed Beccaria's ideology which focuses on crime, not the criminal
c) It focused on the principle of deterrence instead of punishment.
d) It came up with important theories for the behavior of criminals that is still commonly used
today.
Specific Theories within the Classical School:
1) Rational Choice Theory- A perspective that holds that criminality is the result of conscious
choice and predicts that individuals chose to commit a crime when the benefits outweigh the
costs of disobeying the law. It is basically a cost-benefit analysis between crime and punishment
relying on the free will decision of the offender.
2) Routine Activities Theory. It has three key elements:
(a) a motivated offender,
(b) an attractive target, and
(c) a lack of a capable guardian.
It is said people's daily routines and activities affect the chances that they will be an
attractive target who encounters an offender in a situation where no effective guardian is
present. It has a strong emphasis on victimization Different changes in routine activities in
society can affect the crime rates.
3) Situational Choice Theory. It is known to be an outlook on the view of criminal behavior as
a function of choices and decisions made within a context of situational constraints and
opportunities. This means that in certain situations or constraints, a person may act one way,
but in any other situation, the person would not act in that way.
II. POSITIVIST SCHOOL OF CRIMINOLOGY.
In the late 1800s, the Classical School of Criminology came under attack, thus leaving
room for a new wave of thought to come about. Crimes appeared to be increasing even though
changes in the legal system had taken place, punished offenders were recidivating and the
theory of an offender being a rational, self-interested person who chose to engage in crime was
challenged by the biological sciences. Each of these events brought on a new school of
criminology that came to be known as the Positivist School of Criminology.
In criminal justice, positivism explains that the causes of crimes are not based on malice
but instead the social factors that influence human behavior and make people stray from
rational choices.
Positivist criminology is the school of thought that the reason for a crime goes beyond
the person who committed the crime. In positivist criminology theory, social conditions including
external, biological, and psychological influence criminal behavior. The positivist theory of
criminology aims to understand different types of criminals and the root causes of their illegal
activity to improve society its systems and people so criminal activity holistically abates.
The positivist school of criminology takes the emphasis off the crime and puts it on the
person, analyzing the reason behind the action. Positivists will study the social barriers some
criminals face and how those constraints can increase crime. Today, criminal justice systems
often blend these two methodologies, and their differences, benefits, and disadvantages are
frequent points of study in social sciences.
HOLY TRINITY
1. CESARE LOMBROSO
2. ENRICO FERRI
3. RAFAEL GAROFALO
Cesare Lombroso
He was born in 1835 and died seventy-four years later in 1909. Lombroso was an Italian
physician who founded the Positivist School of Criminology in the nineteenth century. Lombroso
researched the links between criminality and physical attributes. He came up with the Criminal
Man which outlined what he studied and deemed to be the traits of a criminal. These traits of the
"Criminal Man" were not being developed sufficiently mentally, having long arms, large amounts
of body hair prominent cheekbones, and large foreheads. He suggested that criminals were
biologically in a different stage in the evolution process than their counterpart non-criminals. He
added that it may not be just a physical division on whether a person would be a criminal. He
believed that there are three major classes of criminals: born criminals, insane criminals, and
criminaloids.
a) Born criminals were thought to be one-third of the criminals which was an evolutionary
form of development. more primitive

b) Insane criminals were the idiots, paranoiacs, and those affected with dementia,
alcoholism, hysteria, and other types of mental complications.
Lastly, criminaliods are considered a large general class without specificities on physical
characteristics or mental disorders, and sometimes tend to be involved in rancorous and
criminal behavior. but
 Raffaele Garofalo
n 1885, Italian law professor Raffaele Garofalo coined the term "criminology" (in Italian,
criminologia) to refer to the study of crime and criminal behavior. The French anthropologist
Paul Topinard used it for the first time in French (criminologie) in 1887. Over time, several
schools of thought have developed.
He rejected the doctrine of free will and supported the position that the only way to
understand crime was to study it by scientific methods. He traced the roots of criminal
behavior not to physical features but to their psychological equivalent, which he called
“moral anomalies”. His major contribution is the concept of natural crime. According to
him, natural crime is conduct that is against the average moral sense of the community.
The true criminal is one who Lacks the basic altruistic sentiments of pity and probity.
He emphasized that lack of pity generates crime against a person while lack of probity
leads to crime against property. As a classification of criminals, he rejected Ferri’s
classification and placed offenders into four main categories, namely;

