CHAPTER II BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

A. Introduction
Biological theories within the field of criminology attempt to explain behaviors contrary to societal expectations
through examination of individual characteristics. These theories are categorized within a paradigm called positivism (also
known as determinism), which asserts that behaviors, including law-violating behaviors, are determined by factors largely
beyond individual control.

The biological theory of criminology says that criminals and non-criminals are biologically different. Cesare

Lombroso, as one of the founding fathers of the biological theory of criminology, which says that criminals are biologically
different from non-criminals. Today, Lombroso's theory is being explored in two major areas: genetics and neuroscience.
The mapping of human DNA has brought new information and also new questions to scientists, and just as many
scientists are looking for the specific gene that can cause certain diseases, some are looking for the one gene that could
cause criminal activity.

Types of Biological Theories

1. those that attempt to differentiate among individuals on the basis of certain innate (i.e., those with which you are
born) outward physical traits or characteristics;
2. those that attempt to trace the source of differences to genetic or hereditary characteristics; and
3. those that attempt to distinguish among individuals on the basis of structural, functional, or chemical differences
in the brain or body.

Biology and crime

Biological theorists posit that physiological and environmental factors interact in a manner that can render crime
more or less likely. This perspective most often supports an indirect relationship between biology and crime: genes,
hormones, diet, and environmental factors such as stress can alter biochemistry, which in turn can shape perception, mood,
disposition, and, by consequence, behavior. This relationship is complex, with physiology and the environment both acting
on one another and both proving integral to an understanding of human behavior.

Biological explanations of crime can be broken down into the following broad categories:
 “Genetic” theories explore the relationship between inherited predispositions and crime.
 “Neurophysiological” theories investigate the role of brain functioning and nervous system activity in criminal
behavior.
 “Biochemical” theories posit that diet, hormones, and environmental contaminants can affect internal chemistry in
ways that can influence behavior.
 “Evolutionary” theories consider the possibility that evolved human characteristics play a role in some forms of
crime.

Genetic influences
Genes are the basis for heredity—they provide the vehicle by which inherited traits transfer from one generation to
the next. Most of the estimated 25,000 human genes are the same among all people and serve to differentiate humans from
other species. Differences among humans can be traced to the 1% of genes that have some variance across the
population. Variations of genes are referred to as “alleles.” Every individual inherits two copies of each gene—one allele
from each parent. Collectively, the pair of alleles form an individual’s specific “genotype,” or variant, for a particular gene.
The link between genes and crime is indirect. Most often, genes affect crime through their role in regulating
neurotransmitters that can, in turn, affect criminological risk factors such as behavior disorders and addictive tendencies. In
many instances, it is not a single gene, but variations of multiple genes that collectively shape an individual’s propensity
toward crime. “Polygenic traits” are phenotypes that are attributable to multiple genes.

What is Biological Determinism?

  Biological determinism (also referred to as biologism, biodeterminism, or genetic determinism) is the theory that
an individual's characteristics and behavior are determined exclusively by biological factors. In addition, environmental,
social, and cultural factors do not play a role in shaping an individual, according to the theory.
 Biological determinism refers to the idea that all human behavior is innate, determined by genes, brain size, or
other biological attributes. This theory stands in contrast to the notion that human behavior is determined by culture or other
social forces.
 Biological determinism implies that the divergent circumstances of various groups in society, including those
from different races, classes, genders, and sexual orientations, are inborn and predetermined by biology. As a result,
biological determinism has been used to justify white supremacy, gender discrimination, and other biases against groups of
people.

1. Lombroso's theory of crime

Cesare Lombroso (1835-1909) was an Italian psychiatrist and

military medical doctor who developed theories about the criminals. His
theories are no longer valid today. Only credit which can be given to
Lombroso is that he was the pioneer in inducement of scientific methods
to criminology. Although anthropometric measurements were correct, the
causal connection between human physical traits and criminality was
deceptive. Sometimes scientists spend their whole career proving their
hypotheses. Similar things happen in every area of human social activity.
Development and understanding of scientific methods made https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org
%2Fwiki
possible to prove flaws of many studies in criminology and other %2FCesare_Lombroso&psig=AOvVaw0YeJrBaPZYOKdQAaSzIsMZ&ust
sciences. =1595941984057000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=2ahUKEwiPts2pwe
3qAhVTEKYKHRuKCaYQr4kDegUIARCRAQ

Classical criminology: Beccaria's views of crime

Lombroso developed the theory about "born criminal". In 3000 anthropometric measurements he found some biological
traits of criminals.

