The field of criminology systematically studies the causes of crime.

The explanations for crime

are not simple; we live in a complex society, and the causes of crime are as complex as the society itself.
The criminologist attempts to explore the conditions leading to criminal behavior and the factors in
society that contribute to its continued existence. This chapter and those that follow explore a wide
variety of theories regarding crime. These theoretical explanations contribute to an understanding of
criminal behavior and also provide an important framework for examining current policies and past as
well as present treatment efforts established to deal with or alleviate the crime problem.
Theories are important for the development of political and social policies and treatment
programs for dealing with criminals and their victims. This module will introduce you to various
criminological theories and perspectives. We will not only identify the various theoretical perspectives
that help us to understand and explain crime/criminal behavior, we will also evaluate the strengths and
weaknesses of different criminological theories and perspectives. As part of this, we will consider wider
social and political contexts in which crime occurs and can be explained and understood.
Theory refers to a plausible explanation of reality, a reasonable and informed guess as to why
things are as they appear. The term theory is derived from the Greek word theotos, to observe and reflect
on the meaning of an event. It is any system of ideas arranged in rational order that produce general
principles which increase our understanding and explanation. Theories are useful tools that help us to
understand and explain the world around us.
Theory in criminology refers to efforts to explain or understand crime causation. It is often
viewed as an attempt to justify and excuse crime or as being wholly inadequate in guiding practical,
existing social policy. The goal of criminological theory is to help one gain an understanding of crime and
criminal justice. Theories cover the making and the breaking of the law, criminal and deviant behavior, as
well as patterns of criminal activity. Theories can be used to guide policy making, and can be evaluated
on a number of criteria including:
BROAD THEORETICAL MODELS OF CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR
Historically, there are three broad theoretical models of criminal behavior:
● Psychological
● Sociological
● Biological
Psychological approaches
These are the fundamental assumptions of psychological theories of criminality or human behavior in
general:
■ The individual is the primary unit of analysis in psychological theories.
■ Personality is the major motivational element that drives behavior within individuals.
■ Normality is generally defined by social consensus.
■ Crimes then would result from abnormal, dysfunctional or inappropriate mental processes within
the personality of the individual.
■ Criminal behavior may be purposeful for the individual insofar as it addresses certain felt needs.
■ Defective or abnormal, mental processes may have a variety of causes.

Given these six principles to establish psychological explanations of criminal behavior, we can
suggest first operant learning models for crime control. Operant learning models are based on the
utilitarian concepts that all people wish to maximize pleasure and minimize pain or discomfort. Burrhus
Frederic Skinner (BF Skinner) who proposed theory of operant conditioning, based on the psychological
theories of reinforcement which are influential in control of criminal behavior.

Technically speaking, punishments are any sanctions designed to decrease a specific behavior;
thus fines, jail sentences are all forms of punishment. However, Skinner himself recognized that
punishment was generally ineffective in behavior modification and that reinforcement worked better.
Punishment is effective if applied properly, but unfortunately it is rarely applied properly. Punishment
needs to be immediate and sufficient.
Harsh forms of punishment do not appear to significantly decrease recidivism(committed by a
person who at the time of his trial for one crime have been previously convicted by final judgment of
another crime) rate.
SOCIOLOGICAL APPROACHES
We will define sociological notions of criminality as:
● Attempting to connect the issues of the individual’s criminality with the broader social structures
and cultural values of society, familial, or peer group.
● How the contradictions of all of these interacting groups contribute to criminality.
● The ways these structures cultures and contradictions have historically developed.
● The current processes of change that these groups are undergoing.
● Criminality is viewed from the point of view of the social construction of criminality and its
social causes.