 Murderer- The man in whom altruism is wholly lacking and whose sentiments of
both pity and probity are absent, and such a criminal will steal or kill as the
occasion arises.
 Violent Criminal- Those characterized by the lack of pity (may also commit
crimes of passion, sometimes under the influence of alcohol; such crimes are
indicative of inferior innate moral capacities; certain environments contribute to
crimes against property
 Thief- Those thieves who lack probity (such offenses are committed by a small
minority of the population)
 Lascivious Criminal A group of sexual offenders whose conduct is characterized
less by the absence of the sentiment of pity than by a low level of moral energy
and deficient moral perception.
Enrico Ferri
While Lombroso researched anthropological criminology, Ferri focused more on social
and economic influences on criminal and crime rates. He argued that loyalty did not contribute
to criminal behavior, as these ideas were too complicated to have a definite impact on a
person's basic moral sense, from which he believed criminal behavior stemmed. He argued that
other sentiments, such as hate, cupidity, and vanity had greater influences as they held more
control over a person's moral sense. He summarized his theory by defining criminal psychology
as a "defective resistance to criminal tendencies and temptations, due to that ill-balanced
impulsiveness which characterizes children and savages".
Ferri challenged Lombrosian view of criminality. Through his research, he proved that
mere biological reasons were not enough to account for criminality. He firmly believed that other
factors such as emotional reaction, social infirmity, or geographical conditions also play a vital
role in determining criminal tendencies in men. The major contribution of Ferri to criminology is
in his “Law of Criminal Saturation”. This theory presupposes that crime is the synthetic product
of three main factors:

 Physical or geographical;
  Anthropological; and
 Psychological or social.
Thus, Ferri emphasized that criminal behavior is an outcome of a variety of factors having
their combined effect on the individual. According to him, social change, which is inevitable in a
dynamic society; results in disharmony, conflict, and cultural variations. As a result of this, social
disorganization takes place and traditional patterns of social control mechanisms totally break
down. In the wake of such rapid social changes, the incidence of crime is bound to increase
tremendously.
Ferri emphasized that a criminal should be treated as a product of the conditions which
played his life. Therefore, the basic purpose of a crime prevention program should be to remove
conditions making for a crime. He worked out a five-fold classification of criminals, namely:

 Born criminals;
 Occasional criminals;
 Passionate criminals;
 Insane criminals; and
 Habitual criminals.
He suggested an intensive program of crime prevention and recommended a series of
measures for the treatment of offenders. He asserted that punishment could be one of the
possible methods of reforming the criminal. He favored indeterminate sentences keeping in view
the possible chances of inmates’ re-adjustment in the community.
CHARLES GORING
Goring’s crowning achievement was “The English Convict: A Statistical Study”. One of
the most comprehensive criminological works of its time. It was first published in 1913 and set
out to establish whether there were any significant physical or "Abnormalities among the
criminal classes that set them there apart from ordinary men, as suggested by Cesare
Lombroso. mental
He collected and analyzed data bearing upon 96 traits of each of over 3,000 English
convicts. He ultimately included that "the physical and mental constitution of both criminal and
law-abiding persons, of the same age, stature, class, and intelligence, are identical. There is no
such thing as an anthropological criminal type."
He did, however, assert that it is an indisputable fact that there is a physical, mental, and
moral type of normal person who tends to be convicted of a crime that is to say, our evidence
conclusively shows that, on average, the criminal of English prisons is markedly differentiated
by defective physique - as measured by stature and body weight, by defective mental capacity".
Goring went on to argue that one of the three measures which to combat crime was to "regulate
the reproduction of those degrees of constitutional qualities feeble-minded, inebriety, epilepsy,
social instinct, etc"
Contributions to Criminology:
The Positivist School of Criminology linked biological, psychological, and sociological
theories to criminal behavior. It brought to light that there are several factors involved in
criminality. The Positivist School of Criminology held that crime is caused or determined by the
individual. It used science to determine factors that were associated with crime and criminality.
Specific Theories within the Positivists School
1. Biological Theories. Biological theories are based on a person's biological and
hereditary identity. These theories imply that it is not entirely the criminal's fault, but
their biological makeup that makes them identify with criminality. Lombroso suggests
what he feels is a typical criminal in his book The Criminal Man, in which he
describes traits and characteristics of prisoners that he identifies with criminality.
2. Psychological Theories. Psychological theories deal with a person's mental being.
In psychological theories, the individual is the unit of analysis. It is believed that
crimes are the result of abnormal, dysfunctional, or inappropriate mental processes
within the personality of the individual. Therefore, it is believed that criminal behavior
may be purposeful for the individual because it addresses certain felt needs.
3. Sociological Theories. Sociological Theories associate a criminal's behavior with
the social constructs surrounding the individual. Sociological theories are structured
and based on the environment around the individual. This is the people that are in
close or intimate contact with the individual, the environment(s) in which the
individual is in constant contact, and the way the individual has been taught. Social
structure and context, as well as sociological theories, are an important part of
analyzing a criminal's behavior.
III. NEO-CLASSICAL SCHOOL
Following the French Revolution, the Neoclassical School was developed as a
compromise to the Classical and Positivists Schools of Criminology. The French Code of 1789
was founded based on Beccaria's principles. Just like Beccaria's principles, the French. The
code of 1789 called for the judge to be the only mechanism for applying the law, and the law
took the responsibility for defining a penalty for every crime and every degree of crime. There
was a problem with this however since there is a different condition in each situation that was
being overlooked. This allowed for first-time and repeat offenders to be treated in the same
manner, as well as children and adults, sane and insane, and so on being treated as if they
were the same.
A new set of reformers argues that the treatment. of others, as the same was unfair and
complained about injustice.
Gabriel Tarde suggested that there was a difference between total free will and
determinism and argued that no one has total free will. He suggested that factors such as age,
gender, and social and economic environments, nevertheless everyone is still responsible for
their actions. The Neoclassical School of Criminology had a basis for the offender's character.
Reactions to the impersonal features of no discretion became a point of action to give judges
the discretion that was needed to attain a fair course of action and punishments for offenders.
The judges were able to use discretion in cases where age, mental capabilities, and other
justifying circumstances were of issue. These conditions and revisions came to be known as the
Neo-Classical School of Criminology.
Gabriel Tarde.
 A French social theorist, who lived from 1843- 1904. He discounted biological theories
but believed that people patterned their behavior after the behavior of others. He then formed
three laws of behavior, which were an individual's immediate, intimate contact with one another
leads to them to imitate each other, imitation leads from the top down, and the law of insertion.
The second law implies that younger people will look up to the elderly, the poor the wealthy, and
so on. The third law of insertion means that new acts or behavior tend to emphasize or replace
old ones. An example is a middle school pre-teenager hanging out with a high school teenager
and the middle school pre-teen picking up the habits of the high school teenager. These habits
may include attitudes toward others and their attire.
Contributions of Neoclassical School to Criminology:
The Neo-Classical School of Criminology allowed for mitigating factors to be reviewed by
a judge and allowed for discretion to be used. Before the Neo-Classical School, all offenders
were treated the same no matter what age, mental condition, gender, and so on. This was seen
as unfair and unjust and allowed for change to transpire. The Neo-Classical School called for
judges to have discretion which is necessary in some instances. The Neo-Classical School was
also able to blend the Classical School of Criminology with the Positivist School of Criminology.
Deterrence Theory
There are two types of deterrence: general deterrence and specific deterrence. As a
general definition, deterrence is a goal in the sentencing of hindering criminal behavior from fear
of the punishment or consequence. A goal in criminal sentencing that seeks to prevent others
from committing crimes like the one the offender is being sentenced for is general deterrence.
Similarly, specific deterrence has a goal in sentencing that seeks to prevent a particular offender
from recidivism or repeat offending.
Reflections
The Classical School, Positivist School, and Neo-Classical School are all considered
separate from each other. However, some of the characteristics of each are intertwined in the
big scheme of things.
The Classical School of Criminology is based on free will and determinism, while the
Positivist School of Criminology is based on the biological, psychological, and sociological
aspects of a criminal. The Neo-Classical School, however, is a blend of the two other schools of
criminology with a big emphasis on deterrence
The Classical School and Neo-Classical School differed in that the Classical School held
that people had complete free will, and the Neo-Classical School felt that a person had free will,
but not absolute free will. The Neo-Classical School and Positivist School differed in that the
Positivist School highlighted a person's biology and the Neo-Classical School emphasized that
there were many other factors associated with criminality.

