PRELIM

LESSON 2
HISTORY OF FORENSIC CHEMISTRY AND TOXICOLOGY

1. History of forensic chemistry and toxicology 1. 1590s Zacharias Janssen develops

first compound light microscope
2. 1784 First use of fracture edge matching/pattern matching in John Toms’ case
3. 1810 Konigin Hanschritt document dye analyzed by chemical test
4. 1828 William Nichol invents polarized light microscope
5. 1835 Charles Wheatstone invents emission spectroscopy
6. 1836 James Marsh develops test for arsenic and it is used in a jury trial
7. 1858 Johann Peter Griess develops test for nitrites
8. 1867 Alfred Nobel receives US patent for his invention of dynamite
9. 1880 Henry Faulds suggests using fingerprints on clay and glass to solve crimes
10. 1883 K. Mandelin develops test for strychnine later applied to alkaloids
11. 1885 Theodore Wormley publishes book Micro-chemistry of Poisons
12. 1889 Alexandre Lacassagne matches bullets using lands and grooves to a gun
barrel
13. 1891 Hans Gross describes the use of physical evidence in solving crimes in his
book Handbuch für Untersuchungsrichter and coins the term Kriminalistik
(Criminalistics)
14. 1892 Francis Galton publishes first book on fingerprints
15. 1894 Alphonse Bertillon’s handwriting analysis is used to convict Alfred Dreyfus
16. 1898 J. J. Thomson measures mass-to-charge ratio of the electron
17. 1898 Paul Jeserich uses minutiae to individualize bullets
18. 1903 Will West prison case solved using latent fingerprints
19. 1903 M. S. Tswett separates plant pigments using paper chromatography
20. 1906 President T. Roosevelt signs US Pure Food and Drugs Act signed into law
21. 1910 Albert Sherman Osborn publishes Questioned Documents
22. 1915 First use of chemical weapons
23. 1919 Francis Aston builds the first fully functional mass spectrometer and later
uses it to discover 212 naturally occurring isotopes
24. 1928 Geneva Protocol signed that prohibits use of chemical and biological
weapons in war
25. 1928 C. V. Raman develops Raman spectroscopy
26. 1930 Edmond Locard’s Principe de l’echange ―Exchange Principle‖ coined
27. 1930s Pierre Duquenois develops color test for THC
28. 1940 Glenn Seaborg, Jospeh Kennedy, Edwin McMillan, Emilio Segre, and Arthur
Wahl discover plutonium-239
29. 1945 First nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) spectra of liquids and
solids by Felix Bloch and Edward Mills Purcell, independently
30. 1948 Founding of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences
31. 1951 Archer John Porter Martin and Richard Laurence Millington Synge invent
modern gas chromatography
32. 1955 Modern flame atomic absorption spectrometer developed by Sir Alan Walsh
33. 1962 Rachel Carson publishes book Silent Spring
34. 1970 First meeting of the Society of Toxicology on Long Island
35. 1973 GC-MS applications to analysis of drugs and metabolites
36. 1974 Richard Ernst pioneers two-dimensional NMR COSY experiment
37. 1974 SEM-EDX is applied to gunshot residue analysis
38. 1977 Application of FT-IR in forensic science
39. 1988 Franz Hillenkamp and Michael Karas pioneer the matrix-assisted laser
desorption ionization-MS technique Brief history of some notable advances in
forensic chemistry
40. 1988 Introduction of enzyme-multiplied immunoassay technique (EMIT) in
forensic toxicology
41. 1991 Richard Ernst develops high-resolution nuclear magnetic resonance
spectroscopy
42. 1992 GC-IR is applied to forensic drug analysis
43. 1996 Raman spectroscopy is introduced to forensic use
44. 1997 Scientific Working Group for the Analysis of Seized Drugs is created by the
US National Institute of Standards and Technology
45. 2001 US Federal Bureau of Investigation investigates Amerithrax case of deaths
due to mailed letters containing anthrax spores

Brief History of Toxicology

• Locusta—personal poisoner of Emperor Nero

• Lucretia Borgia—father was Pope Alexander VI. She used a ring with poison. She
―killed‖ her lovers and her fathers political ―enemies‖.
• Madame Giulia Toffana— responsible for over 600 successful poisonings, including
two popes She sold the ―Toffana Water‖ to women who wanted to kill their husbands
(lead, arsenic, belladona) [1600’s]
• Hieronyma Spara— formed a society to teach women how to murder their husbands
(arsenic) To aid women to inherit money (1600’s)
• Mathieu Orfila— father of forensic toxicology, published in 1814 Traité des Poisons
which described the first systematic approach to the study of the chemistry and
physiological nature of poisons
2. Forensic Chemistry And Toxicology In The Philippine Law Enforcement: The
PNP-CL And The NFSTI

THE PNP CRIME LABORATORY

The Philippine National Police Crime Laboratory logo surrounded by logos of its ten
divisions.
History of the PNP Crime Laboratory
• May 19, 1945: 1. The PNP Crime Laboratory was first organized as a Fingerprint
Section of the G-2 Division of the Military Police Command Armed Forces in the
West Pacific of the United States Army (AFWESPAC)
2. It was upgraded into a branch and was renamed as Crime Laboratory Branch of the
Criminal Investigation Service, which was the investigative arm of the Philippine
Constabulary (PC).

• 1975:
1. Scientific pieces of equipment were acquired through the War Reparations Program
of the Japanese Government.

• 1978:
1. Organizationally, the crime laboratory was expanded in 1978, under the authority of
HPC GO Nr 23 wherein twelve (12) regional units were established

• May 16, 1985

1. With the merging of the Philippine Constabulary and the Integrated National Police
(INP) on May 16, 1985, PCCL was re-designated as PC/INP Crime Laboratory
Service (CLS) as per HPC GO Nr 64.

• January 30, 1990

1. By virtue of Republic Act 6975 (DILG) enacted in 1990, the PC/INP was abolished,
paving way to the creation of the Philippine National Police. Consequently, the PNP
Crime Laboratory Service was established as an Administrative Support Unit.

Sec 35 , RA 6975:
(a) Administrative Support Units – (1) Crime Laboratory. There shall be established a
central Crime Laboratory to be headed by a Director with the rank of chief
superintendent, which shall provide scientific and technical investigative aid and
support to the PNP and other government investigative agencies.
• 1996:
1. NAPOLCOM Resolution Nr 96-058 spelled out the streamlining program of the
PNP and designated the PNPCLS as a National Operational Support Unit. Likewise, it
dropped the word Service from the crime laboratory’s name and would simply be
known as the PNP Crime Laboratory.

VISION AND MISSION OF THE PNP CRIME LAB

VISION
The men and women of the PNP Crime Laboratory are committed to the vision of a
professional, dynamic and motivated forensic service, providing quality scientific
investigation and working in partnership with responsive pillars of the Criminal
Justice System towards the attainment of equality and justice.

MISSION
To provide scientific method of investigation and technical support to the PNP and
other government/non-government investigative agencies through fieldwork, scene of
crime operation, forensic laboratory service, criminalistics training and research.

THE NATIONAL FORENSIC SCIENCE INSTITUTE

NFSTI is one of the 6 constituent institutes of the PPSC
1. National Police College
2. Philippine National Police Academy
3. National Police Training Institute
4. National Fire Training Institute
5. National Jail Management and Penology Training Institute
6. National Forensic Science Training Institute
HQ: Fort Bonifacio, Taguig, Metro Manila
Tasked to conduct specialized investigation courses in view of producing highly
competent crime, narcotics, and traffic investigators for the year 2002.

History of the NFSTI

• June 1972: Crime Laboratory was established through the directive issued by
National Police Commission Chairman CRISPIN M DE CASTRO. Training courses
in various fields of Forensic Science were offered to students and would-be
investigators of the Philippine Constabulary/Integrated National Police.

• August 1975: pursuant to PD765 and the Headquarters PC/INP Staff Memo Number
20 dated 08 June 1976, personnel of the Crime Laboratory of the Academic Division
of the Integrated National Police Academy were placed under the responsibility of the
Integrated National Police Training Center.

• October 1991: the Crime Laboratory was transferred to Camp Mariano Castañeda in
Silang, Cavite pursuant to RA 6975.

• 01 October 1993: Crime Laboratory was revitalized and served as a Training

Division of the National Police College

• 03 November 1994: DILG Circular Nr 93-28 signed by SECRETARY RAFAEL M

ALUNAN III caused the activation and transfer of the Educational and Training
Center under the control and supervision of the Philippine Public Safety College

• 1994 to 1998: DIRECTOR EUGENIO C. CRUZ, JR. became the third Director and
first civilian head of NCRTI during the transition years

• 1999: POLICE SUPERINTENDENT TEODORO S CRUZ took command for seven

months

• 1999-2000: POLICE SUPERINTENDENT ANDRES Z AGSALDA held the post

for four months between 1999-2000

• 2 July 2001: ATTY. RAMSEY LAPUZ OCAMPO assumed office as President of

the Philippine Public Safety College

• PSSUPT Marlene M Salangad: the emergence of the PPSC-NCRTI Crime Scene

Plaza - considered as the outdoor laboratory for the investigative training of public
safety personnel from the TRIBUREAU.

• President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo o implementation of the directive to produce

proficient crime investigators in the country gave birth to the Public Safety Crime
Investigation and Detection Course.

o improvement of the NCRTI facilities, particularly the offices and laboratories

as well as the acquisition of sophisticated equipment.
o The Forensic Science Department and the Crime Scene Plaza of the Philippine
National Police Academy in Camp Gen. Mariano N. Castañeda, Silang Cavite, another
constituent unit of PPSC, were also developed.
VISION AND MISSION OF THE NFSTI
VISION
By 2030, NFSTI is the Center of Excellence in Modern Forensics Investigation
Education and Training in Asia.

MISSION
NFSTI is committed to provide responsive, scientific, relevant and continuing
investigative education and training to the PNP, BFP, BJMP, allied public safety and
security institutions’ personnel and other stakeholders.

LESSON 3
PRINCIPLE OF FORENSIC CHEMISTRY AND TOXICOLOGY
LESSONS CONTENT:

 LOCARD’S EXCHANGE PRINCIPLE

In forensic science, Locard's principle holds that the perpetrator of a crime will bring something into the crime
scene and leave with something from it, and that both can be used as forensic evidence. Dr. Edmond Locard
(1877–1966) was a pioneer in forensic science who became known as the Sherlock Holmes of Lyon, France.
He formulated the basic principle of forensic science as: "Every contact leaves a trace". It is generally
understood as "with contact between two items, there will be an exchange." Paul L. Kirk expressed the
principle as follows:
―Wherever he steps, whatever he touches, whatever he leaves, even unconsciously, will serve as a silent
witness against him. Not only his fingerprints or his footprints, but his hair, the fibres from his clothes, the
glass he breaks, the tool mark he leaves, the paint he scratches, the blood or semen he deposits or collects. All
of these and more, bear mute witness against him. This is evidence that does not forget. It is not confused by
the excitement of the moment. It is not absent because human witnesses are. It is factual evidence. Physical
evidence cannot be wrong, it cannot perjure itself, it cannot be wholly absent. Only human failure to find it,
study and understand it, can diminish its value.‖
Fragmentary or trace evidence is any type of material left at (or taken from) a crime scene, or the result of
contact between two surfaces, such as shoes and the floor covering or soil, or fibres from where someone sat
on an upholstered chair.
When a crime is committed, fragmentary (or trace) evidence needs to be collected from the scene. A team of
specialised police technicians goes to the scene of the crime and seals it off. They record video and take
photographs of the crime scene, victim/s (if there are any) and items of evidence. If necessary, they undertake
ballistics examinations. They check for foot, shoe, and tire mark impressions, plus hair as well as examine any
vehicles and check for fingerprints – whole or partial.
Cases to be discussed:
1. The Weimar Children Murders
2. The Wesiterfield Van Dam Case
 I have attached the files for these two cases. No need to print them. Kindly read the attached files or
search about the cases online.
 LESSON 4
SIGNIFICANCE AND VALUE OF FORENSIC SCIENCE IN CRIMINAL
INVESTIGATION

LESSONS CONTENT:
Criminalistics/Forensic Science
The scientific and technical literature of forensic science and criminalistics
focuses on those laboratory methods used to examine and interpret physical
evidence collected from the scenes of crimes. After all, it is the information that
can be derived from the physical evidence that drives the physical evidence
collection and examination process. Scientific laboratory techniques hold the
potential of developing information from the physical clues left at the crime
scene that can assist in determining what transpired at the scene and who was
(and was not) involved. For the last 100 years, police investigators and the
courts have grown increasingly reliant on such forensic evidence and testimony,
as it can supply information about the crime otherwise unavailable to
investigators and fact-finders. Forensic science and criminalistics laboratories
generally provide the following types of information based on the scientific
examination of physical evidence collected from scenes of crimes, victims, and
suspects:
Identification and Classification – The review of physical evidence by
competent crime laboratory examiners often begins with tests to identify a
substance and, for example, to determine that a stain is blood or white powder is
cocaine. Debris from a suspected arson scene might yield information to
determine a volatile liquid was present in fire debris. Examinations also enable
the examiner to place the evidence into a more restricted class or category,
finding that blood is of human origin, the volatile liquid was light petroleum
distillate, that a bullet was shot from a .38 caliber firearm, or that a fiber was
cotton. Even latent (not readily visible) fingerprints must first be identified as a
human fingerprint and that the print is identifiable and has sufficient detail to
make a determination to make a subsequent determination of origin. Such
classifications enable an examiner to conclude the evidence in question may
have, or is consistent with originating from a particular source.
Common Origin – This is a refined and powerful conclusion in which the
examiner concludes that an item of evidence originated from a particular person
or source. In practice, an examiner will commonly compare an item of evidence
with a reference standard of known source and declare they are identical in all
respects and of a common source or origin. In so doing, the criminalist is able to
associate and connect persons, instruments of the crime (e.g., tools or weapons),
and physical environments. Such conclusions of common origin are often
termed individualizations by criminalistics professionals and will typically
involve a comparison process between an item of evidence (unknown origin)
and a standard (known origin). However, even if examiners after performing
many measurements find two paint chips, hairs or fibers to be indistinguishable,
the examiner may not necessarily conclude an individuality has been attained.
Many mass produced items in modern society may be similar in all measurable
characteristics, but criminalists are very cautious about reaching such a
conclusion.
In the present study, the items of evidence most frequently resulting in
conclusions of uniqueness or common origin, are projectiles from weapons,
latent fingerprints found at the scenes of crimes, and biological evidence. For
almost one hundred years, American courts have admitted fingerprint evidence
and the testimony of examiners that a given latent print came from one
individual, at the exclusion of all other persons. Firearms and toolmark evidence
has a similar history, having been first admitted to the courts at about the same
time. Bullets and shell casings fired from a weapon and found at a crime scene
are routinely compared against projectiles fired from weapons fired in the
possession of a suspect. Unlike these items of evidence yielding statements of
common origin, biological fluids examinations have undergone the most radical
changes and scientific advancements in the past twenty-five years. The
discovery and refinement of DNA profiling tests, and their introduction into
American courts in the mid 1980s, changed the face of forensic serology.
Research showing everyone’s DNA is unique, and the development of
techniques to determine the DNA types of the smallest amounts of trace DNA at
crime scenes, have revolutionized investigations and judicial inquiries.
Computerized databases are another development that has changed the value of
forensic science to the criminal justice system. Historically, and up until the mid
1980s, investigators needed a reference standard before they could make a
statement of common origin. Latent fingerprints from a crime scene could not
be used to identify an offender unless a known set of fingerprints could be
obtained from one or more suspects. The manual filing systems in place were
helpless in matching the latent print with the prints of their owner. Likewise,
serologists needed a biological sample from a suspect before the source of a
blood or semen stain from a crime could be determined. Firearms examiners
were largely helpless in identifying the weapon used to shoot a bullet recovered
in the body of a homicide victim, unless they found a suspect weapon to test fire
comparison projectiles.
As the computer science field developed techniques to digitize and store
complex patterns images like fingerprints and firearms, these innovations
enabled investigators to search large databases. AFIS was the first system
introduced for storing fingerprint information, both to confirm the fingerprints
and identities of arrestees, and to use latent prints recovered from the scenes of
crime and to identify the offender. The introduction of CODIS in 1990 (FBI’s
CODIS Program), enabled law enforcement to store DNA profile information
from known offenders and to search such files with the DNA profiles of
unknown offenders recovered from the scenes of crimes. Crime laboratories and
law enforcement agencies have had considerable success in recent years
identifying otherwise unknown offenders and linking crimes together
committed by the same person by using CODIS.
Common origin results may or may not show an association between the
suspect/offender and the crime in question. Much of the evidence found at a
scene will associate the rightful owner or victim to the crime scene, but not the
suspected offender. So, making a unique identification of the victim’s
fingerprint in their own home will have little value to the criminal investigator.
Crime scenes have an abundance of physical materials and it is the task of the
crime scene investigator to locate that evidence that relates to the immediate
crime in question. A biological stain, latent fingerprint or some other evidence
at a scene may be completely unconnected to the instant crime in question or
show some other party was at that scene days or weeks before. The crime scene
investigator’s task is to evaluate a tremendous volume of potential evidence at a
crime and hopefully choose that evidence showing that a suspected person was
present, in a particular location, where he or she had no rightful access.
Reconstruction/Corroboration - Examination of evidence may assist the
investigator in determining how a crime has been committed. Such evaluations
may indicate the movement and interactions of suspects and victims that may
corroborate or refute statements by witnesses, suspects and victims. Explaining
the order in which actions took place and the location of principals of the crime
(particularly crimes of violence) is particularly helpful in explaining all
evidence gathered. Reconstruction aids the investigator and prosecutor in
hypothesizing the order of events, the relative position of actors to one another,
and how the crime in question unfolded.
Different Origin/Negative Identification - Negative identifications are
conclusions that a substance is found not to be what the investigator
 hypothesized it to be (the powder is not cocaine, the reddish stain is paint and
not blood). A conclusion of different origin is a laboratory result that states two
or more items of evidence are not of common origin or source. Typically,
comparisons are made between an item of evidence with a standard of known
source, and they are found to be different. Such exclusions tend to dissociate
persons, objects, and locations. Basically, such determinations state that the
evidence in question could not have originated from a particular source of
origin. The latent fingerprint did not come from suspect A, the bullet was not
fired from weapon B, and the DNA in the biological stain did not originate from
suspect C.
Inconclusive - On occasion, the crime laboratory is not able to come to a firm
conclusion of any sort. The examiner may not be able to reach any firm
conclusion as to the origin of an item of evidence. Searches of databases may
not be able to identify the origin of the evidence in question. A comparison
between an item of evidence and a standard (paint, glass, plastic, etc.) may
simply be inconclusive. Inconclusive results may not necessarily amount to an
exclusion – only that there is an absence of scientific information for an
examiner to make a statement of common origin or exclusion and the answer is
inconclusive.
The scope of Forensic Science and their significance and value
1. Forensic Biology/DNA: Apart from fingerprint analysis, DNA profiling
is the other commonly used forensic technique in criminal investigations.
DNA being as unique to an individual as fingerprints, help forensic
professionals identify or confirm an unidentified person, or to eliminate
suspects from a list of accused. The biological evidence most commonly
used for DNA profiling include blood, saliva, semen, skin, urine, and
hair. However, DNA fingerprints are usually never used as the single
piece of evidence in the court of law.
2. Forensic Odontology: Forensic odontology helps in the identification of
victims when the body is left in an unrecognizable state. This is achieved
through an examination of their teeth, the alignment, and overall structure
of the mouth. Forensic dentists or odontologists aid in the comparative
identification of a person by examining the development and anatomy of
the teeth including any restorative dental corrections such as filling. It is
often applied to criminal investigations for bite mark analysis.
3. Controlled Substances: Chemicals that are legally recognized as having
the potential for abuse are called controlled substances. This includes
―street drugs‖ such as ecstasy or heroin and prescription drugs such as
 oxycodone. The ability to detect and identify such controlled substances
plays a crucial role in aiding law enforcement agencies in their fight
against drug abuse and drug-based violence.
4. Forensic Toxicology: Forensic Toxicology involves analysis of
biological samples to check for the presence of toxins and drugs. This
branch of forensic science is of prime importance in road accidents,
poisoning, sexual violence etc. The toxicology reports furnish key
information about the nature of substances present in an individual
pertaining to an incidence. It also determines whether the quantity of
substances are normal as per a therapeutic dosage or exceed the
permissible level. Since newer variants of drugs are developed each day,
this branch of forensic science is ever-evolving and demands up-to-date
approach.
5. Forensic Anthropology: This deals with the examination of
compromised human remains or skeletons to help determine the age,
height, gender, and ancestry. It also helps establish the time since death
by identifying and examining injuries, if any. These analyses give
valuable leads to investigators on identifying victims, especially in cases
where the bodies are beyond recognition.
6. Forensic Pathology and Medicolegal Death Investigation: Forensic
pathology is a branch of pathology that helps determine the cause of
death by examining a corpse. Forensic medicine thus involves the
collection and analysis of medical samples to deduce facts admissible in
the court of law. For instance, identification of wound patterns can help
determine the weapon used to inflict the wound. Additionally, forensic
pathologists can examine exit and entry wounds in deaths pertaining to
the use of firearms or other projectiles. A forensic pathologist can,
therefore, draw crucial inferences on whether the death is natural,
criminal or accidental.
7. Impression and Pattern Evidence: Impression evidence is the evidence
created when two objects come in contact with enough force to create an
―impression‖. This could involve a two-dimensional impression such as a
fingerprint or three-dimensional one such as the marks on a bullet.
Pattern evidence analysis involves identification and analysis of
additional information within an impression. Impression and pattern
evidence when used in conjunction can help establish vital links between
a suspect/tool to a crime scene.
8. Trace Evidence: Evidence such as fibers, soil, hair, gunshot residue,
wood, and pollen are some of the many examples of trace evidence. It
derives its name from its tendency to be easily transferrable between
 objects, people or the environment during a crime. Trace evidence often
plays a pivotal role in establishing a prime link between a suspect and the
victim. For instance, a soil sample obtained from the shoes of a victim
can give critical clues on the location of the crime and thus help in tracing
the perpetrator.
9. Cyber Forensics: Cyber Forensics involves the analysis of evidence
found in computers and digital storage media like pen drives, hard disks
etc. Its major objective is identifying, preserving, recovering, analyzing,
and presenting facts and opinions about the digital information. Although
it is mostly used for the investigation of cyber crimes, it also widely used
in civil proceedings.
10.Ballistics: Ballistics is a specialized forensic science that deals with the
motion, behavior, dynamics, angular movement and effects of projectiles,
such as bullets, rockets, missiles, bombs etc. The use of ballistics in
forensics is mainly in criminal investigations. For instance, the
examination of the bullet found at a crime scene can reveal what type of
gun was used to fire it and whether it is associated with any other crime
in the past. In fact, ballistic details are documented in a large database
that is accessible by law enforcement agencies across the globe.
 LESSON 5
CRIME SCENE PROTOCOL ON FORENSIC RELATED EVIDENCE