Traditional sociological theories proposed that crimes was a result of anomie (normlessness) or a
feeling of lack of social norms, a lack of being connected to society. The term was made popular by
Emile Durkheim. Later sociologists used the term to describe the dissociation of the individual from the
collective conscience or the criminality resulting from a lack of opportunity to achieve aspirations or by
the learning of criminal values and behaviors.
Therefore criminality results from the failure to properly socialize individuals and by unequal
opportunities between groups. Durkheim believed that crime was an inescapable fact of society and
advocated maintaining crime within reasonable boundaries.
BIOLOGICAL APPROACHES
Biological theories of criminality basically purport that criminal behavior is the result of some flaw in the
biological makeup of the individual. This physical flaw could be due to
• Heredity
• Neurotransmitter dysfunction
• Brain abnormalities that were caused by either of the above, improper development or trauma.
Psychosurgery. Brain surgery to control behavior has rarely been applied to criminal behavior. Between
1930’s to late 1970’s frontal lobotomies were performed. The lobotomy involves separating the prefrontal
cortex from the rest of the brain either surgically or with sharp ice-pick like instrument that was inserted
in the eye socket between the upper eyelid and eye. The psychiatrists hit the end of the instruments with a
hammer to disconnect the nerves of the frontal lobe of the brain.
Afterwards behavior were changed. Lobotomies were used to treat a wide range of problems from
depression to schizophrenia. Today the lobotomy has fallen out of favor due medications used to control
behavior. Psychosurgery appears to be an option that will most likely not to be put into use due to stigma
associated with it.
Chemical methods of control: The use of pharmacological treatments to try to control crime has been
ongoing in two major areas: chemical castration for sex offenders and pharmacological interventions for
drug or alcohol addicts. Sex offenders are closely monitored and there is some evidence that this policy
has been effective.
If the biological model of criminality has any significant effect on policy outside the use of chemical
castration for sex offenders, it would be the policy that certain forms of criminal behavior or certain
individual may not be rehabilitated and the advocacy for harsher and stricter imprisonments or even
executions are viable methods of control in these instances.
If the biological model of criminality has any significant effect on policy outside the use of chemical
castration for sex offenders, it would be the policy that certain forms of criminal behavior or certain
individual may not be rehabilitated and the advocacy for harsher and stricter imprisonments or even
executions are viable methods of control in these instances.
The issue for the community is how to recognize a significant biological contribution to criminal behavior
since genetic testing is unreliable and there are no other physical markers of criminality. One must be
recognized as a repeat offender before we can acknowledge a possible innate tendency towards
criminality.