Biological traits of born criminal are:

- unusual size or shape of the head,
- strange eyes,
- facial asymmetry,
- extended jaw and jaw bone,
- too big or too small ears,
- full lips leaned forward,
- abnormal teeths,
- wrinkled skin,
- nose curled up; thieves have a flat nose and murderers have a beak nose,
- too long, too small or flat chin,
- dark skin and
- too long arms.

According to Lombroso, persons who have five or more biological traits are born criminals. Beside physical traits Lombroso
introduces some other traits of born criminal:
1) hypersensitivity to pain and touch,
2) use of special criminal slang,
3) grotesque expression of thoughts,
4) tattoos and
5) unemployment.
Lombroso later changes the theory of born criminal and develops a new theory. Classification of criminals is made into three
categories:

1) born criminals (30% of all criminals),

2) abnormal criminals (idiots, imbeciles, paranoids, melancholics, paralytics, epileptics, demented persons,
alcoholics and hysterics)
3) occasional criminals
a) criminaloids
b) pseudo criminals
c) criminals out of habit

Criminaloids had difficulties during their childhood and can occasionally behave delinquently. Pseudo criminals are insane
persons and those who committed crime in self defense. Habitual criminals had a poor education during their childhood or
have been in social interaction with criminals.

Further studies of Lombroso's thesis were made by Goring in 1913 and Hooton in 1939.

Goring contests Lombroso's thesis based on the experiment he made on 3000 criminals and non-criminals. Goring didn't
find any physical abnormalities or traits on criminals. He criticized Lombroso on the issue of born criminal and found that
such thesis is inaccurate as well as dangerous. Goring concluded that no one is criminal until he or she commits a crime.

Hooton confirms Lombroso's thesis based on the research he made on 14000 criminals and 3000 non-criminals from 10
Federal states of U.S.

Lombroso's theory was popular in his time, but it was later debunked. Some ideas fall out of favor in science as well as in
politics with time. Lombroso's views on crime are still present today in the form of stereotypes on some minority groups.
Furthermore, research conducted on police sub cultural behavior shows that police officers have similar stereotypes on
particular racial groups.

2. William Sheldon’s Theory

In the 1940's, William Herbert Sheldon associated body types with human temperament types. He claimed that a
body type could be linked with the personality of that person. He says that a fat person with a large bone structure tends to
have an outgoing and more relaxed personality while a more muscular body-typed person is more active and aggressive. A
slim or scrawny person with thin muscles is usually characterized as quiet or fragile. He split up these body/personality
types into three categories called somatotypes.

1. Endomorphic
An Endomorphic somatotype is also known as a
viscerotonic. The characteristic traits of this somatotype usually
includes being relaxed, tolerant, comfortable, and sociable.
Psychologically, they are also fun-loving, good humored,even-
tempered, and they love food and affection. The Endomorph is
physically "round". They have wide hips and narrow shoulders
that give a pear-shape. They tend to have a lot of extra fat on
their body and on their arms and thighs. They have skinny ankles
and wrists that make the rest of their body look even bigger. 

2. Ectomorphic
 theories/sheldon-s-personality-theory
https://sites.google.com/site/psychologyofpersonalityperiod8/home/type-and-trait-  

An ectomorph is the complete opposite of the Endomorph. Physically, they have narrow shoulders, thin legs and arms, little
fat on the body, a narrow face and a narrow chest. They may eat just as much as the endomorph but never seem to gain
any weight. They always stay skinny. Personality wise, they tend to be self- conscious, socially anxious, artistic, thoughful,
quiet, and private. They always keep to themselves and are a afraid to branch out.

3. Mesomorphic
The mesomorph is in between the endomorph and thin ectomorph. They have an attractive and desirable body.
Physically, they tend to have a large head and broad shoulders with a narrow waist. They have a strong muscular body and
strong arms and legs and little fat on the body. They work for the body they have so that they could have an attractive
body.Psychologically, the mesomorph is adventurous and courageous. They are not afraid to break out and do new things
with new people. They are assertive

3. Biochemical theories of delinquency: The aggressive behavior caused by diet

Crime and sugar

Biochemical theories claim that there is a causal connection between blood sugar levels, anti-social behavior and
delinquency. Theories are mostly represented in the field of juvenile delinquency and presume that poor nutrition affects
delinquent behavior. Poor nutrition directly affects the learning process. However, the causal connection between
delinquency and candies isn't direct. Excessively low levels of blood sugar (hypoglycemia) can cause the development of
negative behavior, nervous behavior, mental confusion, physical weakness, delirium and violence. Excessive consumption
of alcohol can cause hypoglycemia and increase aggressive behavior.