LESSONS CONTENT:
(2011 PNP Criminal Investigation Manual)
2.2.3 Investigation Procedure at the Crime Scene
a. Upon arrival at the crime scene
1. Receive the crime scene from the first responder.
2. Record time/date of arrival at the crime scene, location of the scene, condition of
the weather, condition and type of lighting, direction of wind and visibility.
3. Photograph and/or video the entire crime scene.
4. Before entering the crime scene, all investigators must put on surgical gloves.
5. Before touching or moving any object at the crime scene in a homicide or
murder case, determine first the status of the victim, whether he is still alive or
already dead. If the victim is alive, the investigator should exert effort to gather
information from the victim himself regarding the circumstances of the crime,
while a member of the team or someone must call an ambulance from the nearest
hospital. Before removing the victim, mark, sketch and photograph his/her relative
position.
Only a coroner or a medical examiner shall remove the dead body unless unusual
circumstances justify its immediate removal.
6. Designate a member of the team or ask other policemen or responsible persons
to stand watch and secure the scene, and permit only authorized persons to enter
the same.
7. Identify and retain for questioning the person who first notified the police, and
other possible witnesses.
8. Determine the assailant through inquiry or observe him if his identity is
immediately apparent. Arrest him if he is still in the vicinity.
9. Separate witnesses in order to get independent statements.
b. Recording
The investigator begins the process of recording pertinent facts and details of the
investigation the moment he arrives at the crime scene. (He should record the time
when he was initially notified prior to his arrival). He also writes down the
identification of persons involved and what he initially saw. He also draws a basic
sketch of the crime scene and takes the initial photograph (if a photographer is
available, avail his services). This is to ensure that an image of the crime scene is
recorded before any occurrence that disturbs the scene. As a rule, do not touch,
alter or remove anything at the crime scene until the evidence has been processed
through notes, sketches and photograph, with proper measurements.
c. Searching for evidence
1. Each crime is different, according to the physical nature of the scene and the
crime or offense involved. Consequently, the scene is processed in accordance with
the prevailing physical characteristics of the scene and with the need to develop
essential evidentiary facts peculiar to the offense. A general survey of the scene is
always made, however, to note the locations of obvious traces of action, the
probable entry and exit points used by the offender(s) and the size and shape of the
area involved.
2. In rooms, buildings, and small outdoor areas, a systematic search of evidence is
initiated (In the interest of uniformity, it is recommended that the clockwise
movement be used.) The investigator examines each item encountered on the floor,
walls, and ceiling to locate anything that may be of evidentiary value.
3. You should give particular attention to fragile evidence that may be destroyed or
contaminated if it is not collected when discovered.
4. If any doubt exists as to the value of an item, treat it as evidence until proven
otherwise.
5. Ensure that the item or area where latent fingerprints may be present is closely
examined and that action is taken to develop the prints.
6. Carefully protect any impression of evidentiary value in surfaces conducive to
making casts or molds. If possible, photograph the impression and make a cast or
mold.
7. Note stains, spots and pools of liquid within the scene and treat them as
evidence.
8. Treat as evidence all other items, such as hairs, fibers, and earth particles foreign
to the area in which they are found; for example, matter found under the victim’s
fingerprints.
9. Proceed systematically and uninterruptedly to the conclusion of the processing
of the scene. The search for evidence is initially completed when, after a thorough
examination of the scene, the rough sketch, necessary photograph and investigative
notes have been completed and the investigator has returned to the point from
which the search began.
10. Further search may be necessary after the evidence and the statements obtained
have been evaluated.
11. In large outdoor areas, it is advisable to divide the area into strips about four
(4) feet wide. The policeman may first search the strip on his left as he faces the
scene and then the adjoining strips.
12. It may be advisable to make a search beyond the area considered to be the
immediate scene of the incident or crime. For example, evidence may indicate that
a weapon or tool used in the crime was discarded or hidden by the offender
somewhere within a square-mile area near the scene.
13. After completing the search of the scene, the investigator examines the object
or person actually attacked by the offender. For example, a ripped safe, a desk
drawer that has been pried open or a room from which items has been stolen,
would be processed after the remainder of the scene has been examined for traces
of the offender.
14. In a homicide case, the position of the victim should be outlined with a chalk or
any other suitable material before the body is removed from the scene. If the victim
has been pronounced dead by a doctor or is obviously dead, it is usually advisable
to examine the body, the clothing and the area under the body after the remainder
of the scene has been searched. This is to enable the policeman/investigator to
evaluate all objects of special interest in the light of all other evidence found at the
scene.
d. Collection of Evidence
This is accomplished after the search is completed, the rough sketch finished and
photographs taken. Fragile evidence should be collected as they are found. All
firearms (FAs) found to have tampered serial numbers (SNs) shall be automatically
subjected to macro etching at the Philippine National Police Crime Laboratory
(PNP-CL). A corresponding request to the Firearms and Explosive Office (FEO)
must be made for verification purposes.
The investigator places his initials, the date and time of discovery on each item of
evidence for proper identification. Items that could not be marked should be placed
in a suitable container and sealed.
e. Markings of Evidence
Any physical evidence obtained must be marked or tagged before its submission to
the evidence custodian.
These are information to ensure that the items can be identified by the collector at
any time in the future. This precaution will help immeasurably to establish the
credibility of the collector’s report or testimony and will effectively avoid any
suggestions that the item has been misidentified.
Markings on the specimen must at least contain the following:
1. Exhibit Case Number
2. Initials and or signature of the collecting officer.
3. Time and date of collection.
NOTE: It is also important to note the place or location where the evidence was
collected.
f. Evaluation of Evidence
Each item of evidence must be evaluated in relation to all the evidence,
individually and collectively. If necessary, these pieces of evidence must be
subjected to crime laboratory examination. Example: firearms for ballistic
examination, hair strands etc.
g. Preservation of Evidence
It is the investigator‟s responsibility to ensure that every precaution is exercised to
preserve physical evidence in the state in which it was recovered/ obtained until it
is released to the evidence custodian.
h. Releasing of Evidence
All collected evidence can only be released upon order of the court or prosecutor,
as the case maybe.
i. Chain of Custody
A list of all persons who came into possession of an item of evidence, continuity of
possession, or the chain of custody, must be established whenever evidence is
presented in court as an exhibit. Adherence to standard procedures in recording the
location of evidence, marking it for identification, and properly completing
evidence submission forms for laboratory analysis is critical to chain of custody.
Every person who handled or examined the evidence and where it is at all times
must be accounted for.
As a rule, all seized evidence must be in the custody of the evidence custodian and
deposited in the evidence room or designated place for safekeeping.
j. Transmittal of Evidence to Crime Laboratory
Proper handling of physical evidence is necessary to obtain the maximum possible
information upon which scientific examination shall be based, and to prevent
exclusion as evidence in court. Specimens which truly represent the material found
at the scene, unaltered, unspoiled or otherwise unchanged in handling will provide
more and better information upon examination. Legal requirements make it
necessary to account for all physical pieces of evidence from the time it is
collected until it is presented in court. With these in mind, the following principles
should be observed in handling all types of evidence:
1. The evidence should reach the laboratory in same condition as when it
was found, as much as possible.
2. The quantity of specimen should be adequate. Even with the best
equipment available, good results cannot be obtained from insufficient
specimens.
3. Submit a known or standard specimen for comparison purposes.
4. Keep each specimen separate from others so there will be no
intermingling or mixing of known and unknown material. Wrap and seal in
individual packages when necessary.
5. Mark or label each of evidence for positive identification as the evidence
taken from a particular location in connection with the crime under
investigation.
6. The chain of custody of evidence must be maintained. Account for
evidence from the time it is collected until it is produced in court. Any break
in this chain of custody may make the material inadmissible as evidence in
court.
 LESSON 6
TESTS ON BIOLOGICAL EVIDENCE:
BLOOD AND BLOOD STAINS, SEMEN, HAIR AND FIBERS, SALIVA,
URINE, FECES.

LESSONS CONTENT:

BLOOD

What is the importance of studying blood?

1. As circumstance or corroborative evidence against or in favor of the perpetrator of

the crime.
2. As evidence in case of disputed percentage
3. As evidence in the determination of the cause of death and the length of time the
victim survived the attack.
4. Determination of the direction of escape of the victim or the assailant
5. Determination of the origin of the flow of blood
6.As evidence in the determination of the approximate time the crime was committed.

What is BLOOD?

Blood has been called the circulating tissue of the body. It is refereed to as a highly
complex mixture of cells, enzymes, proteins, and inorganic substances. It is the red
fluid of the blood vessels. Blood is opaque. On the treatment with either, water or
other reagents becomes transparent lake color. It is finally alkaline. Normally pH is
7.35 – 7.45.

Composition of Blood

(45%) formed elements or the solid materials consisting chiefly of cells namely:

1. Red Blood Cells or RBC (ERYTHROCYTES) around 4 – 5 millions of red cell per
cc. of blood.
2. White Blood Cells or WBC (LEUKOCYTES)
3. Blood Platelets (THROMBOCYTES)

(55%) PLASMA – The fluid or liquid portion of blood where the cells are suspended.
It is principally composed of:
1. Water ---- 90%
2. Solid ----- 10% (largely protein in nature and consist of albumen, several globulin’s
and fibrinogen.

In the forensic aspect of blood identification, that is blood grouping, our discussion
will concentrate on the RBC and blood serum. Serum is pale yellowish liquid just like
the plasma.

PLASMA is the yellowish fluid of blood in which numerous blood corpuscles are
suspended. A straw-yellow liquid formed when blood to which oxalate has been added
to prevent clotting is allowed to strand.

SERUM is a straw – yellow liquid formed when clotted blood is allowed to stand for
sometime and the clot contracts.

Problems in the Study of Blood

Blood is difficult to be searched, the collection, preservation, packing and

transportation of specimen suspected to contain blood is another. Blood offers little
resistance to decomposition. It undergoes a rapid charge in its character with the
passage of time as process of clotting and drying commences almost immediately on
exposure to air. Sodium fluoride maybe added to blood to preserve it for a week at
room temperature or indefinitely in a refrigerator. Between 40 – 50 degrees centigrade
is the ideal preserving temperature for blood and other perishable specimens.
Collection of blood stains should be done as soon as possible, mere washing of
garments/clotting removes the blood.

Blood Collection

FLUID BLOOD are usually collected from victims of crimes of violence, parent and
child in case of disputed parentage.

DRIED BLOOD OR BLOOD STAINS are collected from smooth surface like walls,
finished floors, table tops, hard surface like axe, hammer, knives, stones, crowbars,
glazed surface like glass, tiles, automobiles, bulky objects like blackboard, linoleum
sheets, doors, window frames, clothing, and blood absorbed by the soil

Blood Examination
1. PRELIMINARY TEST - determine whether the stain contains blood or another
substance. Determines whether visible stains do or do not contain blood. It is used to
demonstrate the presence of blood.
2. CONFIRMATORY TEST - determines whether bloodstain really contains blood.
Test that positively identifies blood.
3. PRECIPITIN TEST- determines whether blood is a human or non-human origin,
and if non human, the specific animal family from which it originated.
4. BLOOD GROUPING TEST - determines the blood group of human

The Preliminary Test For Blood (Color Test)

1. Benzidine Test or Benzidine Color Test

2. Phenolphthalein Test ( also known as Kastle – Meyer Test)
3. Guaiacum Test (Van Deen Test, Day’s or Schonbein’s Test)
4. Leucomalachite Green Test
5. Luminol Test

Benzidine Test

This is an extremely sensitive test that can be applied to minute stain. For many
years the most commonly used preliminary test for blood. The Benzidine test never
fails to detect blood even when very old, decomposed stain with all shorts of
contamination is examined. The positive result is only indicative that the blood maybe
present.

REAGENT: Benzidine solution ( small amount of powdered benzidine dissolved in

glacial acetic acid) and 3% solution of hydrogen peroxide.
PROCEDURE: Place a small fragment/portion of the stained material on a filter
paper. Add a drop of benzidine solution and then drop of hydrogen peroxide solution.
POSITIVE RESULTS: Intense blue color produced immediately
LIMITATION: Benzidine test is not a specific test for blood. Positive results maybe
obtained from substances as sputum, pus, nasal secretion, plant juices, formalin, clay,
gun. The reaction is weaker and produces faint coloration.

Phenolphtalein Test

This is an alternative test to benzidine test. It can detect blood in a dilution of

1:80,000,000 parts. A positive results with this test is highly indicative of blood. The
negative result is, therefore, valuable and is conclusive as to the absence of blood.
REAGENTS: Phenolphthalein solution (1 – 2 grams phenolphthalein to 100 ml of a
25% KOH in water added with one gram zinc powder heated until colorless) and 3%
solution of hydrogen peroxide.
PROCEDURE: Place a small fragment/portion of the stained materia on a filter paper.
Add a drop of phenolphthalein solution and then a drop of hydrogen peroxide solution.
POSITIVE RESULT: Rose color develops or deep pink color or permanganate coor.
LIMITATION: Test is also given by copper salts, potatoes and horseradish.

Guaiacum Test

A fairly delicate test showing the presence of fresh blood in a solution of

1:50,000 dilution. It may not react to very old stains.

REAGENTS: Fresh tincture of guaiac resin (Few lumps of this to 95% alcohol, then
filter) and 3% of hydrogen peroxide or few drops of turpentine.
PROCEDURE: Place a small piece of the stained fabric on porcelain dish. Soak with
fresh tincture of guaiac. Add a few drops of hydrogen peroxide.
POSITIVE RESULTS: Beautiful blue color that appears immediately.
LIMITATION: The test also reacts with salvia, pus, bile, milk, rust, iron salts, cheese,
gluten, potatoes, perspiration and other oxidizing substances.

Leucomalachite Green Test

This is a test not as sensitive as the benzidine test

REAGENT: Leucomalachite Green solution ( 1 gram leucomalachite green dissolved
in 48 ml. glacial acetic acid and diluted to 250ml. water) and 3% hydrogen peroxide.
PROCEDURE: A small piece of the stained fabric on a filter paper. Add a drop of
leucomalachite green solution and after a few seconds add drop of 3% hydrogen
peroxide.
POSITIVE RESULTS: Malachite green or bluish green

Take Note – The principle involved in blood testing is that the peroxidase present in
hemoglobin acts as carrier of oxygen from the hydrogen peroxide to the active
ingredients of the reagents (benzidine, guaiac, phenolphthalein and leucomalachite)
and produces the characteristic colored compounds by OXIDATION.

Hemoglobin is the red coloring matter of the red blood cells of the blood.

Luminous Test
 It is an important presumptive identification test for blood. The reaction of
luminol with blood results in the production of light rather than color. By spraying
luminol reagent onto a suspect item, large areas can be quickly screened for the
presence of bloodstains. The sprayed object must be located in a darkened area while
being viewed for the emission of light. (LUMINESCENCE). Luminol test is
extremely sensitive test. It is capable of detecting bloodstains diluted up to 10,000X.
Luminol is known to destroy many important blood factors necessary for the forensic
characterization of blood, so its use should be limited only to seeking out blood
invisible to the naked eye.

THE CONFIRMATORY TEST FOR BLOOD

The actual proof that stain is blood consists of establishing the presence of the
characteristic of the red blood cells of the blood.

The three (3) confirmatory tests for blood are:

1. Microscopic Test - Useful for the demonstration of blood corpuscles for making
the distinction between mammalian, avian, piscine, and reptilian blood and for
the investigation of menstrual, lochial and nasal charges. In short it
differentiates mammalian, avian, piscine and reptilian blood.

Take Note: The Mammalian red blood cells are circular, biconcave disc without
nucleus birds, fish and reptiles red blood cells larger, oval and nucleated amphibians-
animal living on land breeding in water. Red blood cells are larger than mammals,
oval and nucleated.

2. Microchemical Test – also known as Microcrystalline test which include

Teichmann Hemin Reaction/Teichman Test/Haemin Crystal Test,
Haemochromogen crystal Test or Takayama Test, Acetone-Haemin Test. One
of the two popular microchemical test is the Takayama Test, a delicate test for
the presence of hemoglobin.

PROCEDURE: Place a small piece of suspected material on a glass slide. Add 2 – 3

drops of Takayama reagent. Cover with glass slip.
POSITIVE RESULTS: Large rhombic crystals of a salmon pink color arranged in
clusters, sheaves and other forms that appears within to 6 minutes when viewed under
the low power objectives. To hasten result heat maybe applied.
REAGENT: Takeyama reagent (3 cc. of 10% NaOH, 33 cc. pyridine, 3 cc. of
saturated glucose solution and diluted with 7 ml. of water.
 3. Spectroscope Test – is the almost delicate and reliable test for the determination
of the presence of blood in both old recent stains. This is performed by means of
an optical instrument known as SPECTROSCOPE.

THE PRECIPITIN TEST

It is the standard test used to determine whether the stain/blood is of human or animal
origin.

REAGENT: Precipitin/antiserum
PROCEDURE: Scrape off blood stain if on hard material. Powder the scrapings and
exact with saline solution. If the stain is cloth, paper or similar material, cut a small
portion and then place in a test tube and add extract with saline solution. Allow
mixture to stand overnight. Centrifuge to clean the solution. Dilute with saline
solution. Layer an extract of the bloodstain on top of the human antiserum/precipitin
in a capillary tube.
POSITIVE RESULT: A white cloudy line or ring or band at the contact points of the
fluid that appears immediately or within one or two minutes.
LIMITATION: The precipitin reacts not only with blood proteins but also with other
body proteins as those as saliva, semen, mucus and other body fluids.

THE BLOOD GROUPING AND BLOOD TESTING

The Four Blood Groups

1. Group ―O‖
2. Group ―A‖
3. Group ―B‖
4. Group ―AB‖

Agglutinogen or Antigen

These are characteristic chemical structures or ―principles‖ that the found on the
surface of each red blood cells which stimulates the production of agglutinins or
antibodies. There are two different agglutinogens or antigens classified as
AGGLUTINOGEN A OR ANTIGEN A AND AGGLUTINOGEN B OR ANTIGEN
B.

Antibody or Agglutinin
These are properties or ―principles‖ contained in the serum which cause agglutination
or clumping together of the red blood cells. They are antitoxic substances within the
body which reacts when confronted with a specific antigen to protect the system.
There are two different agglutinins classified as Anti-A and Anti-B. Agglutinins are
demonstrable in about 50% of newly born infants.

We have the four groups because of the presence of absence of two antigens A and B
in the RBC and two agglutinins Anti-A and Anti-B in the serum.

BLOOD ANTIGEN/AGGLUTINOG ANTIBODIES/AG

GROUP EN PRESENT IN THE GLUTINIES
RBC PRESENT IN
THE SERUM
A A
ANTI-B
B B
ANTI-A
AB A&B
NO A & NO B or
NO A & NO B or NONE NONE

ANTI-A & ANTI-

B

(+) Means agglutination or clumping of RBC

(−) Means absence of agglutination or no clumping of RBC

The Blood Typing (M-N System) of Blood

There are two agglutinogens in human red cells which defines three types of blood.
Namely: Type M, Type N, and Type MN.

(+) Means agglutination

(−) Means absence of agglutination

Inheritance of Blood Groups

Knowledge of genetics will make it easier to understand the principle involved in the
inheritance of blood groups. The inheritance of blood group is predetermined by the
presence and absence of two facts or GENES called Gene A and Gene B.

GENES - any of the complex chemical units in the chromosomes by which hereditary
characters are transmitted, responsible for the transmission of hereditary
characteristics. They occur in pair. There are two genes or factors called gene A and
gene B. these are found in the chromosomes. Since chromosomes go in pair, each of
which carries or fails to carry one of these genes. An individual’s called genotypes,
where O represents the absence in the chromosomes of either the A or B gene.

PHENOTYPES – the term used to denote the expression of the inherited characteristic
as found in the individual. Actually the blood groups

GENOTYPES - Are paired genes.

Application of Blood Group Data

1. Questions of illegitimacy and relationships in may cause maybe solved by

means of the blood groups as determined by the agglutinogens A, B, M, and N.
2. Determination of whether a man accused of fathering a child out of wedlock
could or could not be its parent.
3. Determination of whether a child born of a married woman could or could not
have been fathered by her legal spouse.
4. Determination of whether a child could or could not belong to a given set of
parents in the case of accidental interchange of infants in a hospital.
5. Determination of whether a child who has been lost and later recovered after a
long interval could or could not belong to a given set of parents.

SEMEN

SEMEN AND SEMINAL FLUID - is a whitish fluid of the male reproductive track
containing spermatozoa. Its part are:
1. seminal fluid
2. formed Elements Cellular
3. spermatozoa
4. epithelial cells
5. crystal and choline
Usual location of semen stain as Evidence
1. Under clotting
2. Clothing
3. Skin
4. Air
5. Vagina
6. Rectal contains of the victim
7. Around the genitals

Seminal Examination
There are four examinations for seminal stains or seminal fluid in the form of stains
namely:
1. Physical Examination
2. Chemical Examination
a. Florence Test
b. Barberio’s Test
c. Acid-phospahtase Test
3. Microscopic Examination
4. Biological Examination

Collection, Preservation, Packing and Transit of Specimen

1. Seizure of apparel must be done as soon as possible.
2. In packiging of wearing appearel there should be no friction between the
apparel and the stain.
3. Specimen should not be rolled for transit.
4. Smaller objects like hair should be placed in a test tube and corked.
5. Specimen should be thoroughly dried before packing.
6. Fluid semen should be placed in a test tube. It maybe preserved by a few drops
of 10% solution of formalin during hot weather.

Determination of Spermatozoa in fresh semen

1. Transfers a drop of specimen to a glass slide.
2. Add a drop of water or saline solution and cover with cover slip
3. Examine under the microscope
4. Observe for the presence of spermatozoa

Elements which may obstruct detection of Spermatozoa

1. Nature of fabric
2. Age of stain
3. Condition to which the stain was exposed reaching the laboratory
 4. Handling of the specimen

What are the tests used in semen?

MICRO-CHEMICAL TESTS FOR SEMINAL STAINS

FLORENCE TEST.
A minute fragment of the stained garment is cut away, transferred to a slide, and
treated with a drop of distilled water. It is then allowed to soak for two to three
minutes after which a small drop of the reagent' is added along the edges and the slide
is covered with a watch glass. Examination is made microscopically for seminal
crystals which have the appearance of hemin crystals.

PELTZER TEST.
Peltzer uses a modification of the Florence test. The suspected spots are moistened
with hydrogen peroxide. If semen is present extensive foaming occurs. The sample is
centrifuged, placed on a slide, and stained with two percent aqueous eosin. If a
positive reaction is obtained, long lance-like crystals appear. The addition of iodine-
potassium iodide solution to the slide colors the crystals brown. These crystals may
disappear but can be recrystallized by the addition of more iodine-potassium iodide
solution.

PURAMEN TEST.
Puramen suggests using naphthol yellow sulfur in aqueous solution which reacts
differently with human semen at neutral and slightly alkaline reactions. A positive
reaction is indicated by formation of micro-crystals which are characteristically large,
have a double refraction, and are of a definite orange hue.