DEMONOLOGICAL THEORY
Demonology is the study of demons or beliefs about demons, especially the methods used to summon and
control them. Demons, when regarded as spirits, may belong to either of the classes of spirits recognized
by primitive animism (belief that all plants, animals and objects have spirit). The word demonology is
from the Greek word ,daimon, which means “divinity, divine power, god” and logy which means study.
In the middle ages in Europe, they established various means of determining guilt and innocence. God
could indicate who was guilty or not by giving victory to the innocent in a trial by battle. Later, trial by
ordeal was instituted in which the accused was exposed to dangerous tests, and if the person survived, he
or she had been protected by God.
ORDEAL is a divinatory practice that has a judiciary function. If the accused escapes death, he or she is
judged innocent; if he or she dies, the death is considered the due punishment of proven guilt. The most
common ordeals of this sort are ordeal by poison, in which the accused is forced to ingest poisonous
substances (if innocent, the substances will be vomited up); ordeal by water, in which the accused risks
drowning; and ordeal by fire, in which the accused risks burning to death.
 Demonology is one of the earliest theories in criminology. In the ancient times, people believed
that evil spirits or demons entered human body to commit sins. This was the earliest explanation given
regarding crime and criminal behavior. The society thought that it happened due to evil influence.
Supernatural powers were considered the best explanation behind crime and sin. It was believed that a
person did not commit crime of his own freewill but under evil influence.
An early explanation of crime is theological or religious. Crime has been viewed as a violation of
religious doctrine. It is called a sin - a violation of sacred obligation. An individual who commits crime
has been viewed as possessed by evil spirits. The causes of crime have been based in superstitious belief
in which criminals were allegedly perceived as controlled by the devil.
Classical theory refers to an approach that emphasizes free will and rationality on the part of the criminal
actor. Classical theory in criminology has its roots in the theories of the 18 th century Italian nobleman,
Cesare Beccaria and the English philosopher, Jeremy Bentham. This was a time when punishment for
crime was severe. They rejected theories of naturalism and demonology. Beccaria believed that there
should be a hierarchy of punishments for more serious crimes and the number of times a criminal have
been charged previously.
 He published a historic piece, An Essay on Crimes and Punishment, in 1764, discussing why crime
occurs and what society should do about it. He advocated a proposition that punishment should be swift,
certain, and proportional to the crime. He also advocated the abolition of capital punishment. Beccaria
and Bentham believed that people committed crime when they believed that the chance of rewards to
them would be greater than the likelihood of punishment. These men believed that people acted on the
principle of free will: they made a choice of what behaviors to indulge in and therefore should suffer the
consequences if caught in criminal acts.
Main principle of classical school of criminology were:
1. Crime is a rational choice, and most people are capable to commit crimes.
2. People will commit a crime after they have compared potential costs and benefits of such actions.
3. Most of the people fear punishment, and the certainty, severity and speed of punishment will have
a impact on the level of crime.
4. Punishment needs to fit a crime and individual differences of perpetrators shouldn’t have an
influence on the punishment.
5. The criminal justice system needs to be predictable, while laws and punishments must be known
to public.
● “The individual commits the crime from his own free will while being well aware of the
punishment.”
From his essay, four general principles can be identified that embody the classical doctrine:
1. Equality - All should be treated equally under the law.
2. Liberty - We have the right to be protected from the potential abuses of power by the state.  The
law cannot be applied retroactively and there can be no punishment without law.
3. Utilitarianism – Because the major goal of the sovereign should be the greatest happiness for the
greatest number, justice should entail utility rather than retaliation and retribution.
 a. Punishment should be viewed as a deterrent.  Deterrence will be ensured by three basic
conditions:
                                                              i.      Certainty of punishment
                                                            ii.      Swiftness of justice
                                                          iii.      Severity of punishment.
4. Humanitarianism – Punishment should not only be fair but humane.

POSITIVIST THEORY
Theories which existed before positivist theory of crime were phrenology and physiognomy theories.
Johann Lavater, the physiognomist, thought that the shape of the skull and some facial features had an
impact on a human behavior and action. Later, positivist theorist of crime Cesare Lombroso took
Lavater’s ideas and began exploring other physical traits of a body. Lombroso compared large number of
criminals and non-criminals using human physical traits like: ear size, hair length and other.
The primary idea behind positivist criminology is that criminals are born as such and not made into
criminals; in other words, it is nature of the person, not nurture, that results in criminal propensities.
Cesare lombroso studied cadavers and looked for physiological reasons for criminal behavior.
Positivist’s theorists of crime argued that human behavior is pre-disposed and fully determined by
individual differences and biological traits. In short, what drives people towards crime is not a matter of
free-will. Lombroso was influenced by Darwinian principles of evolution. Positivist theory of crime
implemented the idea of Social Darwinism that individuals or groups develop certain physical and
psychological attributes, which allow them to function more efficiently in the social and natural
environment. The positivist theory of crime understanding was limited on the external appearance as the
way to identify the physical characteristics, which were present in criminal approach in phrenology.