IV. CHICAGO SCHOOL OF CRIMINOLOGY

Sometimes known as the Ecological School refers to a school of thought in sociology
and criminology originating at the University of Chicago whose work was influential in the early
20th century.
 The Chicago School introduced the idea of socialization as an explanation for criminal
activity. These theories hold that people are not simply born good or bad they are influenced by
the people, social - situations, and other external forces that surround them. Unlike early
theories of criminal behavior focused on the individual, touting such ideas as crime as a rational
choice, born criminals, and physical features such as forehead size as predictors of crime.
Major figures within the first Chicago school included Neis Anderson, Ernest Burgess,
Ruth Shonle Cavan, Edward Franklin Frazier, Everett Hughes, Roderick D. McKenzie, George
Herbert Mead, Robert E. Park, Walter C. Reckless, Edwin Sutherland, W. I. Thomas, Frederic
Thrasher, Louis Wirth, and Florian Znaniecki. The activist, social scientist, and Nobel Peace
Prize winner Jane Addams also forged and maintained close ties with some of the members of
the school.
Following the Second World War, a "second Chicago School" arose, whose members combined
symbolic interactionism with methods of field research (today known as ethnography), to create
a new body of work. Luminaries from the second Chicago school include Howard S. Becker,
Richard Cloward, Erving Goffman David Matza, Robert K. Merton, Lloyd Ohlin, and Frances Fox
Piven

THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION

MODULE II
Modern Crimes cause models to favor an interdisciplinary lens that recognizes how different
fields complement, rather than contract with, one another. This approach acknowledges that no
single theory can explain all types of criminality nor the legal and moral issues that convoy
them.
The following are the MAJOR THEORETICAL MODEL of Crime Causation:

 BIOLOGICAL
 PSYCHOLOGICAL
 SOCIOLOGICAL
 ECONOMIC
I. BIOLOGICAL THEORY
Biological theories of crimes state that whether people commit crimes depends on their
biological nature. The biological characteristics that biological theories of crime claim are
associated with criminality could include factors such as genetics, neurology, or physical
constitution.
Although many modern biological theories of crime consider the effect of contextual and
environmental conditions (what criminologists call biosocial theories), biological theories of
crime distinguish themselves from sociological theories in their focus on internal factors.
Biological theories of crime developed in parallel to their sociological counterparts.
Forensic biology first became a science in itself in Italy in the 19th century, with Cesare
Lombroso as its founding father. Lombroso developed the concept of the born criminal" under
the influence of both phrenology (a tow-defunct study of the features of the skull as indicative of
mental capacity and character traits) and Darwin's theory of evolution.
A. BIOLOGICAL THEORIES: Physical Trait Theories
The belief that one can determine a person's character, moral disposition, or behavior by
observing his or her physical characteristics is ancient. Pythagoras, a philosopher,
mathematician, and scientist who lived during the period around 500 BCE may have been one
of the first to advocate this practice, known as physiognomy
1. Physiognomy Theory. The term physiognomy comes from the Greek words physis,
meaning nature, and gnomon, meaning to judge or to interpret. It refers to the evaluation of a
person's personality or character (i.e.., his or her nature) through an examination of that
person's outward appearance. Early physiognomy concentrated on characteristics of the face
through which to judge the person's nature. Aristotle was a proponent of physiognomy, as were
many other ancient Greeks. The practice flourished in many areas of the world and was taught
in universities throughout England until it was banned by Henry VIII in 1531.
 Physiognomy Theorists or Physiognomists
a. Giambattista della Porta. The publication of On Physiognomy in 1586 by Italian
scholar Della Porta once again brought renewed focus to this belief and practice of the ancient
Greeks. Della Porta, often considered the first criminologist, examined patients during his
medical practice and concluded that appearance and character were related. He approached
the study of this relationship from a magico-spiritualistic metaphysical perspective instead of a
scientific one, classifying humans on the basis of their resemblance to animals. For example,
men who look like donkeys are similar to donkeys in their laziness and stupidity, men who
resemble pigs behave like pigs.
b. Johann Kaspar Lavater. Della Porta's ideas were extremely influential to Johann
Kaspar Lavater, a Swiss pastor who published his painstakingly detailed study of facial
fragments in 1783. He concluded that one could determine criminal behavior through an
examination of a person's eyes, ears, nose, chin, and facial shape.
c. Jacob Fries. In 1820, Fries relate the nature of the crime to the personality of the
individual or suggested a link between crime and physical appearance in his Handbook on
Criminal Anthropology
2. Phrenology Theory. Phrenology, from the Greek words phren, meaning mind, and
logos, meaning knowledge, is based on the belief that human behavior originated in the brain.
Phrenology Theorists or Phrenologists
a. Franz Joseph Gall. Around 1800, Gall, a German neuroanatomist and physiologist
who pioneered the study of the human brain as the source of mental faculties, developed the
practice of cranioscopy, a technique by which to infer behaviors and characteristics from
external examination of the skull (cranium). According to Gall, a person's strengths,
weaknesses, morals, proclivities, character, and personality could be determined by the
physical characteristics of the skull and fissures.
Gall mapped out the location of 27 "brain organs" in the human skull. A bump or
depression in a particular area of the skull would indicate strength or weakness in that particular
area. For example, several areas of Gall's map of the skull were believed to correspond to that
person's tendencies to engage in criminal or deviant acts. One area corresponded to the
tendency to commit murder; another area corresponded to the tendency to steal. Although
crude, and somewhat ridiculous by today's standards, Gall's efforts had a significant impact on
subsequent research that attempted to identify the brain as the origin of behavior.
b. Johann Spurzheim. Spurzheim, a German physician and student of Gall, actually
coined the term phrenology to replace cranioscopy. In 1812, Spurzheim also expanded the map
of the brain organs, developed a hierarchical system of the organs, and created a model
"phrenology bust" that depicted the location of the brain organs.