NIEELERLAND TEST.
This test employs dilute sulphuric acid. When added to a suspected specimen, the
weak sulphuric acid produces a white crystaline precipitate in the presence of semen.
These crystals are probably sulphates of calcium and other minerals found in semen
and body fluids.

GOLD CHLORIDE TEST.

Villami has shown that solutions of gold chloride give characteristic crystals with
dilute semen as well as with solutions of spots and stains produced by semen.

THE FLORENCE TEST and these various modifications of crystal formation are not
specific, positive indication of seminal fluid since other body fluids may give similar
results with these tests. A negative test, however, informs the investigator that the
suspected stain is not semen.

TEST FOR HYDROGEN ION CONCENTRATION.

If a drop of distilled water is added to suspected semen and well mixed, the hydrogen
ion concentration of the solution when tested with appropriate indicator paper will
give evidence of definite alkalinity.

FLUORESCENCE OR ULTRA-VIOLET TEST.

It first demonstrated that dried seminal stains give a characteristic color effect .under
ultra-violet light. However, this same brilliant characteristic fluorescence may be also
obtained by many other substances and is therefore not specific for semen. It is of
great value in locating suspected stains over large areas of a garment. Seminal spots
irrespective of spermatozoa, azoo-spermia, or age of the spot show a characteristic
fluorescence in ultra-violet rays between 4200 and 4900 A'.

HAIR

Hair is a specialized epithelial outgrowth of the skin which occur everywhere on the
human body except on the palm of the hands and the sole of the feet. Hair is not
completely round but maybe oval flattened. Its width is not always the same along its
length. It starts out pointed and narrow and then strays more or less the same.

Two kinds of Hair (among animals including human being)

1. Real hair ( generally along and stiff)
2. Fuzz hair ( generally short, fine at times curly and wooly)

Parts of Hair
1. Roots ( portion embedded in the skin
2. Shaft ( portion above the surface of the skin. The most DISTINCTIVE part of
the hair.
3. Tip ( sometimes termed point. The distal end of an uncut hair.

Parts of Shaft
1. Cuticle ( outermost covering of the hair. It is consist of one layer of non-
nucleated polygonal cells, which overlaps like the scales on a fish.
2. Cortex ( the intermediate and the THICKEST layer of the and is composed of
elongated, spindle-shaped fibrils which cohere. They contain pigment granules
in varying proportion depending on the type of hair.
 3. Medulla or Core ( the most characteristics portion of the hair. It si the central
canal of the hair that maybe empty or may contain various sots of cells more or
less pigmented and begins more and less near the root.

Take Note: Certain hair has no medulla. Therefore hair can be classified into two
categories namely a) hair without medulla b) hair with medulla.

Examination of Human Hair

1. Color
2. Melanin (brownish-black pigment in hair, skin, etc. it is the chemical
responsible for the color of the hair. Black and brown hair differs only to the
amount of melanin.
3. Length by actual measurement
4. Character of hair whether stiff, wiry or soft
5. Width (breadth)
6. Character of hair tip if present
7. Manner by which hair had been cut
8. Condition of root or base or bulb of hair

Hair Root
1. Living Root – often found on hair in full growth
2. Dry Roots – dead roots

Take note also the following:

1. Character of cuticle (the size, the general shape and the irregularity of the scale)
2. Character of cortex (structural features are studied under the microscope)
3. Cortex is embedded with the pigment granules the impart hair with color. It is
the color, shape and distribution of these granules provide the chemist with
important points of comparison between the hairs of the different individuals.
4. Presence of dye in hair

Dye hair can be distinguished from natural hair. Under the microscope dyed hair has a
dull appearance and the color tone is constant, whereas natural hair is not and the
individual pigment granules stand more sharply.

Determine also of whether naturally or artificially curled and the character of medulla.

The Medulla
 The medulla and cortex are the most characteristic portion of the hair. Have
more distinguishing qualities, thus they yield the most reliable criteria in the diagnosis
Cuticle Medulla

of hair.

Medulla or core or the central canal of the hair can be continuous or interrupted. It is

Cortex

continuous in large number of animals, very often interrupted in human, monkey, and
horses. Medulla’s diameter can be absolutely constant. At times alternately narrow
and broader. The diameter of the medulla is very little importance but the relationship
between the diameter of the medulla and the diameter of the whole hair his of great
importance.

1. MEDULLARY INDEX or M.I (is the relationship between the diameter of the
medulla and the diameter of the whole hair. Its determination is performed
under a microscope with micrometer eyepiece.
2. HAIR WITH NARROW MEDULLA (less the 0.5) ( belongs to human
3. HAIR WITH MEDIUM MEDULLA (approximate 0.5) (belongs to hair of cow,
horse, others.
4. HAIR WITH THICK MEDULLA (greater than 0.5) ( almost all animals belong
to this

Comparison between Human and Animal Hair

HUMAN
1. M.I. is less than 0.5
2. Medulla may not be present
3. Scale pattern is fine and each one overlaps the other more than 4/5
4. Pigment granules are fine

ANIMAL
1. M.I more than 0.5
 2. Medulla always present
3. Scale is coarse and overlaps less than ½
4. Pigment granules are coarse

Other Aspects of Hair Examination

1. Characteristic by race

a. NEGROID RACE HAIR - contains heavy pigment distributed unevenly a

thin cross section of the hair is oval in shape hair is usually kinky with
marked variation in the diameter along the shaft
b. MONGOLOID RACE - contains dense pigment distributed more or evenly
the Negroid race hair cross section of the hair will around to oval in shape
hair is coarse and straight with very little variation in diameter along the
shaft of the hair usually contains a heavy black medulla or core.
c. CAUCASIAN RACE - contains very fine to coarse pigment, and more
evenly distributed than is found in Negro or Mongolian. Cross section will
be oval to around in shape, usually straight or wavy and not kinky

2. Characteristic by sex

a. Male hair is generally larger in diameter, shorter in length, more wiry in

texture than t hat of a female
b. Male hair averages approximately 1 / 350 of an inch in diameter, female hair
averages approximately 1 / 450 of an inch in diameter.

3. The religion of the body from which the human hair has been removed

a. Scalp hair ( they are more mature than any other kind of human hair
b. Beard Hair ( coarse, curved, very stiff, and often triangular in cross section
c. Hairs from eyebrow, eyelid, nose and ear-short, stubby, and have wide
medulla. Eyebrow and eyelashes are usually very short and has a sharp and
has a sharp tip.
d. Trunk hair (very in thickness along the shaft and are immature but are
somewhat similar to head hairs. They have fine, long tip ends.
e. Limb hair (similar to trunk hairs but usually are not so long or so coarse and
usually contain less pigment.
f. Axillary Hair (is fairly long unevenly distributed pigment. They vary
considerably in diameter along the shaft and have frequently a bleached
 appearance. It has an irregular shape and structure. Looks like public hair but
the ends are shaper and the hair is not so curly.
g. Public hair-similar to axillary hair but are coarser, and do not appear
bleached. More wiry, have more constriction and twist and usually have
continuous broad medulla. Has many broken ends the clotting rubs.

4. The approximate age of individuals

a. Infant hairs are fine, short in length, have fine pigment and are
rudimentary in chapter. Children’s hair through adolescence is generally
finer and more immature than and hair but cannot be definitely
differentiated with certainly.
b. If it is noted that the pigment is missing or starting to disappear in the
hair, it can be stated that the hair is from adult. It is common for a
relatively young person to have prematurely gray or white hair(head hair)
but not body hairs.
c. The root of hair from an aged person may show a distinctive degeneration

HAIR COMPARISON MICROSCOPY

A comparison microscope, which is made up of two compound light microscopes

connected by an optical bridge, allows the user to view a known and unknown hair
sample simultaneously. The multi-phase examination process starts with the analyst
establishing whether the unknown hair is of animal or human origin.

If it is an animal hair, the examiner can further identify it as belonging to a particular

species, although it cannot be linked to a particular animal at the exclusion of other
animals within the same species. Animal hairs found on items of evidence can link a
suspect to a crime scene or a vehicle or location where a victim was held. Hairs from a
pet the suspect owns, for example, may also be transferred to the victim when a
suspect makes physical contact.

If the hair is human in origin, analysis can help to distinguish between individuals
based on the arrangement, appearance and distribution of certain characteristics within
different regions of the hair.

FIBERS
Textile fibers-fibers that can be converted into yarns.
Yarn-made of fibers which have been twisted together, linked thread.
Classification of Textile Fibers
The two divisions of fibers are Natural fiber and Synthetic or artificial fiber

Natural fibers are:

a. Vegetable fibers ( made of CELLULOSE. Examples are seed. Stem barks or

bast fibers, leaf fibers, cotton, woody fibers, fruit or nut fibers.
b. Animal fibers ( made of PROTEIN. Examples are wool, silk, hair.
c. Mineral fiber ( example is asbestos

Synthetic or Artificial Fibers are organic fiber such as

a. Cellulosic ( example rayon

b. Non-cellulosic ( examples nylon, casein fiber, resin fiber

and Inorganic fibers such as

a. mineral fiber ( examples glass fiber wool, glass rock, and slag wools
b. metallic fiber ( examples finewire filament, steel wool, tinsel threads.

Test Used for Fibers

a. BURNING OR IGNITION TEST (A simple preliminary macroscopic

examination. A test that determines whether fiber is mineral, animal or
vegetable. A single fiber is applied with flame at one end and the
following are noted:
 manner of burning
 odor of fumes
 appearance of burnt end
 color of ash
 action of fumes on moistened red and blue litmus paper
 effect of fumes on a piece of filter paper moistened with lead
acetate

b. FLUORESCENCE TEST – frequently used to determine the general

group to which a fiber belongs. It is not reliable for positive
identification of fiber.
 c. MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION – the fiber is placed on a slide teased and
covered. In general it is the most reliable and best means of identifying
fibers.

d. CHEMICAL TEST - Staining Test – the fiber is stained with picric acid,
Million’s reagent, stannic chloride or iodine solution.

Picric acid + silk ---------- dyed

Picric acid + wool -------- dyed
Picric acid ) cellulosic fiber ---------------- unchanged
Silk + million’s reagent --------------------- brown
Wool + million’s reagent ------------------- brown
Cellulosic fiber + million’s reagent -------- no reaction
Stannic chloride + cellulose ---------------- black
Dissolution Test – if the fiber is white or light colored it is treated with the following
chemicals. If dyed, the fiber is first decolorized by boiling in either 1% hydrochloric
acid, acetic acid or dilute potassium hydroxide. The fiber is then treated with the
following and reaction observed.

10% NaOH
5% oxalic acid
Half saturated oxalic acid
Concentrated sulfuric acid
Concentrated and dilute ammonium hydroxide
Concentrated nitric acid

Characteristics of Common Textile Fibers

1. Cotton – unicellular filament, flat, ribbon-like, twisted spirally to right or left on

its axis; central canal is uniform in diameter. Cell wall thick, covered by a
thick, structureless, waxy cuticle. Fibers taper gradually to a blunt or rounded
point at one end.
2. Mercerized Cotton – straight, cylindrical with occasional twist; unevenly
lustrous, smooth except for occasional transverse fold or wrinkles; cuticle
mostly lacking.
3. Linen – multicellular filament, straight and cylindrical, not twisted and
flattened, tapering to a sharp point. Cell walls thick, the lumen appearing as a
narrow dark line in the center of the fiber to appear jointed resembling bamboo.
 4. Cultivated silk-smooth, cylinder, lustrous threads, usually single but often
double, the twin filament held together by an envelope of gum. More or less
transparent, without definite structure.
5. Wild silk-similar to cultivated silk but broader and less regular in outline.
Marked by very fine longitudinal striations with infrequent diagonal cross
markings.
6. Artificial silk-cylindrical, lustrous, appearing like a glass rod.
7. Wool-easily distinguished by presence of flattened, overlapping epidermal
scales not found on silk or any of the vegetable fibers.

SALIVA

What are the tests used in saliva?

PHADEBAS TEST

The presumptive test to detect saliva is the alpha-amylase test also known as the
Phadebas Test. This detection technique is based on the activity of the enzyme alpha-
amylase which breaks down starches from food into smaller oligosaccharide
molecules, starting digestion in the mouth. Using a petri dish gel, the saliva sample is
added and allowed to diffuse through the gel overnight. Visualization is accomplished
by adding iodine to the gel which stains the starch in the gel blue. If saliva is present,
then the alpha-amylase breaks down the starch, creating a clear colored circle around
where the sample was placed.

URINE
What are the tests used in urine?

URINE DRUG TEST

A urine drug test, also known as a urine drug screen or a UDS, is a painless test. It
analyzes your urine for the presence of certain illegal drugs and prescription
medications. The urine drug test usually screens for:
 amphetamines
 methamphetamines
 benzodiazepines
 barbiturates
 marijuana
 cocaine
  PCP
 Methadone
 opioids (narcotics)

There are two types of urine drug screens, and both require a sample.

An immunoassay (IA) test is the most common type, because it is the quickest and
most cost-effective. However, it can give a false-positive result. This shows the
presence of a drug when a person has not used it.

A second type of urine screen can confirm the results of an IA test. The second test is
called gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) .GC-MS is a more reliable
method of screening than IA. It can also detect a wider range of drugs.
 LESSON 7
TESTS ON PHYSICAL EVIDENCE

LESSONS CONTENT:

GUNPOWDER RESIDUE AND OTHER EXPLOSIVES

In the investigation of crimes involving the use of firearms, three most important
problems may arise, the problems of:
1. Determination of whether or not a person fired a gun with bare hands within
pertinent period of time
2. Determination of the probable gunshot range that is the distance the firearm was
held from the body of the victim at the time of discharge.
3. Determination of the approximate time of firing of the gun on the approximate date
of last discharge.

Kinds of Gun Powder

1. Black powder - consisting of 15% of C, 10% of S and 75% of KNO3 or NaNO3.
When black powder explodes
KNO3 + c + S K2S + N2 CO2
2. Smokeless powder (which consist of cellulose nitrate or glyceryl nitrate combined
with cellulose nitrate and some stabilizers. When exploded the following reaction
occurs:
C12H14O4(NO3)6 9CO + 3N2 + 7H2O + 3CO2
3. Cellulose nitrate
4C3H5(NO3)3 12CO2 + 10H2O + 6N2 + O2
4. Glyceryl Nitrate

Possible Location of Nitrates when black powder explodes

1. Residue of the barrel of the gun.
2. In or around the wound
3. On the clothing of the fired upon at close range
4. On the exposed surface of the hand of the person firing the gun

DIPHENYLAMINE-PARAFFIN TEST - test to determine the presence of nitrates, a

test to determine whether a person fired a gun or not.

Paraffin test - test performed to extract the nitrates embedded in the skin.

Diphenylamine Test or DPA Test – a test that determines the presence and location of
nitrate, chemical needed is diphenylamine reagent.

Possibilities that a person maybe found Negative for Nitrates even if he actually
fired a Gun
1. Use if automatic pistol
 2. Direction of wind
3. Wind velocity
4. Excessive perspiration
5. Use of gloves
6. Knowledge of chemicals that will remove the nitrates

Possibilities that a person maybe found Positive for Nitrates even if he did not
actually fired a Gun
1. It is possible that the gunpowder particles may have been blown on the hand
directly from the barrel of the gun being fired by another person.
2. An attempt to shield the body by arising the hand in some instances result in the
implanting of powder particles on the hands of a person close to one firing a gun..

How to determine probable gunshot range

The clothing is examined microscopically for possible powder residues, singeing,
burning, smudging and powder tattooing.

Determination of the Probable time the Gun has been fired

In the examination / determination of the approximate time of last discharge we need the
specimen firearm in the examination. The barrel is swabbed with cotton and the residues
examined under the microscope.

Take Note - Rust - Formation of rust inside the barrel after a gun has been fired is a good
indication of the determination of the approximate time the gun has been fired. If a gun
has not fired at all, no rust can be detected inside the barrel of the gun. If a gun has been
fired, iron salts are formed and are found inside the barrel. This iron salts are soon
oxidized resulting in the formation of rust.

NITRATE - Presence of nitrate (NO2) is determined by addition of diphenylamine

(DPA) reagent. If the color becomes blue nitrates are present, and we may say that the
firearm could have been fired recently.

NITRATES - Presence of nitrates (NO3) is determined by the addition of diphenylamine

reagent. If the color turned yellow green, nitrates are present, and we may say that the
firearms could have been fired but not recently.

Factors Affecting the Presence and Amount of Gunpowder Residue

1. Length of the barrel of the gun

2. Type and cal. Of ammunition
3. Wind velocity
4. Direction of firing
5. Distance of firing
6. Nature of firing
7. Humidity
EXPLOSIVES

Explosive is any substance that may cause an explosion by its sudden decomposition or
combustion. Explosive is also a material either pure single substance or mixture of
substances which is capable of producing an explosion by its own energy.

Classification of Explosive (as to functioning characteristics)

1. PROPELLANT OR LOW EXPLOSIVES - Are combustible materials containing

within themselves all oxygen needed for their combustion that burn but do not
explode and function by producing gas that produces explosion. Examples are
Black powder, smokeless powder, firecrackers, and pyrotechnics.

2. PRIMARY EXPLOSIVE OR INITIATORS - Explode or donate when they are

heated or subjected to shock. They do not burn. Sometimes they do not even
contain the elements necessary for combustion. The materials themselves explode
and the explosion results whether they are confined or not. Examples are Mercury
fulminate, lead azide.

3. HIGH EXPLOSIVES - Explode under the influence of the shock of the explosion
of primary explosive. They do not function by burning, in fact not all of them can
be ignited by a flame and in small amount generally burn tranquilly and can be
extinguished easily. If heated to a high temperature by external heat or by their
own combustion, they sometimes explode. Examples are Ammonium nitrate, TNT,
dynamite, nitroglycerine, picric acid, plastic explosives.

METALLURGY

METALLURGY – is the art of extracting and working on metals by the application of

chemical and physical knowledge.

METALLOGRAPHY – is a branch of metallurgy that involves the study of the

microstructures of metals and alloys.

Metallurgy is applied to criminal investigation such as in:

1. Robbery
2. Theft
3. Hit and run
4. Bomb and explosion
5. Nail Examination
6. Counterfeit coins
7. Restoration of tampered serial numbers
Counterfeit Coins (coins made to imitate the real thing and used for gain)

Two kinds of Counterfeit Coins

1. CAST COINS – coins made in molds or coins made by casting method. An

impression of genuine coin is taken by use of plaster of Paris, clay, or bronze. The
plaster molds bearing the image of a good coin are filled within a low temperature
alloy made with lead or tin. Sand molds are used for high temperature metals such
as copper or silver alloys. Cast coin has poor imitation. It can be easily detected.
The surface is usually pitted and uneven. The edges of lettering and designs are
rounded instead of sharp.

2. STRUCK COINS – made by striking or stamping method or these are coins made
by means of dies. Consists of making an impression of a coin on a metal blank by
pressure. Stamping is done by way of steel dies. Often well executed. Its
detection is not easy since weight, specific gravity, composition may all be good.
Careful comparison of smaller details of the designs with those of the genuine
should be made.

Take Note: Examination of counterfeit coins is not wholly chemical.

RESTORATION OF TAMPERED SERIAL NUMBERS

Restoration of Tampered Serial Numbers

Tampered serial numbers are restored by the application of etching fluid.

ETCHING FLUID – fluid used to restore tampered serial numbers. Choice of etching
fluid depends on the structure of the metal bearing the original number.

1. For cast iron and cast steel – 10% sulfuric acid and potassium dichromate
2. For wrought iron and forged iron-Solution 1 : hydrochloric acid + water + cupric
chloride + alcohol and Solution 2:15% nitric acid
3. For aluminum-glycerin + hydrofluoric acid + nitric acid
4. For lead – 3 parts glacial acetic acid and one part water
5. For stainless steel – dilute sulfuric acid or 10% hydrochloric acid in alcohol for
copper, brass, silver, and other copper alloys-ferric chloride + hydrochloric acid +
water
6. For Zinc – 10% sodium hydroxide
7. For Tin – 10% hydrochloric acid
8. For Silver – concentrated nitric acid
9. For Gold and Platinum – 3 parts hydrochloric acid and one part nitric acid

Principle Involved in the Restoration and Tampered Serial Number

When a number or any mark is stamped on metal, the crystalline structure of the metal in
the neighborhood of the stamp is disturbed. This disturbance penetrates to an appreciable
distance into the substance of the metal, but not visible to the naked eye once the actual
indentations caused by the punch have been removed. When etching fluid are applied to
this surface, the disturbed or strained particles of the metal differ in the rate of solubility
than those of the undisturbed particles and this difference in solubility makes it possible
in many cases, to restore the number to such an extent that they can be read and
photographed.

Trace Metal Detection Techniques (TMDT)

A difficult problem in law enforcement is that of linking weapons ( particularly

undischarged firearms), tools, and like object to specific individuals. The essential need
for such identification in cases involving homicide, suicide, assault, burglary, robbery,
and civil disorders has resulted in the development of a specific technique which shows
whether an individual has been in contact with a particular metallic object. The technique
can be conducted by police officers using simple equipment and the procedures described
in this publication. Research has determined that metal object leave traces on skin and
clothing surfaces in characteristic patterns with intensities proportional to the interaction
of weight, friction, or duration of contact with metal objects.

The Trace Metal Detection Technique (TMDT) makes such metal trace patterns
visible when skin or clothing is treated with a test solution and then is illuminated by
ultra violet light. Examination by ultraviolet light of the metal trace patterns which appear
as fluorescent colors on the hands or clothing of the suspect allows a police officer to
determine whether a suspect has been in contact with certain metal objects, the type of
metal or metals in the objects, and also to infer what type of weapon or metal object was
probably involved. The patterns fluorescent colors can be analyzed with refference to the
circumstances requiring the use of TMDT and with other related information to provide
an initial source of evidence. Physical evidence obtained by the use of TMDT, however,
should be use as an adjunct to complete investigation.

Selection of Test Areas

The areas to be examined are selected in relation to the circumstances, the suspect
item (handgun, rifle, tools, bludgeon, etc.), and to the normal handling, use, possession,
or concealment of the suspect item. For example, if the suspect item is a handgun, in
addition to the hands those areas of clothing which may have been contact with the
weapon and the skin areas directly beneath should be examined. In the latter case, metal
traces and patterns are sometimes found to have penetrated clothing to the skin area
beneath.

Application of TMDT Test Solution

 The area to be examined is completely coated with the TMDT test solution. a spray
container is generally the most suitable for this purpose. Whenever possible, the surface
should be in a vertical position while being sprayed to prevent the formation of puddles.
Although the TMDT test solution is nontoxic to skin surfaces, it should not be taken
internally. Care should be taken to avoid spraying the solution into the subject’s eyes. If
spray does get into the eyes, the subject should immediately flush his eyes with water for
at least ten minutes and obtain medical acid.

Drying the Test Area

The test area is allowed to dry for a period of two or three minutes. The drying
time of hands can be shortened by swinging the arms. Sunlight, breeze, and hot air also
shorten the drying process. The areas on clothing and other materials should be allowed
to dry thoroughly before examination.