NEO-CLASSICAL THEORY
Gabriel Tarde
(March 12, 1843)
Founder of Neo-classical School of Criminology
Neo-classical crime theory is a continuation of classical crime theory. It basically admits environmental,
psychological, and other mitigating circumstances as modifying condition to classic doctrine. Although
sources that mention neoclassical school and crime theory of criminology are merely sparse, it main
contribution to the field of criminology is reflected through the understanding of individual differences of
the perpetrators.
Neoclassical crime theory sought to improve the stances towards perpetrators who should have an impact
on the level of guilt and severity of punishment. Not all perpetrators should be treated in the same
fashion. In 1980, Gabriel Tarde published a book “Penal Philosophy”. In his book he criticizes classical
and positivist criminology. Neoclassical criminology theory considers age, gender and social class of the
perpetrators. The perpetrators are people who think, feel, act and criminal behavior is learned within
groups by imitation and identification
The neoclassical school of thought was first incorporated into the French Code of 1791 and remained the
cornerstone of criminal justice policy, but did not receive much attention until the 1980s and 1990s.  It
experienced a resurgence of popularity in response due to the failure of rehabilitation and a public outcry
for a return to harsher punishment: longer prison sentences, a return to corporal punishment, and even a
reinstatement of capital punishment.  The demand was for the punishment to fit the crime – a concept that
keeps in line with the classical school.  Neoclassical theory can be thought of as a ‘just desserts’ model.
While endorsing the major principles of classical theory, the neoclassical perspective entails two major
exceptions:
1. Rejection of the rigidity of the classical system of punishment
2. A degree of subjectivity, or discretion, when assessing criminal responsibility.
Neoclassical perspective assumes that individuals choose to commit crime after calculation whether
crime’s potential rewards outweigh its potential risks. 
The plea bargain is characteristic of a neoclassical approach because it provides an opportunity for the
defence and Crown (or State) to reach an agreement in which the accused agrees to plead guilty for
certain considerations.
POSITIVIST
• Criminals are born.
• Criminal behaviors is nature not nurture.
• Physical traits influences human behavior.

CLASSICAL
• Every individual has his own free will to choose to do evil.
• Contradicted positivist because they believed that people have rational mind.
• Suggest certain, proportionate or equal punishment for swift justice.
• individual differences of perpetrators shouldn’t have an influence on the punishment.

NEO-CLASSICAL
• Focuses on the individual differences of the perpetrator that will affect the severity of the
punishment.
• Determine circumstances that are present in the commission of the crime that will determine the
criminal responsibility of the offender.
 BIOLOGICAL THEORIES
The terms “biological” and “genetic” are often confused, in part due to the fact that they represent
overlapping sources of influence. Biological factors are more inclusive, consisting of physiological,
biochemical, neurological and genetic factors. Genetic factors refer to biological factors that are inherited.
A large body of evidence has accumulated that suggests that the etiology of criminal behavior may be
understood when genetic and biological factors are also taken into account.
According to biological theories, punishment will not affect deterring the individual from the
crime, because the person has some inherited remnant or stigmata. Biological theories of crime causation
were the first theories were scientific methodology was used.
LOMBROSIAN THEORY
Cesare Lombroso, altered the classic focus of crime from legalities and punishment to the individual
criminal. Lombroso proposed that criminals are biologically different from other human beings. In
Lombroso’s view, criminals exhibit more physical and mental abnormalities than non criminals, such as
unusual skull sizes and asymmetrical facial structure. Many of his theories were developed while he was
in charge of the insane hospital in Italy.
Basic Idea of the Positivist theory:
-Criminals are born not made.
-This is an example of nature, not nurture.
-Focused on biological and psychological factors to explain criminal behavior.
Lombroso developed the theory about “born criminal”. Some biological traits of criminals that he found
are the following:
 Unusual size or shape of the head
 Strange eyes
 Facial asymmetry
 Extended jaw and jaw bone
 Too big or too small ears
 Full lips leaned forward
 Abnormal teeth
 Wrinkled skin
 Thieves have a flat nose and murderers have a beak nose
 Too long, too small or flat chin
 Dark skin and
 Too long arms
According to Lombroso, persons who have five or more biological traits are born criminals. He later
changes the theory of born criminal and develops a new theory. Classification of criminals is made into
three categories:

1.Born criminals
2. Abnormal criminals (idiots, imbeciles, paranoids, melancholic, alcoholics and hysterics)
3. Occasional criminals
Criminaloids - are those who had difficulties during their childhood and can occasionally behave
delinquently.
Pseudo criminals - insane persons and those who committed crime in self defense.
Criminals out of habit - habitual criminals had a poor education during their childhood or have been in
social interaction with criminals.

WILLIAM SHELDON’S THEORY

Have you ever made a snap judgment based on how someone looked? William Sheldon thought body
types could define personality. We know that we can’t judged people based on appearances, but some
interesting observations on the subject were made by William Sheldon, and early American psychologist.
He published somatotyping, a system of classifying people based on their body types. Sheldon used his
observations to classify body types into three categories: ectomorph, endomorph and mesomorph.