C. Biological Theories: Body Type and Physique

The body type and Physique theory views that there is a relationship between the type of
human body to criminality. This theory is also called Criminal Anthropology Theory.
1. ATAVISTIC THEORY OF CRIME
Cesare Lombroso (1876) was most famous for developing the atavistic theory of crime in
his book, The Criminal Man. In this book, Lombroso argued that there is a distinct biological
class of people prone to criminality. He suggests that criminality is inherited and that someone
"born criminal" could be identified by the way they look.

With idea on phrenology

and physiognomy it became
the basis of Cesare
Lombroso in exploring the
physical traits of a body
wherein he researched the facial
features and the shape of the
skull. Using various
physiological and cranial
measurements
of known criminals he theorized
that certain persons who engage
in criminal behavior are
"born criminals" and believe
that criminals could be
distinguished from non-
criminals by
a variety of what he termed
physical stigmata, such as long
lower jaw, flattened nose, and
long, apelike arms.
With the idea of phrenology and physiognomy, it became the basis of Cesare Lombroso
in exploring the physical traits of a body wherein he researched the facial features and the
shape of the skull. Using various physiological and cranial measurements of known criminals he
theorized that certain persons who engage in criminal behavior are "born criminals" and believe
that criminals could be distinguished from non-criminals by a variety of what he termed physical
stigmata, such as the long lower jaw, flattened nose, and long, apelike arms.
He suggested that there was a distinct biological class of people that were prone to
criminality. These people exhibited 'atavistic' (e. primitive) features. Lombroso claimed that
distinguishable from the general population because the criminal types looked different. These
people have atavistic, or primitive, features.

 Thieves had expressive faces, manual dexterity, and small, wandering eyes;
 Murderers had cold, glassy stares, bloodshot eyes, and hawk-like noses;
 Sex offenders carried thick lips and protruding ears;
 Female criminals were shorter, wrinklier had darker hair, and smaller crimes than
normal women.
This meant, Lombroso argued, that criminals were at a more primitive stage of evolution
than non-offenders, making them unable to fit into contemporary society and thus prone to
committing crimes. This came with the implication that criminality was heritable.