Examination of Test Area by Ultraviolet Light

The TMDT solution produces a light yellow fluorescent on those parts of the test
are that have not been in contact with metal object. This pale yellow fluorescence
provides a background for metal trace patterns seen on parts of the test area that have
been in contact with metal objects. The metal trace patterns will give off fluorescent
colors that are unique to types of metal and appear as silhouettes against the light yellow
fluorescent background of the test area. Examples of fluorescent colors produced by
various metals are: steel/iron (blackish purple),. Brass/copper (purple), galvanized iron
(bright yellow), aluminum (mottled dull yellow), and lead (buff, flesh tone, or tannish).
The officer first should identify the types of metal that have been in contact with
the test area by the fluorescent color that appear under the illumination of the ultraviolet
light. Essential to the officer’s ability to make this identification is his knowledge and
experience of what fluorescent colors are produced by metals such as steel, brass, copper,
lead, aluminum, tin chromium, iron nickel, silver and certain alloys that can be contained
in metal objects. After determining the presence of metal traces in the test area and
identifying the metals, the officer can next determine the pattern of the metal traces
revealed by the fluorescent colors. The location, size, and shape of metal traces on the
hand from patterns that are characteristic of the size and shape and the normal way in
which weapons, tools and other metal objects handled and used. The recognition of these
patterns in conjunction with the determination of what metals left traces on the skin are
the basis for identification of metal objects. In this way the officer can ascertain if the
pattern is pertinent to a suspect item to its having been in the possession of a suspect.

Detection and Identification of Metal Objects on the Hands

The shape, size and weight of the metals object, the duration of contact, and the
use of the metal object all combine to produce the location and intensity of metal traces
and their patterns on the hands.
 On holding a metal object, metal traces depend on the object’s shape and the size
(more or less) of the hand that comes in contact with the metal surface. The intensity is
also proportional tot he actions and forces involved in using a tool, striking blows with
weapons, and the recoil from the discharge of firearms. In addition, the intensity is
increased when the suspect resists action to disarm him.

Detection of Metal Objects on Clothing

As noted earlier, metals leave characteristic traces on clothing surfaces. Therefore,

the suspect’s clothing should be examined by TMDT. In particular, the areas to be
examined are: gloves, hats, pocket, lining of coats, shirts, areas used for concealment, and
other areas of clothing where the suspect item may have been carried, concealed, or
otherwise been in contact. The spray is applied to the test areas placed in a vertical
p[position whenever possible. Clothing and other materials vary in their absorbency,
therefore some of these test areas may require a heavier application of spray or two or
more spraying to produce the maximum fluorescence and appearance of metal traces and
patterns.

The maximum appearance is obtained when a repeated spraying does not produce
a brighter fluorescence that the previous spraying and drying of the test area. Metal traces
sometimes penetrate clothing to the skin areas beneath. For example, metal traces may be
found on the hands even though gloves have been worn while metal objects have been
handled. Skin areas directly beneath clothing areas where metal traces have been found
should be examined by TMDT. However, it should be noted the plastic, leather and
rubber materials are impervious to penetration of metal traces.

Procedures for Detection and Identification of Handguns by TMDT

Because of their unique shape and use, handguns leave characteristic pattern and
distinct signatures on the hands that are specific to types, makes, models, and calibres of
these weapons. The police officers, with knowledge and experience in identifying the
characteristic patterns and signatures on handguns by TMDT, can determine if a suspect
has had a handgun in his possession and the signature of the handgun by the following
procedures.

Spraying the Hands

The suspect’s hands are extended from the sides of the body with the palms in a
vertical position and the fingers and thumb separated and extended. The officer should
make certain that the entire surface of the front and back of the hands are covered by the
spray.

Examination of Hands
 The officer can next examine the suspect’s dry hands under ultraviolet light. He
should make a written record of the following observations and analysis of the suspect’s
hand:

1. First, note and record the fluorescent colors of the metal traces that make up the
pattern for the purpose of identifying the metallic content of the gun.
2. Look for the appearance of metal traces (fluorescent colors differing from the light
yellow fluorescent color produced by TMDT test solution) on those parts of the
hand that come in contact with the gun: the index finger which rested on the
trigger, the remaining fingers and thumb which enclosed the gun, the palm, and the
degree of protrusion of the gun into the area between and beyond the junction of
the thumb and index finger. (Extensive protrusion of metal traces beyond this area
are made by the overhang at the top of the back edge of the handles of automatics,
which is common to the design of this type of handgun.)
3. Look for any irregularities or distinguishing marks in the pattern which may have
been made by screws, protrusions, ornamentation’s, and other markings of the gun.
4. Look for interruptions in the pattern which may be due to nonmetal parts of the
gun. Compare these observations with the suspect handgun or, if it has not been
recovered, with a Catalog of Handgun ―Signatures.‖ This comparison serves to
identify the signatures of the handgun or possession thereof by the suspect.
5. Take a photograph of the pattern produced on the suspect’s hand under
illumination by ultraviolet light.
6. If the suspect handgun has been recovered before the apprehension of the suspect
or shortly after his arrest (it has been found that detectable metal traces may be
found up to 38 – 48 hours after contact with metal objects), the pattern of the
handgun should be produced on a subject who has not recently handled a gun. The
patterns on the subject’s hands should be examined side-by-side under ultraviolet
light to determine whether or not the handgun has been in the possession of the
suspect. Photographs should be taken as evidence.
7. If the suspect handgun has not been recovered, the pattern on the suspect’s hand
should be compared with the photographs of handgun patterns entered in a Catalog
of Handgun ―Signatures‖. A photograph of the pattern on the subject’s hand should
also be taken and compared with those in the catalog to aid in the possible
identification of the type of gun the suspect has had in his position.

Catalog of Handgun Signatures

It has been noted earlier that handguns leave distinct pattern or ―signatures‖ which
are specific to types, makes, models, and calibres of these weapons. It is important that
police officers develop a thorough knowledge and permanent record of these signatures.
For this purpose a catalog of signatures should be prepared of as many types, models,
makes, and calibres of specimen handgun that can possibly be obtained. The signatures of
these handguns can be produced on the hands of subjects and examined under ultraviolet
light as described above. A photograph of each signature is then entered ultraviolet light
and the type, make and model of the specimen handgun.
Detection of Tools and Metal Objects

Some tools and other metal objects leave patterns that are characteristics of their
shape, normal handling and use (for example: pliers, wrenches, shears, scissors, etc.)
while other tools and metal objects may leave patterns that are similar because they are
alike in shape and diameter (for example: crowbars, pipes, metal bars, etc.). Accurate
analysis and determination of patterns on suspect’s hands depend upon relating the above
factors to circumstances, information, and evidence of the case upon the technician’s
experience and skill in using TMDT. Again, as an aid in obtaining such experience and
skill, the technician should prepare a catalog of patterns and metal traces produced by
tools and other metal objects.

Contact with Non-Significant Metal Objects

The hands of individual may have metal traces from contact with metal objects
such as handles, doorknobs, keys, etc. The intensities of the traces will be proportional to
the force and duration of contact with these metal objects. In some cases, the metal traces
will be faint because of momentary and light contact with the objects, but in other cases
the traces from no significant metal traces and distort the patterns of significant metal
objects.

Disassembly or Assembly of Handgun

If the suspect has handled a handgun for these purposes, metal traces will be left on the
hands which do not form the pattern ordinarily produced by the weapon. However, if the
suspect held the weapon in the usual way for a period of time, the technician may be able
to detect the specific pattern left by the handgun. ( It should be noted that gun oils give
off a mother-of-pearl appearance under ultraviolet light.)

Similar Patterns of Metal Objects

Some metal objects may leave metal traces and patterns that are similar but not identical
to the metal traces and patterns of the significant object. The officer should be mindful of
such potential ―false positives‖ and learn to discriminate accordingly.

Exposure of Hand to Soap and Water

Exposure to water after contact with metal objects does not affect an examination of the
hands. Repeated hand washing with abrasive soap or rubbing with dirt after contact with
metals will reduce the amount of traces deposited on the skin in a deliberate attempt to
remove metal traces. However, it has been found that metal trace patterns may be found
on the hands up to 36-48 hours after when the suspect has followed a normal routine of
daily hand washings.
Fluorescence Brightness of Metal Traces and Patterns

The maximum fluorescence brightness of metal m traces and patterns that can be
obtained in a TMDT examination depends not only upon the amount of metal that has
been deposited on a skin or clothing surface but also upon the following factors: (1)
adequate application and coverage of the TMDT test solution, (2) a strong source of
ultraviolet illumination, (3) exclusion of all other illumination from the test area, and (4)
the proximity of the ultraviolet light to the test area.

Use of TMDT in the Field and or Group Screening

The successful use of TMDT in the field for checking on a suspect or screening a
group of individuals for previous possession of weapons or other significant metal objects
depends on whether the circumstances and conditions are suitable for such examination.
The acquiescence or subjugation of the subject must be obtained to perform the
examination. Sources of environmental light must be greatly reduced or eliminated in
order to produce adequate fluorescence by ultraviolet light. And, finally, field personnel
must have sufficient experience and skill to ascertain whether an individual has been
contact with a weapon or significant metal object and whether an individual should be
held for further detailed examination by TMDT. Studies should be carried out by police
officers to determine the conditions and circumstances that prevent or are conductive to
valid use and result of TMDT in the field.

Additional Use of TMDT

Another possible use of TMDT is the determination that a metal object has rested
on another, non-metal object. For example, a research experiment involving the
successful application of this use determined that (1) a pair of scissors no longer present
had rested on the paper lining in a drawer and (2) coins no longer present had rested on a
paper document in the bottom of a storage container. In the latter case, the duration of
contact of the undisturbed coins was sufficient to show which side of each coin had
rested on the document. Since friction is not involved, results depend of the weight and
duration of the contact of the metal object with the surface on which it rests. When
consideration is given ot the use of TMDT for this type of detection, the officer should
conduct a test to determine if trace metal deposit can be produced on the surface in
question.

Precautions

Shortwave ultraviolet light in injurious to the eyes. Do not look directly into the light or
shine the light into individual eyes. Protective goggles are commercially available that
prevent passage of shortwave ultraviolet but transmit visible fluorescent light which is
not injurious to the eyes.

Fluorescence Photography
It is commonly believed that ultraviolet photography is also fluorescence photography.
Actually two types of photography are involved. The main purpose of ultraviolet
photography is to record information about the objects that have the property of either
absorbing or reflecting ultraviolet light or about objects in which two or more of its
elements will absorb or reflect ultraviolet light to different degrees. These effects can be
recorded photographically to show differences between objects or between areas of the
same object. Whether or not the objects emit fluorescence does not enter into the
purposes of ultraviolet photography. If a source of ultraviolet light is used to excite
fluorescence in an object, photographing the fluorescent object is known as fluorescence
photography. This type of photography is used for recording fluorescent metal trace
patterns produced by TMDT.

Photography Techniques

1. Illumination. Efficient sources of ultraviolet light, placed as close to the subject as

practical, should be used to excite the maximum fluorescence brightness of the
object. The incidence of illumination of the object should be at an angle of about
45 degrees. Two sources (one on each side of the object) will provide twice as
much light and prove more practical in photographing three dimensional objects.

2. Barrier Filter. This filter is placed in front of the camera lens to absorb the
ultraviolet light radiation transmitted by the exciter filter and to transmit only the
fluorescent given off by the object. An efficient barrier filter is the Kodak Wratten
Filter No. 2A if the exciter filter transmits ultraviolet light only.

3. Exposure Determination. Because of the very low brightness of fluorescence, the

proper exposures for photographing fluorescent metal trace pattern will have to be
determined by tests. The beginner should take a number of photographs of subjects
at various exposures. At fixed lens aperture, exposure time should be increased by
a factor of two in successive steps over a wide range of increasing shutter speeds.
A record of all exposure conditions should be made including: subject, ultraviolet
source and its distance from the subject, filter, shutter speed, and lens opening.
With a record of such officer can develop the know-how and skill in estimating the
exposures for photographing subjects.

An extremely sensitive exposure meter can be used for determining exposures. However,
its cell should be covered with a barrier filter to absorb ultraviolet light reflected from the
subject which, if higher in brightness that the fluorescence of the subject, will give
erroneous exposure settings on the camera. If the use of an exposure meter is feasible, the
tests described above may not be needed to determine exposures.

SOIL ANALYSIS, DUST and DIRT

PETROGRAPHY – branch of geology that deals with the systematic classification and
identification of rocks, rock forming minerals and soil. Also includes study of dust, dirt,
safe insulation, ceramics and other such materials, both natural and artificial.

Types of Soil
1. Alluvial Soil – formed from soil particles that were washed, blown, or moved by
gravity to the lowlands. Earth, sand, gravel, etc. deposited by moving water.
2. Colluvial Soil – formed from decomposition of igneous, metamorphic and
sedimentary rocks, the decomposed particles moved by gravity.
3. Sedentary Soil – inactive, not migratory soil.

Collection and Submission of Evidence

Soil usually in form of mud is usually recovered from shoes, slippers, clothes, tires, tools
and furniture. If found on the above the soil should remain in place and the whole
submitted to the laboratory. Should be wrapped in a clean paper or filter paper and placed
in a box. Known soil samples should be taken at different places around the point of
reference.

Constituent of Soil
1. Primary Minerals
2. Clay Mineral
3. Organic Constituents

PRIMARY MINERALS – includes under composed rock fragments ranging from stone
down thru pebbles, sand and silt. Important minerals include quartz (silica), calcite
(limestone, CaCO3), feldspar (silicate of A1, Na, Ba, Ca, K) dolomite, mica.

CLAY MINERAL – a product of decomposition of primary minerals found in nearly all

soils and is the major constituents of most heavy soil. It imparts to soil cohesiveness and
plasticity and becomes hard and adherent on heating.

ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS – one of the most variable of all soil constituents and is
of peculiar importance in the identification of soil.

ANALYSIS OF SOIL – there are several methods of petrography analysis that are being
use in the laboratories to establish the identify of two or more samples of soil. There is
no procedure that is specially recommended. It all depends on the availability of the
apparatus. The DENSITY GRADIENT APPARATUS is a simple apparatus utilizing
simple procedure in determining the identity or non-identity of soil samples based on the
density distribution. The procedure is rapid, requiring a few hours of completion. It is
sensitive to small changes in composition.

Other Methods of Soil Analysis

X-ray diffraction, spectrographic analysis and thermal analysis are methods extensively
used in commercial and private laboratories as general procedure.

Application of Soil Analysis to Scientific Crime Detection

The value of soil as evidence depends wholly upon the fact that soils differ in various
characteristics over the surface of the earth. This difference makes it possible to establish
the identity or non-identity of two soil samples.

DUST AND DIRT – has been described as ―matter in the wrong place‖. The study of
such piece of evidence may often provide the investigator with clues as to the occupation
or previous whereabouts of a person under investigation.

DUST – matter which is dry and in finely divided form

MUD – dust mixed with water

CRIME (heavy dirt) – when dust is mixed with the sweat and grease of the human body
this is formed.

Composition of Dust

Whatever is the origin of dust and wherever it is found it always contain substances of
plant and animal origin and substances of mineral origin.

Classification of Dust

For purpose of criminal investigation, dust may well be classified from their source.

1. Dust Deposited from the Air - extremely fine dust particles present in the air
everywhere. More in thickly populated and industrial region. Settle very slowly
and ultimately deposited on any exposed surface. Its value in crime detection is
significant.

2. Road and Footpath Dust - produced by the wear and tear of the road surface be
vehicular and pedestrian traffic together with particles of soil carried by the wind
or rain from adjoining regions.

3. Industrial Dust - industries ;like cement, button, powdered gypsum and plaster of
Paris factories, flour milling, paint pigment, involves industrial processes like
grinding, milling or beating for the purpose of producing finely powdered ultimate
products which in the process impart a pronounced local character to the dust on
the neighboring roads and buildings.
 4. Occupation Dust - some of the finely powdered material maybe found on the
clotting and foot wears of employees engaged in such industries. Aside from this
for example, coal miner will have coal dust on his clothes, bricklayer will yield
brick duct, sand and lime on his clothes.

From the forensic chemical point of view, the identification of occupational dust is of
great importance. In criminal investigation, the identification of the person through the
articles of clotting left in the scene of crime or in a vehicle may place him in an
identifiable class and thus to distinguish from the great majority of other persons. Such
observation does not serve to distinguish the wearer of the cloth from all other persons.

Collection and Submission of Dust and Dirt Specimen

Dust and dirt present in clotting or objects that can be readily transported should be left in
site. The whole article is packed in a clean box with proper protection and hipped to the
laboratory.

If the object is immovable or too big to submit as a specimen like sofa, piano, dresses, the
specimen maybe removed by mechanical means if present in large quantity.

Dust on clotting maybe removed by the used of vacuum cleaner with paper bags used in
the dust sack to collect the dirt.

Analysis of Dust and Dirt

1. If the sample is very small, micro-chemical test or spectrographic analysis maybe

employed. If the amount of specimen is sufficient the following is employed.
2. Examine the sample under the ultraviolet light
3. Treat a small quantity with a drop of water on a spot plate.
4. Observe of aqueous drop with hand lens
5. Note the proportion of the solid matters that remains in suspension and proportion
that settles rapidly.
6. Reaction with litmus paper (aqueous drop)
7. Treat a small quantity with a drop of 0.1 NHCl.
8. Note evolution of gas
9. Note formation of precipitate
10.Note changes in color
11.Note materials dissolved by acid
12.Treat a small quantity with ethanol
13.Note color of alcohol drop
14.Note difference between color of an aqueous solution in procedure 2 and that in
alcohol solution.
15.Note other changes
MIDTERM
LESSON 8
CASTING AND MOULAGE
LESSONS CONTENT:

TERMINOLOGIES

1. Accidental characteristic: Also called Randomly acquired characteristic.

2. Adhesive lifter: Any material coated with a tacky substance for the purpose of lifting
footwear or fingerprint impressions.

3. Air bubble: A globule of air trapped within a solid material such as a footwear sole.

4. Aspect ratio: The proportion of the tire's height to its width.

5. Asymmetric tread design: A tire tread pattern where when a tread design is divided
circumferentially, one half of the tread design is not a mirror image of the other half.

6. Bead: A hoop of steel wires that hold the tire on the rim.

7. Bias tire: A tire that has plies which cross over one another at an angle.

8. Bias-belted tire: A bias tire with added reinforced belts that lie beneath the tread.

9. BIO-FOAM: A commercial product comprised of collapsible foam used primarily for

the recording of anatomical impressions of a foot, and sometimes impressions of
footwear soles.

10.Biscuit: Pre-formed or extruded pieces of soling compound that are placed in molds
and pressed into the shape of a footwear sole or heel.

11.Blade: Thin pieces of metal in footwear and tire molds that result in molded sipes.

12.Blocker: An oversized outsole made of one or more components that is later cut to
size.

13.Blunt force pattern injury: An injury to the skin by an object resulting in a pattern that
may replicate the design of an object. (Also known as a contusion.)

14.Brannock Device®: The registered name of a foot-measuring device.

15.CAD/CAM: Computer-Aided Design / Computer-Aided Manufacture.

16.Calendering: A process where raw rubber passes between a series of large steel
calender rollers. The final calendar roller impresses the sole design into the rubber that
is later cut into soles. Calender rollers are also used to help prepare raw rubber for the
production of rubber biscuits for the compression molding process.

17.Carcass: The portion of the tire that includes the liner, plies, belts, and beads which
forms the foundation for the tread and sidewall.

18.Cast: The result of filling a three-dimensional impression with an appropriate

material.

19.CASTING MATERIAL: Dental stone, sulfur, or other suitable materials specifically

used to accurately recover three-dimensional impressions. Some casting materials are
also successful for lifting two-dimensional impressions.

20.Center rib: A rib that runs circumferentially and is evenly centered within the tire
tread design.

21.Chart board: A solid laminated board with a covering of white paper on at least one
side (not foam core board) used to provide a firm and smooth backing when obtaining
known tire impressions.

22.Chemical etching: A process wherein a textured pattern is applied to selective areas

of a mold surface. The mold is later dipped in an acid bath that etches the pattern into
the mold. A chemically etched pattern is unique to a specific mold.

23.Chemiluminescence: Luminescence due to a chemical reaction.

24.CLASS CHARACTERISTIC: A feature that is shared by two or more items of

footwear or tires. The footwear outsole or tire tread design and the physical size
features of a footwear outsole or tire tread are two common manufactured class
characteristics. General wear of the outsole or tire tread is also a class characteristic.
Agreement of class characteristics alone does not provide a basis for identification
however they reduce the possible number of footwear or tires that could have made an
impression.

25.Clicker: A hydraulic machine that forces a steel die through outsole and/or midsole
materials in a cookie-cutter fashion.

26.Coaxial light: Illumination from the precise direction of the imaging lens, either
through the lens or with a beam-splitter in front of the lens.

27.Compression molding: A method for making outsoles where the outsole material is
placed into an open mold, which is then closed and subjected to heat and pressure.
Soles made with this process are referred to as ―pressed soles‖.
28.Consistency: The percentage of water in the water-to-powder ratio of a gypsum
product such as dental stone. In this ratio, the powder will always be 100. For
example, a dental stone having a water-to-powder ratio of 30/100 has a consistency of
30.

29.Cord: Fabrics placed under tension and covered with rubber. Used to form the plies of
the tire.

30.Correspond: A word used to describe agreement of class and randomly acquired

characteristics in the context that reflects the footwear or tire is capable of having
produced a certain feature such as design, general wear, etc.

31.DEGREE OF WEAR: The extent to which a footwear outsole or tire tread has been
eroded. Examples of degree of wear range from a footwear outsole or tire tread that is
in a new and unworn condition to those that have considerable wear. The degree of
wear continues to change as a footwear outsole or tire tread is worn.

32.DENTAL STONE: A gypsum product generally having a pound per square inch (psi)
rating of 8,000 or higher, commonly used to cast footwear and tire impressions.

33.Design: The manufactured pattern of a footwear outsole or tire tread. Design is a class
characteristic.

34.Design/Size relationship: The tendency for a footwear outsole or tire tread design to
have either more design elements, or larger design elements, or both, as the footwear
or tire size increases throughout the size range produced.

35.Die cut: Outsoles or other footwear components produced by forcing a sharpened

steel die through pre-formed outsole material with the assistance of a clicker machine.

36.Difference: A characteristic or feature that is so strong and reliable that it, in itself,
demonstrates that the particular known footwear or tire was not the source of and did
not make the impression. Usually a difference will be a different class characteristic,
such as the specific design or specific physical size of the design. Normal variations in
the impression process, the absence of cuts in a questioned impression that appear on
the footwear or tire, or the normal advancement of wear with time do not necessarily
constitute a comparative difference. (A difference should not be confused with a
Dissimilarity.)

37.Direct attach: A manufacturing process where the upper of the footwear is lowered
onto a sole plate in a mold cavity and the midsole or outsole material is injected
directly onto the upper. This term also applies to open pour polyurethane molding
where the lasted footwear upper is lowered into a mold containing poured
polyurethane and an outsole, directly attaching both to the upper.
38.Directional tread design: A tire tread pattern that is optimized to work best when
rotating in one direction only.