Ectomorph
The ectomorph, according to Sheldon, was a thin, introverted person with poor social skills. These
character possess the ectomorph body type:
Narrow hips, shoulders, face, chest
Skinny arms and legs
High forehead
Ectomorphs were thought to have the following personality characteristics:
-Socially awkward
-Self-conscious
-Introverted and private
-Artistic
-Thoughtful
Endomorph
Now reverse your thinking. What personality jumps into your head when you think of Santa Claus? Do
you naturally associate a jolly, fun personality with people who are rounder in physique? If so, you’re
putting Sheldon’s body type theory into practice. Endomorph body type possesses the following physical
characteristics:
Pear-shaped or round with wide shoulders and hips
High body fat in all areas, including arms and thighs
Slim ankles and wrists
Sheldon thought endomorphic people has personalities that were:
-Outgoing
-Funny
-Loving
-Attention-seeking

Mesomorph
The mesomorph is a square body with an active personality and considered a more desirable body and
personality. They have the following characteristics:
Broad shoulders and a narrow waist
A trim or muscular body with a ‘strong’ feel
Proportionate facial features
According to Sheldon’s theory they also had the following qualities:
-Outgoing
-Courageous
-Full of life
-Competitive
-Risk taker
BIOCHEMICAL THEORIES OF DELINQUENCY
Crime and Sugar
Biochemical theories claim that there is a casual connection between blood sugar levels, anti-social
behavior and delinquency. Theories are mostly represented in the field of juvenile delinquency and
presume that poor nutrition affects delinquent behavior. Poor nutrition directly affects the learning
process. However, the causal connection between delinquency and candies isn't direct. Excessively low
levels of blood sugar (hypoglycemia) can cause the development of negative behavior, nervous behavior,
mental confusion, physical weakness, delirium and violence. Excessive consumption of alcohol can cause
hypoglycemia and increase aggressive behavior.

Cholesterol and crime

Clinical trials made found a relation between low cholesterol and aggressive behavior in
animals .Measurements of cholesterol levels of violent offenders were compared with measurement
records of non-offenders based on gender, age, type of offender (sexual or violent), alcohol consumption
and enrollment year.
Low levels of cholesterol are associated with persons who have difficulties with internalization of social
norms and have the tendency to be irresponsible. Low cholesterol levels can cause hypoglycemia.
Vitamins and crime
Vitamins and minerals are very important in a regular diet. Disruption of homeostasis can cause
difficulties. Theory states that low intake of vitamins, and minerals can cause delinquent behavior.

PSYCHOLOGICALTHEORIES

It is important to recognize that there are many different explanations as to why individuals commitcrime.
One of the main explanations is based on psychological theories, which focus on the association among
intelligence, personality, learning, and criminal behavior. Thus, in any discussion concerning crime
causation, one must contemplate psychological theories.
● Psychodynamic theory
● Behavioral theory
● Personality and crime
● Psychopathic personality
● Intelligence and crime