2. PHYSIQUE THEORY
Ernst Kretschmer. Kretschmer developed his Physique Theory in his book Physique
and Character published in 1921, he suggested the following physique:
1. Asthenic Type. This person is skinny, with ribs easily counted, and a slender body type. This
type usually commits crimes known as petty theft and fraud.
2. Athletic Type. This person has broad shoulders, powerful legs, and a muscular body type.
This type usually commits violent crimes.
3. Pyknic Type. This person is stout, has short stubby hands, and with a round body. This type
usually commits deception, fraud, and violence.
4. Dysplastic or Mixed Type. The person has a body type that is less clearly evident having
any predominant type (unclassifiable). Any person with this body type usually commits an
offense against decency and morality.
Kretschmer argued that the asthenic and athletic types are associated with
schizophrenic personality while the pyknic type is linked to manic-depressive.
3. SOMATOTYPING THEORY
This theory relates the distinctive body types to personality characteristics and relates
criminal behavior to body types. People are born with an inherited body type based on skeletal
frame and body composition.

William H. Sheldon.
Sheldon in the 1940s, developed
and tested his classification
system, known as Somatotyping.
He attempted to document a direct
link between biology (specifically,
physique) and personality
(specifically, crime) through the
development of a classification
system of personality patterns and
corresponding physical builds. He
associated body type (physique)
with human temperament and
created three classifications of
somatotypes, namely:
1. Ectomorphs. Endomorphs have
the following characteristics:
a. fat, soft, and round body types;
b. personality was described as relaxed, fond of eating, and sociable;
c. has wide waists and large bone structures;
d. has a higher proportion of Digestive Tissue; and
e. has a Viscerotonic Temperament
2. Mesomorphs. Mesomorphs have the following characteristics:
a. body type is characterized by a high rate of muscle growth;
b. has large bones, a solid torso combined with low-fat levels;
c. filled with energy, courage, and assertive tendencies;
d. has wide shoulders with a narrow waist;
e. has a higher proportion of Muscular Tissue; and
f. has a Dionysian Temperament.
3. Ectomorphs. Ectomorphs have the following characteristics:
a. has long arms and legs;
b. has a short upper body,
c. narrow shoulders;
d. has long and thin muscles;
c. has very low-fat storage;
f. they are usually referred to as slim;

g. has a higher proportion of Nervous Tissue; and

h. has a Cerebrotonic Temperament.
Sheldon argued that mesomorphic types were more likely to engage in crime,
ectomorphs were more likely to commit suicide, and endomorphs. were more likely to be
mentally ill. Although Sheldon linked physical and psychological characteristics and concluded
that both were the result of heredity, he failed to support that conclusion with valid statistical
methods.
Also during the late 1940s and early 1950s, Sheldon Glueck and Eleanor Glueck
conducted longitudinal research into juvenile delinquency. In their research, they found support
for Sheldon's proposition that mesomorphs are more likely to commit crimes.
GENETIC THEORY
Genetic theories view that traits of human beings can be transferred from one generation
to the next. This theory believes in the laws of inheritance.
a. Charles Darwin. Charles Darwin first proposed the idea that genetics and evolution both
contribute to many human qualities including personality. Darwin propounded his theory of
Evolution in his book On the Origin of Species published in 1859 which theorized that
pangenesis explained the persistence of traits from one generation to the next. He discussed
transmission and development in his laws of inheritance, arguing that cells within bodies shed
“gemmules” that carry specific traits from the parent organism to the subsequent generation.
Relative thereto, Darwin believed that criminal behavior is inherited or could be transferred by
parents to their offspring. In reiteration, the atavism of Lombroso was drawn from the concept of
Charles Darwin who claimed that criminals were born and were atavistic throwbacks to earlier
historical periods
b. Gregor Mendel. Mendel, an Austrian scientist, is known as the father of genetics who has
made experiments with plants (in particular, peas) and with animals (in particular, bees) in 1866
and provided quantitative evidence that traits were passed on from one generation to the next
(or inherited), making it one of the most critical pieces of research related to biological theories
of crime. Medel study points to the Laws of Inheritance.
However, Mendel's work was largely ignored until after 1900 (in part because of the
popularity of Darwin's theories), the application of his laws of inheritance to individual
and social development resulted in significant advances in biological theories of
behavior. Mendel, however, was the one who developed support for the theory of
inheritance through his experiments with the cultivation and breeding of pea plants, and
the scientific support for dominant and recessive characteristics, passed from one
generation to the next.