39.DISSIMILARITY: When a characteristic has the appearance of being potentially

different but lacks sufficient detail for confirmation.

40.Distortion: An unclear or inaccurate representation of the footwear or tire in an

impression due to interference in the impression-making process or its subsequent
retrieval.

41.DOT number: Department of Transportation serial number assigned to every tire sold
in the United States which gives information regarding the manufacturer, size, and
date of manufacture of the tire.

42.DRY CASTING: A casting method utilizing the layering of dry dental stone powder
and misted water.

43.Dry origin impressions: Impressions formed under dry conditions such as dry dust
and dry residue impressions.

44.Dual tire assembly: A pair of tires mounted side-by-side on a fixed wheel assembly.

45.Electrical discharge machine (EDM): A machine used to produce molds by

electrically burning away the undesired metal portions.

46.Electrostatic detection apparatus (ESDA) or Electrostatic detection device: An

instrument used primarily to detect indented writing on documents, which can also be
used to detect footwear and tire tread impressions on paper items.

47.Electrostatic dust lifter: An instrument that utilizes an electrostatic charge as a means

of transferring dry origin impressions from a substrate to a film.

48.ELECTROSTATIC LIFTING: The process of using an electrostatic charge to

transfer dry origin impressions from the substrate to a film.

49.Electrostatic lifting device: An instrument that utilizes electrostatic charges as a

means of transferring dry origin impressions from a surface to a film.

50.Element/Design Element: A single component (lug, herringbone, wave, circle, etc.) of

a footwear sole distinguished by its shape that, by itself or with other design elements,
comprises the tread design on that sole. See Tread block.

51.Elimination: See Exclusion.

52.Elimination impressions and/or photographs: Impressions and/or photographs taken
of footwear and tires from known sources (police officers, paramedics, and their
vehicles, etc.) for the purpose of discerning them from the questioned crime scene
impressions.

53.Enhancement: Improving the ability to visualize an impression through physical,

photographic, digital or chemical means or through the use of alternate light sources.

54.Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA): A soling compound often produced in an expanded

form.

55.Examination quality photographs: High quality photographs taken with a scale

specifically for use in the physical comparison of footwear and tire impressions with
known footwear and tires.

56.Exclusion: An opinion by an examiner that the particular known footwear or tire was
not the source of, and did not make, the impression. This is the highest degree of non-
association expressed in footwear and tire impression examinations.

57.Exemplar: See Test impression.

58.Feathering: See Schallamach pattern.

59.Fixative: Substance that stabilizes blood prior to enhancement. Also refers to any
product that will stabilize the substrate prior to casting.

60.Flash: Small amounts of rubber and footwear soling compounds that have seeped
between mold components during the footwear and tire molding process.

61.FLUORESCENCE: Luminescence that is caused by the absorption of radiation at one

wavelength followed by nearly immediate re-radiation usually at a different
wavelength and that ceases almost at once when the incident radiation stops.

62.Footwear: Any apparel worn on the foot, such as shoes, boots, sandals, etc.

63.Forensic light source: A filtered light source that may be fixed or tunable to a variety
of spectral ranges.

64.Foxing/Foxing strip: A strip of rubber wrapped around the lower part of some
footwear to cover the gap or seam between the upper and the outsole.

65.FULL CIRCUMFERENCE TIRE IMPRESSION: An impression of a tire that

represents a full rotation of that tire under load and thus represents its entire tread
surface.
66.Full impression: An impression that represents all, or nearly all, of the heel to toe
portions of the outsole or the full width and circumference of the tire.

67.Gelatin lifter: Gelatin applied to a pliable backing that can be used to lift impressions.

68.General sole design: A very general category of footwear sole patterns, i.e.
herringbone pattern, lugged sole pattern, wave pattern, plain soles, etc.

69.General wear: The condition (degree and position of wear) of the overall footwear
outsole or tire tread, ranging from new to extremely worn, related to its degree of use.
General wear is a class characteristic that may be used to include or exclude footwear
or tires.

70.Grooves: The space or channels that separate the tread ribs and elements.
Circumferential grooves run around the circumference of the tire. Transverse or lateral
grooves, also known as slots, run across the tire tread design.

71.Holes: The result of erosion of a footwear outsole or tire tread that is so extreme that
it results in removal of the outer layers of sole or tread materials, often resulting in
irregular edges. These irregular edges are randomly acquired characteristics. Random
holes due to punctures are also randomly acquired characteristics.

72.Identicator®: An inkless method of recording footwear impressions on white

chemically treated paper.

73.Identification: An opinion by an examiner that the particular known footwear or tire

was the source of, and made, the impression. This is the highest degree of association
expressed in footwear and tire impression examinations.

74.Identifying characteristics: See Randomly acquired characteristics.

75.Impression: The product of direct physical contact of an item, such as a footwear or

tire, resulting in the transfer and retention of characteristics of that item.

76.Individual characteristics: See Randomly acquired characteristics.

77.Injection molding: A manufacturing method where the sole and/or midsole is made
by forcing material into a closed mold. Outsoles can be molded individually as unit
soles or directly onto the footwear upper as direct attach soles.

78.Improper photographic technique: When one or more essential procedures is/are not
followed resulting in a limited ability to conduct an accurate examination. Some
examples are: out of focus images, improper scale position, lack of a scale, and
improper lighting.
79.Improper position of scale: Photographs taken of impressions where the scale is not
on the same plane as the bottom of the impression or is not parallel to the camera
back, film plane, and/or the digital sensor.

80.Insole: A cushioned liner that occupies the inner surface of an item of footwear where
the foot rests and is placed there for comfort or protection. The insole may or may not
be removable.

81.Insufficient detail: Features which fall short of allowing the confirmation of certain
class or randomly acquired characteristics.

82.Known impression: See Test impression.

83.Known footwear or tire: An item of footwear or tire that is compared to a questioned

footwear or tire impression.

84.Label (manufacturer's sizing label): A label placed on the tongue or other inside
surface of the footwear that contains information including but not limited to the
manufacturer's name, shoe size, country of manufacturer, style number, dating
information, barcodes, etc.

85.Lack of scale: When photographs do not contain a ruler or other acceptable linear
scale, essential for enlarging a photograph to its natural size.

86.Latent impression: An impression not readily visible to the naked eye.

87.Last: A form made of wood, metal, or synthetic material that approximates the size
and shape of a foot. The upper of the footwear is stretched over the last and held in a
specific shape and size throughout the manufacturing process. The size on the
manufacturer's label is directly related to the size of the last.

88.Liner: A thin layer of butyl rubber compound that holds the air inside the tire.

89.Logo: A name, design, or pattern that is the trademark of the manufacturer that may
appear on the footwear or on the outsole.

90.Low profile: A term describing a tire that has a low aspect ratio, thus a short sidewall.

91.Manufacturing defect: Unintended damage, defects or flaws in the footwear outsole

or tire tread that occurs during manufacturing, which depending on their cause, could
result in class or randomly acquired characteristics.

92.Manufacturing variable: Variations that occur during the manufacturing process that
do not appear on all of the footwear/tires but may appear on more than one. Examples
would be the precise positioning of foxing strips, the precise cutting of die cut or
 Wellman cut soles, the positioning of stitching that is added to the bottom of some
soles, or a bent sipe blade in a tire mold, etc.

93.Mikrosil™: Silicone casting material used to lift footwear and fingerprint impressions
that have been treated with fingerprint powder.

94.Midsole: A component positioned between the upper and the outsole on some
footwear to provide cushioning and support.

95.Mold: A metal cavity containing a footwear sole or tire tread design used to produce
footwear or tires.

96.Mold characteristic: Those design and size features of a particular mold.

97.Mold cure: Term used by tire manufacturers to describe the vulcanization of a tire in
the molding process.

98.Mold parting line: The dividing line between two halves of a shell mold, or between
the segments of a segmented mold.

99.Natural crepe rubber: A crude form of coagulated natural rubber having a crinkled or
knobby texture.

100. Natural rubber: A natural product derived from latex tapped from rubber trees.

101. Negative impression: An impression that has resulted from the removal of a
substance from a substrate by a footwear outsole or tire tread.

102. Negative control: Confirmation of no color change in the absence of blood.

103. Noise treatment: The mixed arrangement of tread block sizes used by the tire
industry to reduce noise generated by tires.

104. Notches: Small void areas that extend off of grooves or slots of a tire design but
don't fully cross the rib or tread block.

105. Oblique angle: Angle between 0 and 90 degrees.

106. Oblique lighting: Illumination from a light source that is at a low angle of
incidence, or even parallel, to the surface of the item. (Also known as side lighting.)

107. Offset: The distance from the wheel's centerline to the wheel's mounting surface.
Offset is measured as positive or negative.
108. Open pour molding: A method of making outsoles utilizing polyurethane (PU).
The mold is filled by pouring the PU into the mold cavity and then closing the mold.
Single unit soles are made by pouring the PU into the mold and allowing the sole to
harden. Direct attached soles can be made utilizing this process. See Direct attach.

109. Outsole/sole: The bottom portion of the footwear that comes into contact with the
ground.

110. Outsole/sole design: A term used to describe a specific pattern or arrangement of

design elements on an outsole typically associated with a manufacturer and having a
name and/or style number. (Also referred to as tread design.)

111. Partial or fragmented impression: An impression that does not represent the entire
footwear outsole or tire tread.

112. Patent impression: An impression visible to the naked eye.

113. Pattern: See Design.

114. Photo log: A written record of photographs taken at the crime scene.

115. Physical size: The dimensions, shapes, spacing and relative positions of the
footwear outsole design components and tire tread blocks (not the same as the
manufacturer's footwear or tire size). Physical size is a class characteristic.

116. Pitch length: Circumferential length allotted for a tire tread block.

117. Pitch sequence: The arrangement of tire tread blocks of varied pitch lengths to
reduce tire noise.

118. Ply: Rubber-coated parallel cord fabric placed over the liner forming the tire
carcass.

119. Pneumatic tire: A tire filled with air under pressure.

120. Polarized lighting: Illumination consisting of light rays with a single propagation
direction and a single vibration direction. Polarized light is produced by the use of a
polarizing filter.

121. Polyurethane (PU): A polyester or polyether-based polymer used in both the

outsoles and midsoles of footwear.

122. Polyvinylsiloxane: Dental casting material formulated to render fine detail.

123. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC): A thermoplastic polymer used in footwear outsoles.

124. Position and orientation of wear: The location and direction of an area of erosion
on a footwear outsole or tire tread. Examples of location of wear include wear along
the medial edge of the footwear outsole and wear along the outer edge of a tire tread.
The position and orientation of wear can change as a footwear outsole or tire tread is
worn.

125. Positive impression: See Transfer impression.

126. Positive control: Confirmation of a color change in the presence of blood.

127. Pressed sole: A sole made in the compression mold.

128. Printer's ink: A highly toned oil-based black ink. Printer's inks that set up in two to
four hours are often used in the production of full circumference known tire
impressions.

129. Questioned impression: An impression of an unknown footwear or tire located and

recovered from a crime scene.

130. Radial ply tire: A tire whose plies run from bead to bead at right angles to the
centerline of the tread.

131. Randomly acquired characteristic: A feature on a footwear outsole or tire tread

resulting from random events including, but not limited to: cuts, scratches, tears,
holes, stone holds, abrasions and the acquisition of debris. The position, orientation,
size and shape of these characteristics contribute to the uniqueness of a footwear
outsole or tire tread. Randomly acquired characteristics are essential for an
identification of a particular item of footwear or tire as the source of an impression.

132. Release agent: Any product that prevents soil from adhering to the cast.

133. Residue impression: Formed by the deposition of a substance from the footwear or
tire onto another surface.

134. Retreaded tire: A used tire to which a new tread has been added.

135. Release agent: Any product that prevents soil from adhering to a cast.

136. Rib: Row of continuous rubber or disconnected tire tread blocks that run
circumferentially around a tire to form the tread pattern, further distinguished as
center, intermediate, or shoulder ribs.

137. Rim diameter: The diameter of the rim that supports the tire bead and is expressed
in inches, such as 13‖, 16‖, 16.5‖ etc.
138. Ritz Stick®: Device for measuring foot length and width.

139. Roller transport film: A seven-mil Estar film base material designed to wet rollers
and pick up loose particles on all types of roller transport photo-processing machines
used along with fingerprint powder to produce known impressions of footwear and
tires.

140. Rolling circumference: The linear distance traveled by a tire in one revolution
under load.

141. Schallamach pattern / Feathering: Microscopic patterns that develop as ridges on

rubber material as a result of repeated abrasive forces. These patterns are very similar
in their size and appearance to skin friction ridges and are highly individual. They
continue to change rapidly as affected by continued abrasion. Schallamach patterns
are randomly acquired characteristics. The term gets its name from a researcher of the
same name.

142. Section height: The distance from the rim to the tread surface of an unloaded tire.

143. Section width: The distance between the sidewalls of an inflated tire, exclusive of
any lettering or designs.

144. Segmented tire mold: A mold consisting of several segments that open and close
around the tire. The sidewall plates are mounted separately.

145. Shell tire mold: Also known as a two-piece mold, it consists of a top and bottom,
each containing a sidewall ring and half of the full-circle tread design.

146. Shoe perimeter: The outer border or edge of the footwear sole that defines its
overall physical size and shape. Some perimeters may be comprised of a border such
as a molded border or a foxing strip.

147. Shoe size: The size a manufacturer designates for an item of footwear and places
on a label in the footwear and/or footwear sole, and shoe box. There is not a strict
dimensional relationship between a manufacturers shoe size and the length and width
of the outsole.

148. Shoe size grading: The gradual increase or decrease in physical size and content
that a manufacturer uses for each half size. In general, each half size will result in an
approximate measurement change of 4.2 mm in length of the outsole.

149. Shoulder: The portion of the tire where the sidewall and tread meet.
150. Side-by-side: A comparison method performed by placing two or more objects
adjacent to one another.

151. Sidewall: The portion of the tire between the shoulder and the bead that contains
the tire information.

152. Similar: An observation that an impression shares a general likeness with a known
footwear or tire. (Similar should not be confused with correspond.)

153. Sipes: Thin slits in a footwear outsole or tire tread to create better traction. True
sipes are those that are cut into a footwear outsole during manufacture. True sipes are
cut in a tire tread only after market. True sipes must be flexed to open. Imitation sipes
are molded and remain open.

154. Slot: A lateral groove on a tire tread separating tread blocks.

155. Snow Print Wax™ or Snow impression wax: Aerosol waxes used to coat the
surface of snow impressions prior to casting.

156. Specific location of wear: A defined area of erosion on a footwear outsole or tire
tread. Examples of a specific location of wear are a worn tire sipe or a small area of
worn stippling on a footwear outsole. Specific locations of wear may allow for a
greater level of discrimination or association between questioned impressions and
known footwear or tires.

157. Specific sole design: The precise arrangement of design elements of part or all of a
footwear outsole. The precise size/shape and arrangement of design elements in an
outsole of one style and manufacturer's size are normally distinguishable from other
sizes of the same manufacturer's style. See Design/Size relationship.

158. Sprue: The piece of material that represents the passageway where the molding
material was injected into the mold to form a sole and remains attached to the outsole
at that point. The sprue is removed before sale.

159. Sprue mark: A small circular mark left on the surface of the back of the heel of the
outsole after the sprue has been removed.

160. Standard: See Test impression.

161. Stippling: A pattern hand struck onto the surface of a mold using a steel die
containing a selected design. The tip of the die is small and requires numerous, often
overlapping, strikes. These multiple strikes result in a fine pattern on the surface of the
mold, and subsequent outsoles that come from that mold. Because of the random
manner in which hand stippling is applied, it is unique to that specific mold.
162. Stone hold: A stone held in a recessed area of a footwear or tire that may or may
not be replicated in an impression.

163. Sulfur: A substance used for casting snow impressions.

164. Sulfur cement: A reinforced modified sulfur material, available in flake form that
is a safer, stronger alternative to using pure sulfur in casting snow impressions.

165. Superimposition: A comparison method performed by placing one object over the
other.

166. Synthetic rubber: Any artificial elastomer that simulates the qualities of natural
rubber.

167. Tandem: Tires set immediately one behind the other.

168. Tears: Fractures that have occurred in footwear outsoles or tire treads that reflect
irregular edges. Tears are randomly acquired characteristics.

169. TEST IMPRESSION: An impression made from a footwear or tire used as an aid
for comparison purposes.

170. Texture: A rough surface or shallow design added to surfaces of a mold through
the process of chemical etching or stippling that is transferred to the footwear during
the molding process. Texture is unique to specific molds.

171. Three-dimensional impression: An impression made on surfaces such as soil,

sand, snow or mud with dimensions of length, width, and depth.

172. Tire footprint: The contact area of a tire tread against a flat surface when under
load, also known as a contact patch.

173. Tire profile: See Aspect ratio.

174. Toe bumper guard: A thick strip of rubber that, in some footwear designs, is
placed around the front perimeter of the footwear surrounding the toe area.

175. TRACK WIDTH: The distance between the center points of the tires from one
side of the vehicle to the other (i.e., from the center point of the right front tire to the
center point of the left front tire). On a dual axle vehicle, this is the distance from the
center points between the dual tires from one side of the vehicle to the other.

176. Transfer impression: An impression made on a two dimensional surface by a

footwear or tire as a result of coming in contact with and acquiring dust, residue,
 blood, mud, or other materials that the footwear or tire subsequently deposits or
transfers to a substrate in the form of an impression.

177. Tread: The designed part of the tire that comes into contact with the road.

178. Tread block: A shape arranged circumferentially around a tire tread that together
form the tread design. See Element/Design Element.

179. Tread depth: A vertical measurement between the top of the tread to the bottom of
the tire's deepest groove, measured in 32nds of an inch.

180. Tread depth gauge: A device used to measure the depth of the tire tread.

181. Tread design: A term used to describe a specific pattern or arrangement of design
elements on a tire tread typically associated with a manufacturer and having a name
and/or style number. (Also used to describe footwear outsoles.)

182. TreadPrint™: An inkless method for making tire test impressions. Tread wear
indicator: Bands of raised rubber, sometimes called "wear bars", that are 2/32 of an
inch above the bottom of the main grooves of a tire.

183. Tread width: The width of the tire tread from one edge to the other in an
impression. Not to be confused with section width.

184. Turning diameter: The diameter of the smallest circle that is measured from the
outer edge of the outermost front tire in a turn.

185. Two-dimensional impression: An impression with dimensions of length and

width.

186. Unit sole: An individual heel or sole that must be glued and/or stitched to the
upper.

187. Upper: The top portion of the footwear excluding the outsole or midsole.

188. Variations: Minor variables that normally exist between repetitive impressions of
the same footwear or tire.

189. Vent: Drilled hole or gap between tire mold components allowing for the release
of air during mold cure.

190. Vulcanization: A process in which a rubber compound is heated under pressure

causing a chemical change which transforms the rubber from a soft, tacky substance to
tough, hard rubber.
191. Wear: Erosion of the surfaces of a footwear outsole or tire tread during use.

192. Wellman outsole cutting machine: A machine used to cut outsoles from
unvulcanized calendered outsole material.

193. Wet media film: A clear drafting film, preferably with a minimum thickness of 4
mil, capable of accepting ink, which is used to obtain inked impressions of tires.

194. Wet origin impression: An impression formed under wet conditions including
impressions consisting of residues of blood, grease, mud and other wet substances.

195. Wheel base: The distance between the front and rear axles of a vehicle. An
approximation of this dimension can be obtained by measuring the distance from the
leading edge of the rear tire track to the leading edge of the front tire track on the same
side of the vehicle.

WHAT IS A CASTING MATERIAL?

It is any material which can be changed from plastic or liquid state to the solid condition
is capable of use as casting material.

THE FOLLOWING ARE THE CRITERIA ON WHICH THE VALUE OF CASTING

MATERIAL IS ASSESSED.

1. Must be readily fluid or plastic when applied.

2. Must harder rapidly to a rigid mass
3. must not be deformable nor shrink
4. must be easy to apply
5. must have no tendency to adhere to the impression
6. should have of fine composition and surface
7. should not inquire the impression
8. should be easily obtainable
9. should be cheap.

THE FOLLOWING ARE RECOMMENDED FORMULAS

1. Hastening – add one half teaspoonful of the table salt to the plaster.
2. Retarding – add one part of a saturated solution of borax to ten part water to be
used in making the plaster.
3. Hardening – to give a cast a greater durability it can be place on a saturated
solution of sodium carbonate, and allowed to remain in the solution for sometime.
It is then removed and dried.
SIGNIFICANCE AND USE

1. The procedures outlined here are grounded in the generally accepted body of
knowledge and experience in the casting of footwear and tire impression evidence. By
following these procedures, impressions can be properly cast.

2. Footwear and tire impressions are cast for the purpose of collecting impression
evidence for subsequent examination in the laboratory.

INTERFERENCES

1. Footwear and tire impression evidence may have inherent limitations that can interfere
with the procedures in this Guide. Limitations, when known, should be noted and
recorded.

2. Limitations can be due to substrate features, environmental conditions, quality and

quantity of original impressions, casting techniques and casting materials.

EQUIPMENT AND REQUIREMENTS

Casting materials (i.e., dental stone and sulfur)

Zip-lock bags and mixing containers

Water
Measuring cups
Sufficient time to complete all applicable procedures
Stirring spoon or stick
Stove or hot plate for melting sulfur
Potassium Sulfate
Snow Print Wax
Grey primer or aerosol paint
Release agents and fixatives (i.e., hairspray or similar sprays)
Scale for weighing casting materials

PROCEDURES

The following procedures may be used as appropriate depending on the composition of

the impression evidence and the substrate material. The order of the following collection
methods may vary from scene to scene.
Document and/or photograph (as set forth in the Guide for the Forensic Documentation
and Photography of Footwear and Tire impressions at the Crime Scene) impressions prior
to any procedure.

Casting impressions with dental stone in soil and sand

1. If necessary, prepare impressions for casting.
2. When casting a fragile impression, it may be necessary to apply a fixative.
Care should be exercised when applying fixatives to minimize any
possibility of damage to the impression.
3. When casting in dense soils, it may be necessary to apply a release agent.
Care should be exercised when applying release agents to minimize any
possibility of damage to the impression.
4. Add appropriate amount of water to a pre-measured amount of dental stone.
The average footwear impression requires approximately two (2) pounds of
dental stone and approximately ten (10) ounces of water. The amount of
water required may vary depending on the casting product. The resulting
mixture should have the viscosity of heavy cream. The viscosity of the
mixture may need to be adjusted based upon the nature of the impression.
5. Mix continuously for a minimum of 3-5 minutes so that the powder can
thoroughly absorb the water.
6. Pour casting material carefully outside the perimeter of the impression and
direct the flow into the impression. Ensure the impression is completely
filled and/or covered evenly. In the event that the casting material does not
flow completely into the impression, the top surface of the casting material
can be agitated to help it flow. Casts should be of sufficient thickness to
avoid breakage. If necessary, additional casting material may be poured over
the top of the original cast to complete the cast and/or add thickness.
6.1For fragile and shallow impressions, pour casting material from
outside the perimeter so that it rapidly flows over the impression.
A thinner mixture of casting material is necessary for this
technique. Avoid pouring directly onto the uncovered impression.
6.2Larger quantities of dental stone can be mixed in a bucket to cast
large segments of tire impressions. 36 segments are optimal for
examination. Shorter segments may also be of value.
6.3Impressions underwater may be cast using dental stone and
specialized techniques.