EARLY STUDY
Charles Goring discovered a relationship between crime and flawed intelligence. Goring
examined more than 3,000 convicts in England. It is important to note that Goring found no
physical differences between non-criminals and criminals; however, he did find that criminals are
more likely to be insane, to be unintelligent, and to exhibit poor social behavior. A second
 pioneer is Gabriel Tarde who maintained that individuals learn from each other and ultimately
imitate one another. Interestingly, Tarde thought that out of 100 individuals, only 1 was creative
or inventive and the remainder were prone to imitation.
PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY
In general, psychodynamics is the study of the interrelationship of various parts of the mind, personality
or psyche as they relate to mental, emotional, or motivational forces especially at
the unconscious level. The mental forces involved in psychodynamics are often divided into two parts:
(a) the interaction of the emotional and motivational forces that affect behavior and mental states,
especially on a subconscious level;
(b) inner forces affecting behavior: the study of the emotional and motivational forces that affect behavior
and state of mind.
The psychoanalyst who is perhaps most closely associated with the study of criminality is August
Aichorn. Unlike many of the sociologists of his day, Aichorn felt that exposure to stressful social
environments did not automatically produce crime or violence. After all, most people are exposed to
extreme stress and do not engage in serious forms of criminality. Aichorn felt that stress only produced
crime in those who had a particular mental state known as latent delinquency. Latent delinquency,
according to Aichorn, results from inadequate childhood socialization and manifests itself in the need for
immediate gratification (impulsivity), a lack of empathy for others, and the inability to feel guilt.
Since Aichorn’s early work, psychoanalysts have come to view violent criminals as “dominated”
individuals who are unable to control their impulsive, pleasure-seeking drives . Often because of
childhood neglect or abuse, violence-prone individuals suffer from weak or damaged “egos” that render
them unable to deal with stressful circumstances within conventional society. It is also argued that youth
with weak egos are immature and easily led into crime and violence by deviant peers. In their most
extreme form, underdeveloped egos (or superegos) can lead to “psychosis” and the inability to feel
sympathy for the victims of crime. In sum, psychodynamic theories depict the violent offender as an
impulsive, easily frustrated person who is dominated by events or issues that occurred in early childhood.
Psychotherapy is the use of psychological methods, particularly when based on regular personal
interaction with adults, to help a person change behavior and overcome problems in desired ways.
Psychotherapy aims to improve an individual’s well-being and mental health, to resolve or mitigate
troublesome behaviors, beliefs, compulsions, thoughts, or emotions, and to improve relationships
and social skills. There is also a range of psychotherapies designed for children and adolescents, which
typically involve play. Certain psychotherapies are considered evidence-based for treating some
diagnosed mental disorders.
There are over a thousand different psychotherapy techniques, some being minor variations, while others
are based on very different conceptions of psychology, ethics (how to behave professionally), or
techniques. Most involve one-to-one sessions, between the client and therapist, but some are conducted
within groups, including families.
Psychotherapists may be mental health professionals such as psychiatrists, psychologists, mental health
nurses, clinical social workers, marriage and family therapists, or professional counselors.
Psychotherapists may also come from a variety of other backgrounds, and depending on
the jurisdiction may be legally regulated, voluntarily regulated or unregulated (and the term itself may be
protected or not).
BEHAVIORAL THEORY
This theory maintains that human behavior is developed through learning experiences. The
hallmark of behavioral theory is the notion that people alter or change their behavior according to the
reactions this behavior elicits in other people. In an ideal situation, behavior is supported by rewards and
extinguished by negative reactions or punishments. Behaviorists view crimes as learned responses to
life’s situations. The most prominent social learning theorist is Albert Bandura. Bandura maintains that
individuals are not born with an innate ability to act violently. He suggested that, in contrast, violence and
aggression are learned through a process of behavior modeling.
In other words, children learn violence through the observation of others.
Aggressive acts are modeled after three primary sources: (1) family interaction, (2) environmental
experiences, and (3) the mass media.
Research on family interaction demonstrates that children who are aggressive are more likely to have
been brought up by parents or caretakers who are aggressive.
The second source of behavioral problems, environmental experiences, suggests that individuals
who reside in areas that are crime prone are more likely to display aggressive behavior than those who
reside in low-crime areas .One could argue that high-crime areas are without norms, rules, and custom.
Furthermore, there is an absence of conventional behavior.
Manifestations of unconventional behavior include the inability to gain employment; drug or