Note: The works of Mendel on plants and animals led to the idea that traits of human beings too
could be inherited; and, that such traits (criminal traits) could be transmitted to their progenies or
descendants.
c. Francis Galton. Galton, a cousin of Charles Darwin, developed his Theory of Eugenics in
1883. Eugenics advocated the encouragement, through the distribution of incentives, of "able"
couples to reproduce in an effort to improve human hereditary traits, (25)
Two Kinds of Eugenics
1. Positive Eugenics. It aims to produce healthier and more intelligent humans by persuading
people with those traits to have more children. It encourages the reproduction of the "more fit"
which means that good or intelligent people are more favored to produce children.
2. Negative Eugenics. Negative eugenics aims to cut out traits that lead to suffering by limiting
people with the traits from reproducing. It discourages the reproduction of the "less fit" which
means that epileptic, feebleminded couples or people are not allowed to produce children.
Eugenics made its first official appearance in American history through marriage laws. In
1896, Connecticut made it illegal for people with epilepsy or who were "feeble-minded" to marry.
Eugenics simply implies that through observance of Negative Eugenics, the propagation,
transfer, or inheritance of criminal behavior or trait and other similar human dysfunctions could
be stopped.
c. Richard Dugdale. After Galton's efforts, Richard Dugdale attempted to document that crime
was a family trait. Dugdale published his study entitled. The Jukes: A Study in Crime,
Pauperism, Disease, and Heredity in 1877; in which he traced the descendants of matriarch
Margaret Ada Jukes and found out that most of the Jukes family members were criminals,
prostitutes, or welfare recipients. This study in the 19 century viewed degeneracy (roughly
synonymous with bad heredity) and led theorists to conceive social problems such as the
following:
1. insanity
2. Poverty
3. Intemperance
4. Criminality
5. Idiocy
 Dugdale debated the relative contribution of environment and heredity and concluded
that the family's poor environment was largely to blame for their behavior: environment tends to
produce habits that may become hereditary, 1251 He urged public welfare changes and
improvements in the environment in order to prevent criminality, poverty, and disease.
Jukes Family Tree Findings. After generations of research, the following were concluded:
1. 310 died as paupers,
2. 150 were criminals,
3. 7 were murderers,
4. 100 were drunkards, and

5. more than half of the women were prostitutes.

Dugdale's study was about a rural clan that over seven generations produced 1,200
bastards, beggars, murderers, prostitutes, thieves, and syphilitics. Margarette Ada Juke was
regarded as the mother of criminals.
Note: Dugdale noted that the Jukes was not a single family, but a composite of 42 families and
that only 540 of his 709 subjects were apparently related by blood.
d. Henry H. Goddard. Goddard published his study entitled, The Kallikak Family: A Study in the
Heredity of Feeble-Mindedness in 1912 which traced descendants of a man named Martin
Kallikak. Goddard developed the pseudonym Kallikak by combining a Greek root meaning
beauty (kallos) with one meaning bad (kakos). He also introduced the term moron. Goddard's
study traced back six generations of the family of a young institutionalized woman (Deborah
Kallikak (real name Emma Wolvertonand), the great-great-great granddaughter of Martin
Kallikak found "an appalling amount of defectiveness." Yet, there was also information about "a
good family of the same name." It emerged that the forebear met "a feeble-minded girl by whom
he became the father of a feeble-minded son."
Subsequently, the father "married a respectable girl of good family", by whom he
produced children with "a marked tendency towards professional careers." The lesson was clear
and dramatic; the study linked medical and moral deviance and fused the new Mendelian Laws
with the old biblical injunction that the sins of the fathers shall be visited on the sons.
What is Feeble-mindedness or Feeblemindedness?
It is a severe mental deficiency. In the late 19th century in Europe, mental deficiency
encompassed all degrees of educational and social deficiency. Within the concept of mental
deficiency, researchers established a hierarchy, ranging from idiocy (the most severe end of the
scale); to imbecility (the median point); and to feeble-mindedness (the highest end of
functioning). Feeble-mindedness was conceived of as a form of high-grade mental deficiency,
Despite being pejorative, in its day the term was considered, (33) along with idiot, imbecile, and
moron, to be a relatively precise psychiatric classification.