Casting impressions with dental stone and sulfur in snow

1. If necessary prepare impressions for casting. It is noted that snow varies

considerably in texture and type. Application of highlighting materials (such
as Snow Print Wax or aerosol paints) may be advantageous during
photography. These materials may or may not be necessary for the casting
process.
 2. A thin application of highlighting spray may be directed at the impression
from an oblique angle to increase the contrast of the detail. The application
of highlighting sprays to the snow impression may increase melting,
therefore the impression may need to be shielded from the sun until it can be
photographed and cast.

3. A thick application of Snow Print Wax may then be applied to create a shell
for the dental stone casting material.

Casting with dental stone

1. Add a heaping tablespoon of Potassium Sulfate to the pre-weighed bag of

dental stone.

2. Add snow to the water source and place the bags of dental stone in the snow
to pre-cool the ingredients.

3. Add the appropriate amount of water to the pre- measured dental stone. A
thicker mixture should be used for snow.

4. Pour the casting material from outside the perimeter and direct the flow into
the impression. The surface of the casting material can be agitated to help it
flow.

Casting with sulfur

Caution: This technique requires that the user be familiar with safety issues regarding the
use of sulfur. Manufacturer's safety information and warnings should be consulted before
using this material.

1. Melt the sulfur and cool to an opaque, partially crystallized state before
pouring into the impression.

2. Pour from the perimeter, allowing the melted sulfur to flow into the
impression.

3. Due to the extremely brittle nature of sulfur casts, dental stone may be
poured over the back of the cooled sulfur cast to reinforce it prior to lifting.

Marking and handling the cast impressions:

1. Casts should be marked prior to removal. Markings should include identifier
numbers which link the casts to diagrams and/or photographs; date and
initials; and any other pertinent information such as case number.
2. Allow casting material to thoroughly harden prior to removal.
 3. Carefully remove cast impression from substrate. It may be necessary to
excavate the cast to avoid breakage.
4. Allow dental stone casts to thoroughly dry for 48 hours prior to any attempts
to clean the cast.
5. Casts must be thoroughly dry before storage or packaging.
6. Casts should be adequately packaged to avoid breakage during storage or
shipping.

LESSON 9
GLASS FRACTURE ANALYSIS, FRAGMENTS

LESSON CONTENT:

Definition of terms

1. CONCENTRIC CRACKS- are fractures forming in an approximately circular

pattern around the point of impact. They are usually in straight segments that
terminate in an existing radial crack.
2. CONE OR CRATER (HERTZIAN CONE)- is a funnel-shaped area of damage
caused by a high-velocity impact.
3. HACKLE- is a line on the crack surface running parallel to the local direction of
crack spreading.
4. RADIAL CRACKS- are fractures extending outward from the point of impact.
5. REAM- is an imperfection; nonhomogeneous layers of flat glass.
6. WALLNER LINES (RIDGES)- are rib-shaped marks with a wave-like pattern.
Wallner lines are called rib marks or ridges to describe their shape and are almost
always concave in the direction from which the crack was propagating.
7. ANNEALING HEAT- treatment that produces tempered glass.
8. COMPRESSIVE FORCE- Force that squeezes glass. Concentric cracks Cracks
that appear as an imperfect circle around the point of fracture.
9. CRYSTALLINE SOLID- A solid in which the atoms are arranged in a regular
order.
10.DENSITY GRADIENT TUBE- A tube filled with liquids with successively higher
density.
11.ENTRANCE SIDE- The load side of a projectile.
12.EXIT SIDE- The unloaded side of a projectile.
13.FRACTURE MATCH- The alignment of the edges of two or more pieces of glass,
indicating that, at one time, the pieces were part of one sheet of glass.
14.LAMINATED GLASS- Two sheets of glass bonded together with a plastic sheet
between them. Mohs scale A scale that measures the hardness of minerals and
other solids.
 15.PROJECTILE- The load of a bullet shot at a pane of glass. Radial cracks Cracks
that radiate in many directions away from the point of fracture.
16.RIB MARKS- The set of curved lines that are visible on the edges of broken glass.
17.SHEAR FORCE- Force that moves one part of the material in one direction while
another part is moving in a different direction.
18.STRIATIONS- Fine scratches left on bullets, formed from contact of the bullet
with imperfections inside the gun barrel.
19.TANGENTIAL CRACKS- Cracks that appear as an imperfect circle around the
point of fracture.
20.TEMPERED GLASS- Glass that has been heat treated to give it strength.
21.TENSILE FORCE- Force that expands the material.

Significance and Use of GLASS FRACTURE ANALYSIS

Fracture patterns are unique. Fracture features in a piece of glass reflect the nature of the
glass
and the direction of travel and velocity of the breaking object. Glass fracture
examinations can
provide information as to the direction of the breaking force and the sequence of multiple
impacts.
A physical match of two pieces of glass establishes that they came from the same source
to the
exclusion of all other sources.

What is GLASS?

Glass is a super cooled liquid that possess high viscosity and rigidity. It is a non-
crystalline inorganic substance.

Composition of Glass

Glass is usually composed of oxides like SiO2 (silica), B2O3 (boric oxide), phosphorus
pentoxide (P2O5). For commercial use silica is the most important oxide. It is the base
of commercial glasses. It is made of silica sand and other metallic oxides. Oxide is for
fluxing, durability and reduction of viscosity. Glass like window and plate that are made
in mass production is fairly uniform in composition. These may contain incidental
impurities and the presence of these substances in invaluable for the identification and
comparison of glass by spectrographic analysis. Glass has also presence of trace
elements which maybe sufficient to establish or negate the fact of a common source of
two samples of glass.

PROPERTIES OF GLASS
Different types of glass possess different qualities depending upon their chemical makeup
and how they have been produced. There are 5 main properties of glass to be considered:

1. Thermal Properties
2. Optical Properties
3. Chemical Properties
4. Electrical Properties
5. Mechanical Properties

Thermal Properties:
Glass is measured in a variety of factors which greatly affect your choice of glass. The
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (CTE) is the expansion measurement of glass as
temperature is raised. This is an important factor to consider when placing glass in a
frame since glass expands much less than most metals and plastics, and may cause
breakage upon cooling. The THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY is the ability to conduct heat
through the glass or away from the heat/light source. This is important when considering
glass as a view port exposed to high temperatures or for high infrared applications. Each
type of glass has a maximum operating temperature and thermal shock rating. These will
guide the choice of glass depending on the amount of heat the glass will withstand, and
how it cools after the glass is subjected to a rapid change in temperature. Glass may be
strengthened to change these thermal properties by heat strengthening, heat tempering, or
chemically strengthening. Click here to learn more about glass strengthening.

Optical Properties:
There are several important measurements when determining the amount of light passing
through glass. The REFRACTIVE INDEX determines how much a light wave is ―bent‖
when entering or leaving the surface of the glass. This is important in producing certain
optical devices or effects, such as lenses. The dispersion measures the separation of light
into its component colors, such as a prism dispersing white light into a color band or a
rainbow effect. The transmission measures the amount of light passing through the glass
material, and its opposite, reflectivity which measures the return of light from the surface.
The absorption property is the amount of light energy converted to heat within the glass
that is not transmitted nor reflected. Tinted materials will absorb more light than clear
materials.

Chemical Properties:
All soda lime type glasses and some borosilicate glasses contain sodium or alkali metal
ions. Prolonged exposure to liquids or vapor, such as water, will cause the sodium/alkali
ions to migrate to the surface of the glass called sodium or alkali LEACHING. This can
cause cloudiness or haze on the surface of the glass. Porous coatings may also incur this
phenomenon, causing a disruption of the bond between the coating and the glass surface.
In high humidity or critical surface applications, this must be considered when specifying
the material. Placing a ―barrier‖ coating, such as silicon dioxide, on the glass will limit
the amount of reaction. The acid resistance and alkali resistance measure the time it takes
to remove a layer of specified thickness for each test.
Electrical Properties:
When choosing a glass for electrical or electronic applications, there are several
characteristics to consider. The VOLUME RESISTIVITY is the resistance in ohms
between opposite faces of a centimeter cube of the glass tested. This is important when
glass is used as an electrical insulator. The dielectric constant of a glass is the ratio of
energy stored in a condenser with the glass as the dielectric, compared with the energy
stored in the same condenser with air as the dielectric. This measures the ability of a glass
to store electrical energy, and varies with the frequency of the voltage applied to the
condenser. This is important when the glass is used as a substrate for electrical or
electronic devices. Surface resistivity is the ratio of the potential gradient parallel to the
current along its surface, to the current per unit width of the surface. This method is used
to measure the conductivity of coated glass.

Mechanical Properties:
The mechanical properties of glass determine the amount of stress a glass can withstand.
Stress is defined as the perpendicular force per unit area applied to an object, in a way
that compresses (compressive stress) or stretches (tensile stress) the object. Strength of
the ability of glass to withstand these stresses. Non-strengthened glass materials have
relatively low tensile strength yet high compressive strength. Therefore, most glass
breakage is due to tensile stress failure. Mechanical properties are measured in a variety
of ways: Modulus of Rupture (MOR) test measures the bending or flexural strength;
shear modulus measures the amount of shearing or twisting forces a glass can withstand;
Knoop Hardness Number (KHN) measures the hardness of glass; density is the mass
value per unit of volume specific gravity is the ratio of the density of the glass to the
density of water.

TYPES OF GLASS
1. CONSTRUCTION GLASS
2. ARCHITECTURAL GLASS

CONSTRUCTION GLASS
1. SODA LIME GLASS: Soda Lime Glass or Float Glass is a mixture of sodium silicate
and calcium silicate. It is smooth at low temperature and it can be blown or welded easily
when infusion condition. It is colorless and it is mainly used for window panes and for
the laboratory tubes and other apparatus.

2. POTASH LEAD GLASS: A type of glass with a mixture of potassium silicate and lead
silicate. Its properties possess bright luster and great refractive power. It is mostly used in
the manufacturing of artificial gems, electric bulbs, and lenses.

3. COMMON GLASS: A mixture of sodium, calcium, and iron silicate. It is brown,

green, and yellow in color and mainly used for in manufacturing medicine bottles.
4. SHATTERPROOF GLASS: It is used for windows, skylights, floors etc. Some type of
plastic polyvinyl butyral is added in the making process so it cannot form sharp-edged
pieces when it breaks.

5. DOUBLE GLAZED UNITS: This type of glass is made by providing an air gap
between two glass panes in order to reduce heat loss and gain. Normal glass can cause an
immense amount of heat gain and 30% of the loss of heat or air conditioning energy.
Green, energy efficient glass can reduce this impact.

6. SPECIAL GLASSES: Some properties of glasses can be suitably altered by changing

basic ingredients and adding a few more ingredients. It is now emerged as a versatile
material to meet any special requirement in engineering.

ARCHITECTURAL GLASS
1. Annealed glass
2. Heat-strengthened glass
3. Fully-tempered glass
4. Specialized glass

1. ANNEALED GLASS is the most commonly used architectural glass. It has good
surface flatness because it is not heat-treated and therefore not subject to distortion
typically produced during glass tempering. On the downside, annealed glass breaks into
sharp, dangerous shards. Heat-strengthened and fully-tempered glass are heat-treated
glass products, heated and quenched in such a way to create residual surface compression
in the glass. The surface compression gives the glass generally higher resistance to
breakage than annealed glass.

2. HEAT-STRENGTHENED GLASS has at least twice the strength and resistance to

breakage from wind loads or thermal stresses comparing to annealed glass. The necessary
heat treatment generally results in some distortion compared to annealed glass. Like
annealed glass, heat-strengthened glass can break into large shards.

3. FULLY-TEMPERED GLASS (toughened glass) provides at least four times the

strength of annealed glass, which gives it superior resistance to glass breakage. It is float
or plate glass that has been heated and rapidly cooled, increasing its inherent strength and
ductility. Similar to heat-strengthened glass, the heat-treatment generally results in some
distortion. If it breaks, fully-tempered glass breaks into many small fragments, which
makes it suitable as safety glazing under certain conditions. It is used forwindows that are
exposed to high wind pressure or extreme heat or cold.
4. SPECIALIZED GLASS glass types that are made with different qualities to
enhance their performance.

4.1. LAMINATED GLASS involves sandwiching a transparent sheet of polymer, such

as polyvinyl butryal, between two or more layers of flat glass using an adhesive. Because
it can prevent the fall-out of dangerous glass shards following fracture, it is often used as
safety glazing and as overhead glazing in skylights. It is a durable and versatile glass with
plastic interlayer which provides protection from ultraviolet rays and attenuates vibration,
and gives laminated glass good acoustical characteristics. Can be used in a variety of
environments.

4.2. INSULATING GLASS consists of two or more lites of glass separated by a

hermetically sealed space for thermal insulation and condensation control. The airspace
between the glass lites can be filled during the manufacturing process with either dry air
or a low-conductivity gas, such as sulfur hexafluoride or argon. The thermal performance
of double-glazed or triple-glazed windows can be further improved by the addition of a
low-emissivity coating on one or all of the layers of glass. The air space also reduces heat
gain and loss, as well as sound transmission, which gives the insulating glass superior
thermal performance and acoustical characteristics compared to single glazing. Most
commercial windows, curtain walls, and skylights contain insulating glass.

4.3. COATED GLASS is covered with reflective or low-emissivity (low-E) coatings. In

addition to providing aesthetic appeal, the coatings improve the thermal performance of
the glass by reflecting visible light and infrared radiation.

4.3.1. Soft Coat

• LOW-E SOLAR CONTROL GLASS This is a high-performance glass with a low-
E (low emissivity) coating which allows the glass to be energy efficient by cutting down
on heat transmission.

• HEAT REFLECTIVE GLASS Heat reflective glass is another high-performance

product which has advanced solar control technology to reduce heat and glare from
entering the building.

4.3.2. Hard Coat

• EXTERIOR SOLAR CONTROL GLASS This type of hard coated glass, is used in
the exterior of buildings for providing optimum solar control.

• MIRROR PLANE MIRRORS, as we all know, are used to reflect back the image
of the object placed in front of the mirror. It is distortion-free and an environment
friendly product that does not use copper and lead in its glass manufacturing process.
• LACQUERED GLASS Lacquered glass is a type of decorative glass which has a
colour coating on one of its surfaces. It has a coloured opaque appearance achieved with
oven-cured high-quality paint.

4.4. TINTED GLASS contains minerals that color the glass uniformly through its
thickness and promote absorption of visible light and infrared radiation.

4.5. WIRE GLASS involves steel wires rolled into sheets of glass. A wire mesh is
inserted during the manufacturing of plate glass, allowing the glass to adhere together
when cracked. It can qualify as safety glass for some applications.

Analysis/Test for Glass

1. SPECTROGRAPHIC TEST – an instrumental method of analysis that determines

the presence of trace element. Shows the constituent elements of a glass. It will
not give sufficient information to establish the origin of the samples examined. A
rapid examination and an adequate method for glass analysis since it requires only
a small amount of sample.

2. X-RAY DIFFRACTION ANALYSIS – not as effective as the spectrographic

analysis. Determines the type of pattern of glass. The type of pattern depends
upon the composition of glass.

3. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES EXAMINATION – the most sensitive method of

determining differences of composition in glass samples and it depends upon the
study of the physical properties of glass. Properties like specific gravity or density,
refractive index.

4. ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT EXAMINATION – determines the differences in the

appearance of their fluorescence thus indication of physical and chemical
differences.

5. POLISH MARKS – optical glass and other fine glassware are usually polished. In
the polishing of glass fine marks are often left on the surface that can sometimes
serve as a basis of comparison.

Glass as Evidence of Crime

In the field of Forensic Chemistry, emphasis is placed on:

1. Automobile glass in case of hit and run.

2. Broken windows caused by pressure, blow or bullet in case of robbery.
 3. Broken bottles, drinking glass or spectacles found at the scene of assault or other
crimes of violence.

Analysis of Glass from Vehicle

Hit and run accidents represent a good percentage of crimes. If an automobile or any
vehicle for that matter is discovered in which fragments of the lens can be found, a
comparison maybe made with the fragments found at the scene of accident employing the
methods of analysis for glass.

How Glass Breaks?

When the blow strikes the glass on one of its surface, the front for example. The glass
first bends a little owing to its elasticity. When the limit of elasticity if reached the glass
breaks along radial lines starting from the point where the destroying force is applied
originating form the opposite surface of the glass, because this is the portion or surface
which is more subjected to stretching by bending. The front surface is only pushed.
While the radial fractures are taking place the newly created glass triangle between the
radial rays also bend away from the direction of the destroying force. By this bending the
glass is stretched along the front surface and when the limit of elasticity is reached the
glass breaks in concentric cracks. These originate on the front of the glass because of
stretching.

Glass Fracture Analysis

Physical Reconstruction
Ensure that all pieces of glass could have originated from the same object. Coatings, the
float surface, and other features may be used to aid in the orientation of glass pieces prior
to reconstruction. Align the edges of two pieces of glass that appear to match physically.
Two pieces of glass will not slip past one another with gentle pressure when there is a
physical match. Examine the broken edges using low-power light microscopy to observe
corresponding Wallner lines (ridges) and/or hackle marks on the matching pieces of
glass. Features, such as surface scratches or ream, may also match across a fracture.

Types of Fractures
Low-velocity impact, high-velocity impact, and thermal fractures may be observed in
glass and can be differentiated.

1. Low-velocity impact fractures

Low-velocity projectiles produce cracks in the glass, which radiate outward from the
point of impact (radial cracks). If a pane is firmly held on all sides, concentric cracks can
form around the point of
impact. The sequence of multiple impacts can be deduced when the cracks caused by a
subsequent impact terminate at previously formed cracks.
By observing the Wallner lines (ridges) on the radial cracks, the direction of breaking
force can often be determined. Observe only the Wallner lines on the radial cracks
nearest the point of impact. If the
impact site is not preserved, the glass must be reconstructed. The original orientation of
the glass must be known to complete the determination.

The ridges (Wallner lines) on radial cracks nearest the point of impact are at right angles
to the side opposite, or to the rear, of the impact. This phenomenon is referred to as the
4R rule, (Ridges on Radial
cracks are at Right angle to the Rear.) The 4R rule is unreliable for laminated glass,
tempered glass, and small windows tightly held in a frame (Koons et al. 2002).

2. High-velocity impact fractures

A high-speed projectile striking a piece of glass will produce a cone or crater. If the
projectile passes through the glass, the opening on the exit side will be larger than the
opening on the entry side. If the
impact site is not preserved, the glass must be reconstructed to observe any coning
effects. However, because of the small size of the shattered fragments at the impact site,
the reconstruction of a
sufficient portion of the object to display coning effects may not be possible. The size of
the hole and the diameter of the crater cannot be used to reliably predict the size of the
projectile. Projectiles that
pass through the glass at an angle to the surface produce an elongated hole.

Radial cracks may also develop from high-velocity impact. The sequence of multiple
impacts can be deduced when the cracks caused by a subsequent impact terminate at
previously formed cracks.

3. Thermal fractures

In nontempered glass a typical heat crack is curved, has a smooth edge, and has no
indication of the point of origin of the crack. Localized heating of thick pieces of glass
can cause cracks with a feathered appearance. The side to which the heat was applied
cannot be determined from fracture edges (Frechette 1990).

Analysis of Broken Windows

FORENSIC EXAMINATION OF GLASS FRACTURES

If all of the glass pieces are present, the first thing to check for is
the hole made by the load or projectile (e.g., bullet, hammer),
which will be wider on the exit side. As can be seen in FIGURE
5-5, the angle at which a bullet pierces a pane of glass can help
identify the position of the shooter. If the bullet came at an acute
angle from the left, glass fragments will be sprayed to the right
and the exit hole will be an irregular oval. If the bullet came from
an acute angle from the right, glass fragments will be sprayed to
the left and the exit hole will be an irregular oval. This test
works best when the hole is made by a high-speed projectile. In
the event that the hole was made by a low-speed projectile (such
as a hammer), this test will not be very meaningful. Therefore,
for lowspeed projectiles, it is usually best to examine the rib
marks. Of course, to make this examination meaningful, each
edge must be determined to be either a radial or a tangential
crack (which is why it is so important that all pieces be
collected), and interior and exterior sides of the pieces must be
identified (which is why it is so important that the investigators
mark the proper orientation of each piece directly on the item, as well
as documenting all orientations in their notes and photos).

Therefore, if a forensic scientist is examining the edge of a radial fracture, whichever side
shows nearly perpendicular rib marks will be the unloaded (or exit) side, that is, the side
away from the force that caused the break. Alternatively, if the forensic scientist is
examining a tangential fracture, the side showing the nearly perpendicular rib marks will
be the loaded (or entrance) side, that is, the side from which the original breaking force
was applied.

In the event that the investigator or evidence technician neglected to mark which side of
the glass was inside and which side was outside, it is sometimes possible to figure out
this information in the lab. Traces of window putty, for example, would indicate an
exterior side, and paint traces of different colors might also be used to distinguish
between the two sides.
Of course, the preceding discussion assumes that the glass is not tempered. When
tempered glass breaks, it produces small pieces; the fractures cannot be categorized as
radial or tangential, so the kind of analysis mentioned previously is not applicable.

When there are several bullet holes, analysis can determine the sequence of the impacts.
The first shot will cause fractures that simply ―run out‖ (terminate) wherever the original
strains have been sufficiently relieved in the material. The radial fractures associated
with a second shot will run out when they meet a fracture from the first shot, and so on
for all subsequent shots (FIGURE 5-6).

The majority of fragments recovered from a suspect’s clothing or hair will likely be very
small (0.25 to 1 mm). Most glass evidence adhering to a suspect is lost fairly rapidly,
depending on the suspect’s subsequent activities and the texture of his or her clothing.
For example, wool sweaters will retain glass fragments longer than a leather jacket. The
size of a fragment may be so small that individual characteristics cannot be found. In
such cases, the forensic examiner turns to measurements of density and refractive index
to characterize glass evidence.

Broken windows caused by bullet holes

On one side of the hole numerous small flakes of glass will be found to have been blown
away giving the hole the appearance of a volcano crater. Such appearance indicates that
the bullet was fired from the opposite direction of the hole from which the flakes are
missing.

If the shot was fired perpendicular to the window pane the flake marks are evenly
distributed around the hole.

If the shot was fired at an angle from the right, the left side will suffer more flaking than
the right. Excessive flaking on the right side of a window pane would indicate a shot fired
at an angle from the left.

Broken windows caused by fist or stone or hurling projectile

The direction of the blow in case a fist or stone smashed the window is quite difficult but
the principles of radial cracks and concentric cracks or fractures will apply.