alcohol abuse; and failure to obey the local, state, and federal laws. Most important, individuals who
adhere to conventional behavior are invested in society and committed to a goal or belief system. They
are involved in schools or extracurricular activities, such as football, baseball, or Girl Scouts, and often
they have an attachment to family.
The third source of behavioral problems are the mass media. It is difficult to discern the ultimate
role of the media in regard to crime. Scholars have suggested that films, video games, and television
shows that depict violence are harmful to children. Ultimately, social learning theories beckon us to
accept the fact that the mass media are responsible for a great deal of the violence in our society. They
hypothesize that children who play violent video games and later inflict physical or psychological damage
to someone at school did so because of the influence of the video game. Important to note that in the
above-mentioned media outlets (e.g., video games), violence is often acceptable and even celebrated.
Moreover, there are no consequences for the actions of the major players. Professional athletes
provide an interesting example of misbehavior without significant consequences. Over the last 50 years,
there have been many documented cases of professional athletes who engaged in inappropriate behavior
on and off the field. These cases have important implications for the children who observe this behavior.
Thus, when a 10-year-old amateur athlete imitates behavior that he has learned by observing professional
sports figures, whom does society blame or punish? Substantiating the relationship between the media
and violence is the fact that many studies suggest that media violence enables or allows aggressive
children or adolescents to justify or rationalize their behavior. Furthermore, consistent media violence
desensitizes children and adolescents. A person could argue that viewing 10,000 homicides on television
over a 10-year period prevents (i.e., desensitizes) an individual from adjusting to the appropriate
psychological response. Thus, when the local news reports about a homicide, does the child or adolescent
respond with sorrow or indifference)? When searching for stimuli that foster violent acts, social learning
theorists suggest that an individual is likely to inflict harm when he or she is subject to a violent assault,
verbal heckling or insults, disparagement, and the inability to achieve his or her goals and aspirations
PERSONALITY AND CRIME
In everyday life, and when we look at other people, we often characterize them in certain ways:
■ Some people are extroverted and outgoing
■ Other people are introverted and shy
■ Some people are seen as “typical leader personalities”
■ Whereas others are seen more as supportive team members
■ Some people are said to have a “great personality”, without it really being clear what that means.
Often when we say things like “That’s just who I am”, we refer to our personality.
Personality can be defined as something that makes us what we are and also that which makes us
different from others. Ideally, personality is stable over time. Examinations of the relationship between
personality and crime have often yielded inconsistent results. One of the most well-known theories of
personality used to examine this relationship is the Big Five model of personality. This model provides a
vigorous structure into which most personality characteristics can be categorized. This model suggests
that five domains account for individual differences in personality: (1) Neuroticism, (2) Extraversion, (3)
Openness, (4) Agreeableness, and (5) Conscientiousness.
OCEAN.
Openness, referring to individuals who have an active imagination, find pleasure in beauty, are
attentive to their inner feelings, have a preference for variety, and are intellectually curious. Individuals
who score high on Openness are willing to entertain unique or novel ideas, maintain unconventional
values, and experience positive and negative emotions more so than individuals who are closed-minded.
In contrast, persons who score low in Openness often prefer the familiar, behave in conventional
manners, and have a conservative viewpoint.
Conscientiousness, the fifth domain, focuses on a person’s ability to control impulses and exercise self-
control. Individuals who score high on Conscientiousness are described as organized, thorough, efficient,
determined, and strong willed. In addition, those who are conscientious are more likely to achieve high
academic and occupational desires. In contrast, people who score low on this domain are thought to be
careless, lazy, and more likely assign fault to others than to accept blame themselves
Extraversion, is characterized by sociability, excitement, and stimulation. Individuals who score high on
Extraversion (extroverts) are often very active, talkative, and assertive. They also are more optimistic
toward the future. In contrast, introverts are often characterized by being reserved, independent, and shy.
Agreeableness. This domain is related to interpersonal tendencies. Individuals who score high on this
domain are considered warm, altruistic, softhearted, forgiving, sympathetic, and trusting. In contrast,
those who are not agreeable are described as hard-hearted, intolerant, impatient, and argumentative.
Neuroticism involves emotional stability. Individuals who score high on this domain often demonstrate
anger and sadness and have irrational ideas, uncontrollable impulses, and anxiety. In contrast, persons
who score low on Neuroticism are often described by others as even tempered, calm, and relaxed.