Cholesterol and crime

Clinical trials made found a relation between low cholesterol and aggressive behavior in animals. The study
conducted in Sweden on 79,777 men and women at age (24-70), who had police arrest records for violent crimes, found a
strong connection between lowered levels of cholesterol and violent behavior. Measurements of cholesterol levels of violent
offenders were compared with measurement records of non-offenders based on gender, age, type of offender (sexual or
violent), alcohol consumption and enrollment year.
Low levels of cholesterol are associated with persons who have difficulties with internalization of social norms and have the
tendency to be irresponsible. Low cholesterol levels can cause hypoglycemia.

Vitamins and crime

Vitamins and minerals are very important in a regular diet. Disruption of homeostasis can cause difficulties. Theory
states that low intake of vitamins, and minerals can cause delinquent behavior.

Conclusion:
In theory, the difference between observed objects can be small, very small, big or very big. In our every day life,
we see such differences, but in order to become a hypothesis, the difference between observed phenomenons must be
statistically significant. Even small difference can be statistically significant. Statistically significant difference means that the
difference between observed objects isn't accidental.
In this case, the statistically significant difference between observed phenomenons exists, but the causality mechanism still
isn’t clear. Exempli gratia 96% of a smoker dies from lung cancer, but 15% of a non-smoker also dies from lung cancer. In
statistics this phenomenon is known as Fisher's third variable. In concordance with Fisher's third variable theory, violent
people just might have a more chance to behave aggressively, than non-
delinquents, because of the unknown third factors.

The biochemical and neurological theories of crime researched the

influence of neurotransmitters or hormones, processes of the CNS and
ANS on the criminal behavior. These types of theories take into
consideration some influences of social factors. However, neurological and
biochemical theories still focus on the biological aspect of crime causation.

4. General Inferiority Theory/Hooton’s Theory

 Earnest Albert Hooton (November 20, 1887 – May 3, 1954) was an American physical anthropologist known for his
work on racial classification. Hooton conducted detailed research on physical and racial characteristics, and used his data
to develop wide-reaching analyses of the racial components of American Indians and, more controversially, to attempt to
characterize the physical attributes of criminals. While his efforts to connect the external, physical form of people to their
internal personality or character had some merit, his simplistic extrapolation to actual behavior was methodologically and
logistically flawed. Nevertheless, his academic work established physical anthropology as a scientific discipline in American
universities, and his writings awakened the general public's interest in this field.

Hooton advocated a cautious approach to the claims of evolutionary origins of the human race, especially after the
events connected to the discovery of the Piltdown man, which was proven to be a hoax, and a great slap in a face to the
scientific community. In light of this, Hooton wrote:
9eny&ust
EwiC7qv No anthropologist is justified in reconstructing the entire skeleton of an unfamiliar type of fossil man from parts of
the skullcap, one or two teeth, and perhaps a few oddments of mandible (jaw bone) and long bones…. Inferences
concerning the missing parts are very precarious, unless more complete skeletons of other individuals of the same type are
available to support the reconstruction (Hooton [1937] 1970: 115).

Hooton's research projects were filled with meticulous data, but he was not content with the mere documentation of
details. For Hooton, the broader implications of his findings were the essence of his research. Thus, his study of the skeletal
remains of Pecos Pueblo led him to identify various racial components in American Indians.

Hooton remains famous for his work in criminology, in which he used his work in racial classification and applied it
to the area of criminal behavior. Hooton believed in Cesare Lombroso’s theory of the born criminal, according to which
criminals could be identified based on their physical characteristics. Through his own research surveying American
criminals, Hooton tried to find evidence supporting Lombroso’s theory, suggesting that criminals have inferior characteristics
compared to people who do not commit crimes. He classified those characteristics into sociological, psychological, physical,
morphological, and pathological areas. For example, according to Hooton:
 criminals are less often married and more often divorced
 criminals often have tattoos
 criminals have thinner beards and body hair, and their hair is more often reddish-brown and straight
 criminals often have blue-gray or mixed colored eyes, and less often dark or blue eyes
 criminals have low sloping foreheads, high nasal bridges, and thin lips
 criminal’s ears often have rolled helix and a perceptible Darwin’s point
Based on these observations Hooton concluded that the underlying cause of criminal behavior is to be found in physical
characteristics, that is, physical inferiority. He suggested that human somatotype (body shape and physique) can even
determine which type of crime a person will commit: tall-slender men are predisposed for  murder and robbery; tall-medium
heavy men for forgery; tall-heavy men for first-degree murder; medium height-heavy for antisocial behavior, short-slender
for burglary and larceny; short-medium heavy for arson; while short-heavy men for sex offenses. Since he believed that
biological predispositions determine deviant behavior, Hooton advocated removal of criminals from society, seeing no hope
in their rehabilitation.
Hooton’s theories were heavily influenced by eugenic ideas, and as such were harshly criticized. His methodology was
seriously questioned, and his beliefs characterized as racist.