The Principle of 3Rs Rule for Radial Crack

3Rs Rule – ―Stress lines on a radial crack will be at right angle to the rear side of the
glass.‖
The front side is referred to as the side that was struck.

The Principle of RFC Rule for Concentric Crack

RFC Rule – ―Stress lines on a concentric crack will be at right angle to the front side‖
that is the side from which the blow came, rather than the rear side.

PROCEDURE: Piece together as many as you can gather of the glass fragments as
possible. Select a triangular piece bounded by two radial cracks and one concentric
crack. The triangular piece must be adjacent to the point of impact, it this is not a
available select a piece as close as possible to the point of impact.

Where there are two bullet holes in a window pane

The problem of which one was fired first becomes important to determine who the
aggressor is. It will be found that the fractures caused by the first bullet will be complete,
especially the radial cracks, whereas the fractures from the second will be interrupted and
end-stopped at points where they intersect those from the first.

Fractures on Safety Glass

Laminated glass, which is now being used in automobiles, does not shatter when struck
sharply. Frequently the cracking of safety glass is not complete; the radial cracks do not
extend to the side of impact and the spiral cracks do not extend to the other side.
 LESSON 10
INKS AND PAPER

CHEMICAL ASPECTS OF DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

DOCUMENT - An original or official written or printed paper furnishing information or
used as proof of something else.
Packing, Preservation and Transportation of Evidence/Documents
1. Documents should be handled, folded and marked as little as possible.
2. If folding is necessary to send to the laboratory, the fold should be made along
OLD LINES. Place it in a Manila paper envelope or brown envelope or it can be
placed in a transparent plastic envelope.
3. On receipt the document should be placed between two sheets of plane white paper
in folder.
4. Documents should not be touched with pencil, pen or anything that could possibly
mark them.
The Examination of Questioned Documents
The essential materials in a document examination of any kind are the paper and ink or
pencil or writings. The examination of paper maybe necessary if we want to know the
age of the document, the presence of alterations, erasures and other forms of forgery.
Problems encountered in Document Examination/Analysis of Paper
1. Whether two pieces of paper originated from the same source.
2. Determine of probable age of paper.
3. Determination of the composition of paper.
Composition of Paper
Paper is made of three components namely:
1. Fiber Composition
2. Sizing Material – to improve quality of paper
3. Loading Material – to add weight to the paper

Take Note:
EGYPTIAN PAPYRUS - one of the earliest substances used
for writing. It is from the name papyrus, that the word paper
was derived.

FIBER COMPOSITION- practically all papers maybe

classified form the standpoint of their basic fiber composition
into sets of fiber mixtures namely: mechanical pulp-ground
wood sulfite mixture, soda-sulfite mixture, rag sulfite
SIZING MATERIAL – added to paper to improve its texture. Examples of sizing
materials are rosin, casein, gelatin, starch.
LOADING MATERIAL – added to paper to give weight. It partially fills the pores
between the fibers of the paper. Examples are calcium sulfate and barium sulfate.

The Four Tests for Paper

1. Preliminary Test - the test deals with the appearance of the document and the
following are observed:
a. folds and creases
b. odor
c. impressions caused by transmitted light
d. presence of discoloration and daylight and under ultraviolet light.

Take Note: WATERMARKS – it is a distinctive mark or design placed in the paper at

the time of its manufacture by a roll usually a dandy roll.

2. Physical Test causing no Perceptible Change - A test applied on paper without

perceptibly changing or altering the original appearance of the document.
a. Measurement of length and width
b. Measurement of thickness
 c. Measurement of weight/unit area
d. Color of the paper
e. Texture
f. Gloss
g. Opacity
h. Microscopic Examination
Take Note: OPACITY – the quality of paper that does not allow light to pass through or
which prevents dark objects from being seen through the paper.

3. Physical Test causing a Perceptible Change - This is done only if sufficient

samples are available and if proper authorization from the court is acquired this can
be done.
a. bursting strength test or ―POP‖ test
b. folding endurance test
c. accelerated aging test
d. absorption test
4. Chemical Test - This test determines the fiber composition, the loading material
and sizing material used in the paper.
a. FIBER COMPOSITION – examination is purely microscopic and it determines the
material used and nature of processing.
b. LOADING MATERIALS – is determined by burning and ashing a portion of the
paper and then the ash examined.
c. SIZING MATERIAL – gelatin is extracted by boiling the paper in water and the
solution treated with tannic acid; rosin is extracted by heating the paper with 95%
alcohol. The alcohol evaporated and the residue treated with acetic anhydride and
strong sulfuric acid; starch is determined by addition of dilute iodine solution; case
in is determined by addition Millon’s reagent.

The Analysis of Ink

Some of the most important questions that arise in the analysis of inks are:
 1. Whether the ink is the same or like or different inking from ink on other parts of
the same documents or other document.
2. Whether two writings made with the same kind of ink were made with the identical
ink, or inks of different qualities or in different conditions.
3. Whether an ink is as old as purports to be
4. Whether documents of different dates or a succession of differently dated book
entries show the natural variations in ink writing or whether the conditions point to
one continuous writing at one time under identical conditions.

Types of Ink
1. Gallotannic ink or iron-nutgall ink – the type of ink where age maybe determined.
Today the most frequently used ink for making entries in record books and for
business purposes. Gallotannic ink is made of a solution off iron salt and nutgall.
This ink can penetrate into the interstices of the fiber and not merely on the
surface, thus making its removal more difficult to accomplish.
2. Logwood ink – made of saturated solution of logwood to which very small amount
of potassium dichromate is added. Hydrochloric acid is added to prevent
formation of precipitate. Phenol is added as preservative. This ink is inexpensive
and does not corrode steel pen. Will not wash off the paper even fresh, flows
freely.
3. Nigrosine Ink or Aniline Ink – made of coal tar product called nigrosine dissolved
in water. It easily smudge, affected by moisture, maybe washed off from the paper
with little difficulty. It is best determined by spectrographic method.
4. Carbon ink or Chinese ink or India Ink – the oldest ink material known. Made of
carbon in the form of lampblack. Does not penetrate deeply into the fibers of the
paper so that it may easily be washed off. Not affected by the usual ink testing
reagents.
5. Colored writing ink – today, almost all colored inks are composed of synthetic
aniline dyestuffs dissolved in water. In certain colored inks ammonium vanadate is
added to render the writing more permanent.
6. Ball Point Pen ink – made of light fast dyes soluble in glycol type solvents as
carbitol, glycol or oleic acid. Paper Chromatography is the best way of determine
this type of ink.

Test for Ink

1. Physical Test – applied to determine the color and presence of alterations, erasures,
destruction of sizes with the use of stereoscope, handlens or microscope.
2. Chemical Test – a simple test wherein different chemicals or reagents are applied
on the ink strokes and the chemical reactions or characteristic color reactions or
other changes in the ink is observed.
Reagents used:
5% HCI
10% oxalic acid
tartaric acid
2% NaOH
10% NaOC1
C12
H2O
KCNS
3. Paper Chromatography – a reliable procedure that can be adopted to identify and
compare ballpoint pen ink.

Determination of Age of Document

1. Age of Ink – no definite procedure which can be given for this determination
except when the color is black, because on the observation that within a few hours,
the color of ink writings becomes darker because the dye contain therein is
influenced by the light of the room, oxygen of the air, acidity or alkalinity of the
paper. There are several methods of determining the degree of oxidation of the ink
writing and apparently these methods depend upon:
a. Physical phenomena such a matching the color of the ink writing with the
standard colors of with itself over a period of time.
b. Chemical reaction that may reveal some information concerning the length
of time the ink has been on the paper.
2. Age of paper through watermarks in certain case from the composition of paper

Other Aspects of Document Examination

ILLEGIBLE WRITINGS – unnecessary writings that are not capable of being read
usually made on checks, birth certificate, passport and transcript of record.
a. Erasure – means removal of writing from the paper. Can be made chemically
or mechanically.
b. Obliteration – the obscuring of writing by superimposing ink, pencil or other
marking material.
c. Sympathetic Ink or Invisible ink – substances used for invisible writing.
d. Indented Writing – term applied to the partially visible depression appearing
on a sheet of paper underneath the one that the visible writing appears.
e. Writings on Carbon Paper – used sheets of carbon paper can be made
readable.
f. Contact Writing – black paper may contain traces of ink because of previous
contact with some writings.
 LESSON 11
DRUG ANALYSIS
LESSONS CONTENT:

Drugs
- Any chemically active substance rendering a specific effect on the central nervous
system of man.
- A chemical substance that affects the functions of living cells and alters body or mind
processes when taken into the body or applied through the skin.
- Is a chemical substance that brings about physical, emotional or behavioral change in a
person taking it.
- Any chemical substance, other than food, which is intended for used in the diagnosis,
treatment, cure, mitigation or prevention of disease or symptoms.
- The term drug derives from the 14th century French word drogue, which means a dry
substance.

When are drugs harmful?

Any drug may be harmful when taken in:
- Excess;
- Dangerous combinations;
- By hypersensitive (allergic) person

Drug Abuse
- Is the overuse or consumption of drugs other than for medical reasons.
- Any non-medical use of drugs that cause physical, psychological, legal, economic, or
social damage to the user or to the people affected by the user’s behavior.
- Using drugs without prescription.
- Abuse of drugs and other substances can lead to physical and psychological
dependence.

DRUGS COMMONLY ABUSED

1) STIMULANT
- Drug that excite the central nervous system, increasing alertness, decreasing fatigue,
delaying sleep, also impale appetite and cause weight loss.

a) Shabu – street names, poor man’s cocaine, S, ice, Shabs, Ubas, bato, Siopao

Methamphetamine hydrochloride/SHABU - a type of amphetamine also known as ―poor

man’s cocaine‖. Other names are Shabu, Ubas, Siopao, Sha and Ice.

- Shabu is a white, odorless crystal or crystalline powder with a bitter numbing taste.

b) Cocaine – an agent that produces a temporary increase of the functional activity

or efficiency of an Organism or any of its parts.
Street names – Coke, Snow, Flake, Bow

Cocaine - is a drug from the leaves of the Coca plant, a shrub that originated in South
America. This drug affects the central nervous system as a stimulant.

-The name comes from "coca" and the alkaloid suffix -ine, forming cocaine. It is a
stimulant, an appetite suppressant, and a topical anesthetic.

2) Opiates/Narcotic

- Group of drugs that are used medically to relieve pain, but have a high potential for
abuse.

-In medicine, the term opiate describes any of the narcotic opioid alkaloids found as
natural products in the opium poppy plant, Papaver somniferum.

Narcotic – substance that lessens pain and/or induces stupor.

a). Opium – is the dried latex obtained from the opium poppy (Papaver somniferum).
Opium contains up to 12% morphine, an alkaloid, which is frequently processed
chemically to produce heroin. The latex also includes codeine.

Opium poppy, Papaver somniferum, is the species of plant from which opium and poppy
seeds are derived. Opium is the source of many narcotics, including morphine (and its
derivative heroin), thebaine, codeine, papaverine and noscapine. The Latin botanical
name means the "sleep-bringing poppy", referring to the sedative properties of some of
these opiates.

b) Morphine – is a potent opiate analgesic drug that is used to relieve severe pain. It was
first isolated in 1804 by Friedrich Serturner, first distributed by him in 1817, and first
commercially sold by Merck in 1827.

- It took its name from the Greek god of dreams Morpheus.

-The most abundant alkaloid found in Opium, the dried sap (latex) derived from
shallowly slicing the unripe seedpods of the opium, or common and/or edible, poppy.

- Morphine can usually be found in tablet form, a syrup, injection or as a suppository

form.

- Morphine is usually taken orally via a syrup, tablet or capsule, however, it can come in
an injectable form.

C) Heroin – is processed from morphine, a naturally occurring substance extracted from

the seed pod of certain varieties of poppy plants.
It is typically sold as a white or brownish powder or as the black sticky substance known
on the streets as "black tar heroin‖.

3) Hallucinogens
- Drugs that are derived from plants chemical substances which affects the perception,
sensation, behavior and produces hallucination on the user.

Marijuana - is the term used to describe all the plant material like leaves, tops, stems,
flowers and roots from a cannabis plant (Cannabis sativa), dried and prepared for
smoking or taken orally as ―brownies‖.

-The mind altering component is the tetrahydrocannabinol; THC for short, which is
concentrated in the resin.

4) Depressants/Sedatives
- Drugs that have mild-calming or sleep-producing effect upon the central nervous
system.
- e.g. Valium

5) Inhalants - drugs whose volatile vapors are taken in via the nose and trachea.

- includes solvents, bases and aerosol, rugby, gasoline, hair spray, lighter fluid and air
freshener

5) Opiates/Narcotics

Opiates, sometimes called narcotics, are a group of drugs that are used medically to
relieve pain, but have a high potential for abuse. Some opiates come from a resin taken
from the seedpod of the Asian poppy. Opiates that are commonly abused are Opium,
Morphine, Codeine, and synthesized or manufactured opiates.

Opium - refers to the coagulated juice of the opium poppy (Papaver Somniferum L.) and
embraces every kind, class and character of opium, whether crude or prepared; the ashes
or refuse of the same.

OTHER DANGEROUS DRUGS

Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) or commonly known as "Ecstasy", "X-TC",

"Adam", "Eden Tablet", or by its any other name - refers to the drug having such
chemical composition, including any of its isomers or derivatives in any form;
Sedatives - Sedative-hypnotics such as tranquilizers, sleeping pills, and sedatives are
drugs, which depress or slow down body functions. These drugs ca be dangerous when
not taken according to physician's instructions.

Ketamine - is an anesthetic that is abused for its hallucinogenic properties. Its

predominant legitimate use is as a veterinary anesthetic.

-can cause dream-like states and hallucinations. Users report sensations ranging from a
pleasant feeling of floating to being separated from their bodies. Some ketamine
experiences involve a terrifying feeling of almost complete sensory detachment that is
likened to a near-death experience.

Amphetamines
-is a psychostimulant drug of the phenethylamine class that produces increased
wakefulness and focus in association with decreased fatigue and appetite.

– Drug that is stimulant to the central nervous system. It is colorless and maybe inhaled,
injected or swallowed. It may be used medically to treat depression, and obesity.

ROUTES OF DRUG ADMINISTRATION

1) Oral Ingestion
- Taken by the mouth and must pass through the stomach before being absorbed in the
bloodstream.

2) Inhalation
- Drug in gaseous from enters the lungs and is quickly absorbed by the capillary system.

3) Injection
- Administered into the body by the use of a stringe or hypodhermic needle.

4) Snorting
- Inhalation through the nose of drugs in gaseous form.

5) Buccal
- Drugs is administered by placing it in the buccal cavity just under the lips.

TESTS FOR DRUGS

Presumptive testing may be conducted in the field by law enforcement officers or

in the laboratory once the seized material is accepted. Confirmatory tests involve a
battery of instrumental tests using techniques such as Gas Chromatograph-Mass
 Spectrometry (GC-MS) or infrared spectroscopy that separate individual
compounds in the substance and positively identify the chemical signature of the
illegal substance(s) within the material.

1. Presumptive testing - is usually colorimetric, meaning the test will indicate that the
suspected substance is present or not present by changing color. If the substance is
present, the test kit will turn one color, if not, it turns a different color. Presumptive
testing by law enforcement is typically followed up with laboratory tests that
confirm with certainty the presence of the suspected substance. Presumptive testing
is also performed in the laboratory as part of the analysis process.

2. Confirmatory testing - uses instrumental analysis to positively identify the contents

of submitted material. This typically requires a multi-step process to separate the
individual compounds, determine the chemical characteristics of the compounds,
and compare them against reference materials to make a positive identification.
This is called qualitative analysis, and determines what substances are present and
if one of more of those substances is illegal.

METHODS OF TESTING

1. Breath test/Breathalyzer

Breath test is a widespread method for quickly determining alcohol intoxication. A

breath test measures the alcohol concentration in the body by a deep-lung breath.
There are different instruments used for measuring the alcohol content of an
individual though their breath. Breathalyzer is a widely known instrument which was
developed in 1954 and contained chemicals unlike other breath-testing instruments.
More modernly used instruments are the infrared light-absorption devices and fuel cell
detectors, these two testers are microprocessor controlled meaning the operator only
has to press the start button.

To get accurate readings on a breath-testing device the individual must blow for
approximately 6 seconds and need to contain roughly 1.1 to 1.5 liters of breath. For a
breath-test to result accurately and truly an operator must take steps such as avoiding
measuring ―mouth alcohol‖ which is a result from regurgitation, belching, or recent
intake of an alcoholic beverage.[24] To avoid measuring ―mouth alcohol‖ the operator
must not allow the individual that's taking the test to consume any materials for at
least fifteen minutes before the breath test. When pulled over for a driving violation if
an individual in the United States refuses to take a breath test that individual's driver's
license can be suspended for a 6 to 12 months time period.

2. Presumptive substance testing

Presumptive substance tests attempt to identify a suspicious substance, material or

surface where traces of drugs are thought to be, instead of testing individuals through
biological methods such as urine or hair testing. The test involves mixing the
suspicious material with a chemical in order to trigger a color change to indicate if a
drug is present. Most are now available over-the-counter for consumer use, and do not
require a lab to read results.

Duquenois reagent

Only a very small amount of material is needed to obtain results, and can be used to
test powder, pills, capsules, crystals, or organic material. There is also the ability to
detect illicit material when mixed with other non-illicit materials. The tests are used
for general screening purposes, offering a generic result for the presence of a wide
range of drugs, including Heroin, Cocaine, Methamphetamine, Amphetamine,
Ecstasy/MDMA, Methadone, Ketamine, PCP, PMA, DMT, MDPV, and may detect
rapidly evolving synthetic designer drugs. Separate tests for Marijuana/Hashish are
also available.

There are five primary color-tests reagents used for general screening purposes.
1. The Marquis reagent turns into a variety of colors when in the presence of
different substances.
2. Dille-Koppanyi reagent uses two chemical solutions which turns a violet-blue
color in the presence of barbiturates.
3. Duquenois-Levine reagent is a series of chemical solutions that turn to the color
of purple when the vegetation of marijuana is added.
4. Van Urk reagent turns blue-purple when in the presence of LSD.
5. Scott test's chemical solution shows up as a faint blue for cocaine base.

6. Saliva drug screen / Oral fluid-based drug screen

Saliva / oral fluid-based drug tests can generally detect use during the previous few
days. Is better at detecting very recent use of a substance. THC may only be detectable
for 2–24 hours in most cases. On site drug tests are allowed per the Department of
Labor.

Detection in saliva tests begins almost immediately upon use of the following
substances, and lasts for approximately the following times:

Alcohol: 6-12 h[30]

Marijuana: 1-24h

7. Sweat drug screen

Sweat patches are attached to the skin to collect sweat over a long period of time (up
to 14 days). These are used by child protective services, parole departments, and other
government institutions concerned with drug use over long periods, when urine testing
is not practical. There are also surface drug tests that test for the metabolite of parent
drug groups in the residue of drugs left in sweat.

8. Blood

Drug-testing a blood sample measures whether or not a drug or a metabolite is in the

body at a particular time. These types of tests are considered to be the most accurate
way of telling if a person is intoxicated. Blood drug tests are not used very often
because they need specialized equipment and medically trained administrators.

Depending on how much marijuana was consumed, it can usually be detected in blood
tests within six hours of consumption. After six hours has passed, the concentration of
marijuana in the blood decreases significantly. It generally disappears completely
within 30 days.

Anabolic steroids- Anabolic steroids are used to enhance performance in sports and as
they are prohibited in most high-level competitions drug testing is used extensively in
order to enforce this prohibition. This is particularly so in individual (rather than team)
sports such as athletics and cycling.

9. Random drug testing

Can occur at any time, usually when the investigator has reason to believe that a
substance is possibly being abused by the subject by behavior or immediately after an
employee-related incident occurs during work hours. Testing protocol typically
conforms to the national medical standard, candidates are given up to 120 minutes to
reasonably produce a urine sample from the time of commencement (in some
instances this time frame may be extended at the examiners discretion).

10.Diagnostic screening

In the case of life-threatening symptoms, unconsciousness, or bizarre behavior in an

emergency situation, screening for common drugs and toxins may help find the cause,
called a toxicology test or tox screen to denote the broader area of possible substances
beyond just self-administered drugs. These tests can also be done post-mortem during
an autopsy in cases where a death was not expected. The test is usually done within 96
hours (4 days) after the desire for the test is realized. Both a urine sample and a blood
sample may be tested.

A blood sample is routinely used to detect ethanol/methanol and ASA/paracetamol

intoxication. Various panels are used for screening urine samples for common
substances, e.g. triage 8 that detects amphetamines, benzodiazepines, cocaine,
methadone, opiates, cannabis, barbiturates and tricyclic antidepressants. Results are
given in 10–15 min.
11.URINE DRUG TESTING

Urine drug test kits are available as on-site tests, or laboratory analysis. Urinalysis is
the most common test type and used by federally mandated drug testing programs and
is considered the Gold Standard of drug testing. Urine based tests have been upheld in
most courts for more than 30 years. However, urinalysis conducted by the Department
of Defense has been challenged for reliability of testing the metabolite of cocaine.
There are two associated metabolites of cocaine, benzoylecgonine (BZ) and ecgonine
methyl ester (EME), the first (BZ) is created by the presence of cocaine in an aqueous
solution with a pH greater than 7.0, while the second (EME) results from the actual
human metabolic process. The presence of EME confirms actual ingestion of cocaine
by a human being, while the presence of BZ is indicative only.
A number of different analyses (defined as the unknown substance being tested for)
are available on Urine Drug Screens.

12.Hair drug testing

Hair drug testing is a method that can detect drug use over a much longer period of
time, and is often used for highly safety-critical positions where there is zero tolerance
of illegal drug use. Standard hair follicle screen covers a period of 30 to 90 days. The
growth of head hair is usually at the rate of 0.5 inches per month.

The hair sample is cut close to the scalp and 80 to 120 strands of hair are needed for
the test. In the absence of hair on the head, body hair can be used as an acceptable
substitute. This includes facial hair, the underarms, arms, and legs or even pubic hair.
Because body hair grows at a different rate than head hair, the timeframe changes,
with scientists estimating that drug use can be detected in body hair for up to 12
months. Currently, most entities that use hair testing have prescribed consequences for
individuals removing hair to avoid a hair drug test.
FINALS
LESSON 12
NATURE OF TOXICOLOGY
LESSON CONTENT:
Four hundred years back, Paracelsus stated that, ―All substances are poisons; there
is none which is not a poison.‖ If the right dose is taken, it could become a remedy,
otherwise poisonous.

Poisons are generally found in cases of homicides, suicides, or accidents. They

have a significant role to play as the silent weapon to destroy life mysteriously and
secretively.

Action of poisons

Every poison has almost similar action on the victim’s body. In many cases, they
either stop the transfer of O2 to the tissues or create an obstacle in the respiratory
system by inhibition of enzymes which are associated with the process. In this, the
myoneural junction and the ganglions and synapses are the sites of action.

In some cases of insecticidal poisoning, hyperexcitement of voluntary and

involuntary muscles can cause death. There are four categories of action of
poisons—
(i) local action,
(ii) remote action,
(iii) local and remote actions, and
(iv) general action.