One personality study discovered that the personality traits of hostility, impulsivity, and
narcissism are correlated with delinquent and criminal behavior. Furthermore, research conducted by
Sheldon and Eleanor Glueck during the 1930s and 1940s identified a number of personality traits that
were characteristic of antisocial. Another important figure who examined the criminal personality is Hans
Eysenck. Eysenck identified two antisocial personality traits: (1) extraversion and (2) neuroticism.
Eysenck suggested that individuals who score at the ends of either domain of extraversion and
neuroticism are more likely to be self-destructive and criminal. Moreover, neuroticism is associated with
self-destructive behavior (e.g., abusing drugs and alcohol and committing crimes).
 PSYCHOPATIC PERSONALITY
Antisocial personality, psychopathy, or sociopath are terms used interchangeably.
Sociopaths are often a product of a destructive home environment. Psychopaths are a product of a defect
or aberration within themselves.

The antisocial personality is characterized by low levels of guilt, superficial charm,

above-average intelligence, persistent violations of the rights of others, an incapacity to form enduring
relationships, impulsivity, risk taking, egocentricity, manipulativeness, forcefulness and cold-heartedness,
and shallow emotions. The origin may include traumatic socialization, neurological disorder, and brain
abnormality. Interestingly, if an individual suffers from low levels of arousal as measured by a
neurological examination, he or she may engage in thrill seeking or high-risk behaviors such as crime to
offset their low arousal level. Other dynamics that may contribute to the psychopathic personality is a
parent with pathologic tendencies, childhood traumatic events, or inconsistent discipline
It is important to note that many chronic offenders are sociopaths. Thus, if personality traits can
predict crime and violence, then one could assume that the root cause of crime is found in the forces that
influence human development at an early stage of life.
Intelligence and crime
Criminologists have suggested for centuries that there exists a link between intelligence
and crime. Some common beliefs are that criminals and delinquents possess low intelligence and that this
low intelligence causes criminality. The ability to predict criminals from non-criminals is the ultimate
goal. The ideology or concept of IQ and crime has crystallized into the nature-versus-nurture debate
The nature-versus-nurture debate is a psychological argument that is related to whether
the environment or heredity impacts the psychological development of individuals. Science recognizes
that we share our parents’ DNA. To illustrate, some people have short fingers like their mother and brown
eyes like their father. However, the question remains: Where do individuals get their love of sports,
literature, and humor? The nature-versus-nurture debate addresses this issue.
With respect to the nature side, research on the prison population has consistently shown
that inmates typically score low on IQ tests. In the early decades of the 20th century, researchers
administered IQ tests to delinquent male children. The results indicated that close to 40% had below-
average intelligence. On the basis of these data and other studies, some scholars argue that the role of
nature is prevalent. One criticism of this perspective is the failure to account for free will. Many
individuals in our society believe in the ability to make choices. Last, there are many individuals who
have a low IQ but refrain from committing crime.
With respect to nurture theory, advocates ground themselves on the premise that
intelligence is not inherited. There is some recognition of the role of heredity; however, emphasis is
placed on the role of society. To demonstrate, parents are a major influence on their children’s behavior.
At an early age, parents read books; play music; and engage their children in art, museum, and sporting
events. Some parents spend no quality time with their children, and these children are believed to perform
poorly on intelligence test. Other groups important in a child’s nurturing are friends, relatives, and
teachers. Ultimately, the child who has no friends or relatives and drops out of school is destined for
difficult times. Research has demonstrated that the more education a person has, the higher his or her IQ.
 After Galton’s efforts, others attempted to document that crime was a family trait. In
1877, Richard Dugdale published The Jukes: A Study in Crime, Pauperism, Disease and Heredity, in
which he traced the descendants of matriarch Ada Jukes and found that most of the Jukes family
members were criminals, prostitutes, or
welfare recipients.
Another family study, published in 1912 by Henry H. Goddard traced 1,000 descendants of a
man named Martin Kallikak, comparing his descendants who were conceived within wedlock to a woman
of “noble birth” to his descendants who came from the bloodline he conceived out of wedlock with
another woman, one of ill repute. Goddard concluded that the legitimate bloodline was “wholesome,”
whereas the illegitimate bloodline was characterized by “feeblemindedness.”
The name Kallikak is a pseudonym used as a family name throughout the book. Goddard coined
the name from the Greek words kallos meaning good or beauty and kakos meaning bad.