Local action: Local action means direct action on the affected site of the body.
Examples include irritation and inflammation in strong mineral acids and alkalis,
congestion and inflammation by irritants, the effect on motor and sensory nerves,
etc.

Remote action: Remote action affects the person due to absorption of that poison
into the system of that person.
For example, alcohol is absorbed in the system and then it affects the person.

Local and remote actions: Some poisons can affect both local and remote organs.
Thus, they not only affect the area with contact to the poison but also cause toxic
effect after absorption into the system, for example, oxalic acid.

General action: General action means the absorbed poison affects more than one
system of the body, for example, mercury, arsenic, etc.

Factors modifying the action of poisons

Toxicity of a poison depends upon its inherent properties such as physiochemical
as well as pharmacological properties. The action of poisons mainly depends upon
the following factors discussed below:

1.Forms of poison: There are three forms of poison:

• Physical form: Gaseous/volatile/vaporous forms of poisons act faster than liquid

poisons as they are quickly absorbed. Similarly, liquid poisons act faster than solid
poisons.
Gaseous or volatile > liquid > solid.
For solid poisons, powdered poisons act quickly than the lumps. For example,
there are certain seeds that escape the gastrointestinal tract as they are solid, but
when crushed, they can be fatal.
For solids: powdered > lumps

• Chemical form: Few substances like mercury or arsenic are not poisonous as
they are insoluble and cannot be absorbed when they are in combination with other
substances like mercuric chloride, arsenic oxide, etc. In other cases, the action is
vice versa.
For example, there are some substances that become inert in combination with
silver nitrate and
hydrochloric acid and are deadly and poisonous when present in pure forms.
• Mechanical combination: The effect of poisons is significantly altered when
they are combined with inert substances. (Lacing in drugs)

2.Quantity: Large doses of toxin cause much lethal effect. But this statement is
not always true. For example, sometimes when a toxin is taken in very large
amount, the body produces a mechanism against it such as vomiting, and thus the
intensity of the toxin is reduced.

3.Concentration: The absorption speed of poison is dependent on concentration;

thus poison of higher concentration is fatal. However, there are still some
exceptions. For example, a dilute oxalic acid is less corrosive, but the absorption
rate is high and so it is more dangerous.

4.Methods of administration: It has a unique role in the process of absorption. It

is fastest through inhalation and then through injection as compared to the oral
mode.

5.Condition of the body: Different persons react differently when exposed to a

poison. It is because the condition of our body is also responsible for the increase
or decrease of the effect of a poison on the body:
• Age: Children and older people are more affected than an adult by the
same quantity of toxin.
• Sleep: The body functions are slower during sleep; thus toxin circulation in
the body is also slower.
• Health: Healthy persons can tolerate a toxin better than a weak or ill
person.
Dosage: The effect of the poison depends upon its dosage. It is said that the dose
determines whether a substance is a poison or remedy. A substance is usually considered
a poison after a certain fixed quantity. Although this quantity is not fixed for all people, it
is considered according to the average effect on the
population.

There are two considerable effects of poison on the body of a person; these are the subtle
long-term chronic toxicity and immediate fatality.

Some poisons are lethal in microquantities, while others can affect in large doses. The
significance of a dose can be understood by taking an example of a metal essential in the
food, for example, iron, copper, manganese, zinc, etc.; if its dose is higher than the body
requires, it can be lethal.

• Effective dose (ED): The effective dose is the quantity of a substance at which it
shows its effect in the population. In most cases, ED50 is measured as a dose
which induces a response in half of the targeted
population.

• Lethal dose: The lethal dose (LD) 50 is the amount of drug which is expected to
cause death of 50% population.

Hypersensitivity: It is basically the type of reaction initiated by the body against any
other substances. Sometimes, it could be related to allergy. There is an assumption that
hypersensitivity does not depend on wrong doses.

Every person who is hypersensitive to a particular substance has a dose related that
defines the quantity required to cause hypersensitivity to that person. The allergic
response is actually a toxic response and can be
sometimes fatal.

Idiosyncrasy: It is defined as a reaction produced by the body to a chemical genetically.

It is a type of person that affects only those people who are genetically sensitized to that
particular chemical or substance but will show no effect on others. In such cases, the
person experiences discomfort for several hours or if the dose is high can be fatal also.
For example- peanut allergy in some people.

Tolerance: It is the capability of a person to not produce any effect against a chemical
that usually causes reaction to normal persons. It is a state of reduced or no reaction to a
chemical. There are basically two types of mechanism that induces tolerance.

First is when the toxin reaches the effective site, its quantity is very less. This is called
dispositional tolerance. The second is because the tissues show reduced response to the
toxin.
Tolerance can also be achieved if a drug is taken in a small quantity on a regular basis.
This can be explained by taking the example of alcohol. When any human consume
alcohol for the first time, he/she will show an effect even when the quantity is small, but
eventually the effect will decrease and the
person can tolerate a large amount also.
Individual susceptibility: It is defined as the different kinds of responses produced by
different individuals to a particular harmful compound. It can be due to occupational or
environmental factors and exposures. It is determined by complex genetic factors. Its
effect depends upon the intensity of exposure.
There is a gene uniqueness that varies from person to person; thus the same amount of
exposure can show no effect in one individual, cause illness to other individual, and also
could be fatal to someone as well.

REFERENCES:

Amarnath Mishra. Forensic Chemistry & Toxicology. DOI:

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91961
 LESSON 13
POISONS AND ITS KINDS, TYPES OR CLASSIFICATION

LESSONS CONTENT:

Route of administration of poison

The route of administration is the path through which a drug, toxin, or poison is taken or
administered into the body of a person which is distinguished by the location where any
drug is applied. It is mostly classified on the basis of its target:
• Topical—which has a local effect
• Enteral—which has a wide effect, i.e., affect the whole system
• Parental—which follows a systemic action

Poisons are given or taken so that death can occur at once by shock due to stoppage of
body’s vital systems. Drug addicts take drugs through inhalation or injection. Route of
administration plays a very important role in determination of death by poison as time in
which death occurs are fastest in inhaled poisons, relatively slow in injected and lastly
when ingested orally. Some important features that are considered during the
administration of poisons and can make a poison fatal are:
• Rate of dissolution of the poison that depends upon the physical form of the
poison, i.e., gaseous, vapors, liquid, solid, etc.
• The surface area affected at the site of administration of the poison
• The circulation rate of blood in that route
• The solubility of the poison, i.e., lipid soluble or water soluble
• The concentration of the poison
• The time required by the poison to be absorbed completely from the site of
administration

Routes of administration can be classified into two categories:

1.Enteral routes/gastrointestinal routes.
2.Parenteral routes.

Enteral routes: When the drug is administered through the gastrointestinal tract, it is
defined as an enteral route. It has both oral and rectal routes. It also includes sublingual
and sublabial routes. It is comparatively a slower mode of action for absorption of drugs:
• Oral route: Generally absorption takes place in the tongue and the gums of the
oral passage. The pH of the buccal cavity and mouth ranges from 4 to 5.
Sublingual and supralingual routes have a significant role in absorption. The
sublingual absorption is faster as the toxin is transformed directly to the heart, but
it takes more time.
• Rectal route: Administration of drugs can be done through anus which directly
absorbed in bloodstream through membrane of mucous. This administration can
cause the burning of tissues or bleeding in rectum as the area is very sensitive.
Parental route: It includes all the other routes that does not involve the gastrointestinal
tract. It has a systemic effect on the body. It has the following categories of
administration:
◦ Intradermal: Here, the administration of drugs takes place from surface of skin.
This type of poisoning is mostly found in chronic poisoning cases.
◦ Intravenous: It is one of the fastest modes of drug administration as the
injection is directly taken and the drug is transferred directly into the veins and
thus is directly circulated into the blood quickly. Immediate death might be caused
by this type of drug.
◦ Intraosseous: It involves an administration of a drug directly into the bone
marrow. This mode is actually used for administration of drugs for medical
purposes.
◦ Intra-arterial: It involves an administration of a drug into the artery directly
through injection. It is a fast mode of administration.
◦ Intramuscular: In this mode, the drug or poison is administered into the muscle
of the thigh, upper arm, or buttock. The time required in this mode is greater than
other parental modes.
◦ Subcutaneous: In this mode, the drug is injected into the layer beneath the skin,
i.e., the subcutaneous layer. The drug then goes to the small blood vessels and then
to the bloodstream. This mode is used for mostly those protein drugs that would be
destroyed if administered through the gastrointestinal tract.
◦ Inhalation: In this mode, the nose is the primary path. Because of the presence
of mucous membrane, the nasal aperture is very absorptive. The microparticles of
poisons are easily absorbed and transported quickly to the lungs. From the lungs,
they are circulated into the blood.

Classification of poisons
Poisons are classified into two ways:
i. Based on their action on the body.
ii. Based on their physical and chemical properties [1].

Classification based upon the effect of poison on the body:

1.Corrosive: The poisons burn the tissues or organs when they come in contact with
them, e.g.:
a. Strong acids such as H2SO4, HNO3, HCL, etc.
b. Strong alkalis such as hydroxides of Na, K, NH4, etc.

2. Irritants: The poisons irritate the tissues or organs when they come in contact with
them:
a. Inorganic:
• Nonmetallic phosphorous, chlorine, bromine, iodine, etc.
• Metallic salts of arsenic, antimony, mercury, copper, lead, zinc, etc.
b. Organic:
• Vegetable—castor oil, madar, croton oil, etc.
 • Animals—snake venom, cantharides, insect bites, etc.
• Mechanical—glass powder, needles, diamond dust, hair, etc.

3.Neurotics: Poisons affect the nervous system and the brain [3]:
a. Cerebral:
• Narcotic—opium and its alkaloids
• Inebriant (depressant)—alcohol, ether, chloroform, and chloral hydrate
b. Spinal:
• Excitant (stimulants)—nux vomica and strychnine
• Depressant—gelsemium

c. Cardiorespiratory:
• Cardiac—aconite, digitalis, oleander, and hydrocyanic acid (HCN)
• Asphyxiants—carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide

4.Miscellaneous: A number of chemicals having diverse actions on their body are

included in this group:
a. Animal poisons
b. Curare (an arrow poison)
c. Poisonous food articles
d. Industrial poisons—methyl isocyanate (MIC)
e. Fuels—petroleum and kerosene
f. Insecticides—endrin, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), and naphthalene
g. Radioactive substances

Classification of poisons based upon their properties:

A. Inorganic poisons
i. Metallic poisons:
a. Arsenic: It has been the most known and exclusively used throughout the
ages to poison men and animals. It is a white tasteless powder and a pinch of
the poisons can kill two adult persons. Arsenic for homicidal purposes is
mixed with various food articles. e.g., cooked food, milk, tea, liquors, or
medicines. Arsenic in a metal form is not poisonous; its oxides are highly
poisonous. It is extensively used in insecticides, etc.

b. Mercury: Chloride and nitrites of mercury are highly poisonous. They are
used in chemical industry and as fungicides.

c. Lead: Most of its compounds are poisonous. This is a slow poison, e.g.,
Sindoor adulterated with red lead oxide.

d. Copper: Its salts are used in electroplating; copper sulfate is a poison.

e. Thallium: Thallium salt is used as rat poison.

 f. Antimony: Its effect is like that of arsenic.

ii. Nonmetallic poisons:

a. Cyanides: Cyanides of potassium and sodium are extremely poisonous,

even in small quantities. They react with the acid of gastric juices in the
stomach to form hydrocyanic acid, which paralyzes the respiratory center in
the brain resulting in death due to respiratory failure.

b. Yellow phosphorus: In olden days it was used in match industry and

several times proved highly poisonous.

c. Iodine: Only elemental iodine in high quantity is poisonous.

d. Strong acids and alkalis: These are highly poisonous with corrosive
effects, e.g., sulfuric acid, nitric acid, sodium, potassium hydroxides, etc.

e. Gases: Phosphine gas kills rats when used on the rat holes and is
poisonous for infants. MIC killed over 2000 persons and invalidated several
others in a gas leak tragedy in Bhopal in 1984. Some other poisonous gases
are HCN, carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide, arsine, etc.

B. Organic poisons
i. Volatile poisons:
a. Ethyl alcohol: It is poisonous if taken in excess.

b. Other alcohols: Methyl alcohol and isopropyl alcohol are poisonous.

Methanol, used in polish and chemical industries, is used in illicit liquor, and
its intake causes paralysis, blindness, and death.

c. Phenol: Phenol or carbolic acid could be poisonous. It is mostly used as a

disinfectant.

d. Miscellaneous substances: Various industrial chemicals like chlorinated

hydrocarbons, benzene, chloral hydrate, etc. are poisonous. In several cases
of poisoning, chloral hydrate could be used in illicit liquors.

ii. Nonvolatile substances:

a. Alkaloids: Several narcotics and vegetable poisons contain alkaloids, e.g.
strychnine, morphine, cocaine, nicotine, etc.

b. Barbiturates: These drugs are synthetic and induce sleep.

 c. Glycosides: These drugs can cause cardiac arrest and could be fatal such
as aconite, oleander digitalis, etc.

d. Insecticides and pesticides

Poisoning: It is known as the injurious effect caused by the action of a poison or a

detrimental chemical substance. It leads to the development of adverse reaction toward
the harmful chemicals or drugs. It is basically differentiated in three categories:
1. Suicidal
2. Homicidal
3. Accidental

Cattle poisoning is the poisoning related to animals. Accidental poisoning is caused by

negligence and carelessness. Homicidal poisoning includes the killing of a person due to
the poison. Suicidal poisoning refers to the use of toxic chemicals in order to kill oneself.

Corrosive poisoning: It is caused by poisons such as acids and alkalis. They produce a
corrosive action on the human body by causing ulcers and acute inflammation.

Metallic poisoning: Metals such as arsenic, mercury, lead, etc., when ingested, cause a
deleterious effect. This is known as metallic poisoning.

Plant poison: The study of plant poisons is known as phytotoxicology. Plant poisons, or
phytotoxins, comprise a vast range of biologically active chemical substances, such as
alkaloids, polypeptides, amines, glycosides, oxalates, resins, toxalbumins, etc.

6. Alcohol

An alcohol is a drink that contains ethanol. Ethanol is made by fermentation of grains,

fruits, and some resources of sugar. Chemically, it is a group of compounds whose
saturated carbon chain has a ―-OH‖ group. Alcohol is also a depressant, and in low dose,
it can reduce tension, cause euphoria, and improve sociability, but in high dose it can
cause stupor, drunkenness, and even death. Regular alcohol intake can cause cancer,
alcoholism, dependency, etc. 33% of the total people in the world
consumes alcohol. Drinks containing alcohol are broadly classified into three classes:
1. Beer
2. Spirit
3. Wine

whose alcohol content varies between 3% and 50%. When diluted, alcohol has nearly
sweet taste, but when concentrated it gives a burning sensation. 90% of the absorbed
alcohol is metabolized by the liver and broken down into less toxic metabolites.

Alcohol acts on the central nervous system (CNS) as a depressant on the cells of the
cerebral cortex. Its adverse effects like a decrease in cognitive and psychomotive skills
are well documented. Alcohol percentage (ABV) differs from one brand to another, for
example, beers contain 5%, wines contain
typically 13.5%, fortified wines contain 15–22%, spirits contain 30–40%, fruit juice
contains less than 0.1%, and cider/wine coolers contain 4–8% ABV.

7. Blood alcohol test

The goal of blood alcohol test is to check the concentration of alcohol in the body. This
test result is known as blood alcohol concentration (BAC) which indicates alcohol % in
the blood. It is directly proportional to the alcohol in the body, and alcohol hinders with
people’s decision, control on them and other characteristics. This test can tell the
presence of alcohol in blood for 12 hours. Blood
quickly absorbs alcohol and is measured within minutes of consuming alcoholic drink.
The highest level of BAC result can be reached within an hour of consuming alcohol.
Intake of food can vary the result. Liver breaks down almost 90% of alcohol and rest are
given out from exhalation and urine.

Sample collection

In case of deaths due to alcoholic intoxication, the viscera is collected and preserved in
saturated saline. Preservation of sample is very important as if wrongly preserved it can
ruin the examination. Generally, urine and blood are taken as samples.

A sterile needle must be cleaned up by the swab of a nonalcoholic disinfectant like

aqueous mercuric chloride and aqueous benzalkonium chloride (Zephiran) before the
suspect’s skin is punctured with it. The use of an alcoholic disinfectant either may give
false-positive results or may contribute to falsely high alcohol contents of blood. About
5–10 ml of the sample (blood) is taken in a test tube; an
anticoagulant such as potassium oxide and EDTA and a preservative such as NaF are
added and stored in the refrigerator at 40°C. The anticoagulant will prevent blood from
clotting, and the preservative will inhibit the presence of microorganisms. The urine
sample is also collected in the usual manner and preserved with 30 mg of phenyl
mercuric nitrate for every 10 ml of urine.

Extraction of ethyl alcohol from biological materials

Ethyl alcohol is isolated from biological materials by acid distillation. Viscera, vomit,
stomach contents, and other materials should be analyzed separately. About 50–100 g of
the viscera is taken and is finally minced by thin gruel and adding water (3–5 times) and
sulfuric acid. It is passed to steam distillation which is generally heating it on the water
bath. The condenser and the receiving flask should be well cooled with ice especially in
the hot season, the outlet of the condenser being dipped in little water or NaOH solution.
Some pieces of pumice stone are stored in the flask to avoid bumping. It is better to
collect the distillate in 4–5 fractions, out of which the first one should not exceed 20 ml
and the remaining fractions should be 50 ml each. The distillate contains alcohol and
other volatile acids, etc.

Chemical analysis of ethyl alcohol

There are some tests which show the presence of ethyl alcohol in the exhibits.

Iodoform test
Also known as triiodomethane reaction, it is used in the detection of CH3CH
(OH) which is present in alcohol. There are mainly two types of different
mixtures used in this reaction which are mainly chemically equivalent. A
pale yellow precipitate occurs if the result is positive

―R‖ can be hydrogen or alkyl group or any other hydrocarbon group. In case
when R denotes hydrogen, then the compound we have the possibility to
find is primary alcohol ethanol. Ethanol is the only alcohol that gives an
iodoform reaction. In case R is any hydrocarbon group, then it gives
secondary alcohol groups. Tertiary alcohol is not able to contain R group
because of the absence of hydrogen atom.

In 1 ml of distillate, a few drops of 10% NaOH are added dropwise till the
solution becomes brown and warmed for a few minutes. A few drops of
iodoform solution are added to change the color to yellow. The mixture has
to be again heated on low flame/water bath; a yellow-colored precipitate is
formed on standing. The precipitate has to be observed under a microscope.
Characteristic hexagonal crystals of iodoform are seen which usually shows
the presence of ethanol, acetaldehyde, isopropanol which on standing for
long time breaks into flower like structure. This test initially involves
oxidation followed by substitution and hydrolysis.

Sulphomolybdic acid test

Add 1 gm of molybdic acid in 25 ml of a concentrated sulfuric acid which

has the reagent. Mix 2 ml of this reagent when hot and with 2 ml of
distillate. At the junction of both liquids, a ring will be formed which is deep
blue in color. On shaking, the whole mixture will become deep blue which is
due to ethyl alcohol.

This test is very sensitive and it gives a negative result with acetone,
acetaldehyde, and dilute solution of methyl alcohol. Only the strong solution
of methyl alcohol gives a light blue color after several minutes.

Ethyl benzoate test

 Mix two drops of benzoyl chloride with 2 ml of the distillate. Add 10% of
sodium hydroxide drop by drop till the solution becomes alkaline. By
providing heat the irritating smell of benzoyl chloride will be replaced by
sweet fruity odor of ethyl benzoate. Methyl alcohol gives this test also but
not the iodoform test.

Determination of ethyl alcohol in blood/urine

In case of drunkenness, alcohol detection in the body is very important. Observing

behavioral abnormalities of the suspect is the best method, but analyzing the breath,
blood, and urine is the only way of confirming it. The analysis of breath alcohol can be
performed on the spot with the help of breath-analyzer instruments like Alco- Sensor,
Breathalyzer, etc. However, the alcohol content of the blood could be determined by
using the modified version of the Kozelka and Hine/Cavett method .
In recent years, several methods in determining the alcohol in body fluids are described.
Kent-Jones and Taylor reported the results of an investigation into the merits of two
methods—the micro Cavett and that of Kozelka and Hine. The micro Cavett method is
more accurate, but it suffered from serious inconsistencies in reproducibility, but the
Kozelka and Hine method is less accurate and more timeconsuming but gives good
reproducibility. Nickolls modified the micro Cavett method which appears to give a more
accurate result in comparison with the unmodified method. The simplicity of this
procedure increases its use for routine work in laboratory.

Cavett method/Kozelka and Hine method

The principle behind this method is the oxidation of alcohol, which is easy with
acetic acid in the presence of oxidizing agents such as sulfuric acid and potassium
dichromate. Reduction of each mL of N/20 potassium dichromate solution takes
place that is equivalent to 0.575 mg of alcohol.

Widmark’s formula
This formula is used to estimate the amount in which alcohol is present in the
body.

a. For blood analysis

a ¼ cpr:
Here, a = Total amount of alcohol absorbed in the body; p = Weight of the person;
c = Concentration of alcohol in the blood; r = Constant which is 0.5 in women and
0.68 in men
b. In urine analysis.

a ¼ 3=4qpr:
Here, a = Total alcohol content present in the body; p = Total weight of the person;
q = Alcohol concentration in the urine; r = Constant, namely, 0.68 for men and 0.5
in women.
Instrumental technique of analysis of ethyl alcohol

Gas chromatography
There are several methods in determining ethanol in the blood, urine, and serum.
One of the most important methods is gas chromatography (GC). The sample is
injected in a heating chamber, and due to its high temperature, alcohol converts in
vapors which are carried by inert carrier gas such as nitrogen through the column
which is packed by an adsorbent material. Separation of different types of
components depends on their different affinity, i.e., partition coefficient toward
adsorbent phase which is stationary and later detected as shown in the figure
below. A chromatogram so obtained helps in qualitative as well as quantitative
Analysis.

Various components of gas chromatography are:

• Carrier gas
• Flow regulator
• Injector
• Column
• Stationary phase
• Oven
• Detectors
• Display device

The area covered by the peak represents the amount and position of a particular
type of compound.

Operating conditions:
Column: Porapak polymer bead 80–100 mesh or its equivalent, which can
separate or resolve the ethanol.
Column temperature: 1600°C.
Carrier gas: Nitrogen.
Rate of gas flow: 50 ml/minute.
Detector: Flame ionization detector.

Alternative operating conditions:

Column: 0.3% Carbowax 20M on 80–100 mesh Carbopak C, 2 m _ 2 mm
ID or its equivalent.
Column temperature: 350°C for 2 minutes and then programmed at 50°C
per minute to 1750°C and hold for at least 8 minutes.
Carrier gas: Nitrogen at 30 ml/minute.

REFERENCES:

Forensic Chemistry & Toxicology. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91961