COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

(SOCOTECH)

CRIMINOLOGY DEPARTMENT
(Course Outline)
Effective A.Y. 2020-2021

NOTES ON FORENSIC CHEMISTRY AND TOXICOLOGY FOR ON LINE

Under the principles and practices in forensic science Laboratory, topic will also include
crime scene procedures in practices, such as the proper collection, handling,
preservation, proper packing and labelling, documentation of evidence as well as
forensic examinations that will be conducted on simulated evidence. It will also give
emphasis on the proper procedure in maintaining the chain of custody of evidence
including court presentation. Understood and familiarized with the proper techniques in
the recognition, collection, handling, preservation, documentation, and evaluation of
evidence. Acquired knowledge on the different evidence such as hair, fibers, chemicals
and drugs of abused, blood, semen, glass fractures, paints, soil, fingerprints, documents,
firearms, bullet trajectory, tool marks, casting and molding. Acquainted themselves with
the proper court procedures pertaining to presentation of evidence.
MODULE-1 Forensic chemistry, the development of crime laboratory in the Philippines.
Objectives: at the end of chapter, the students can:
1. Understand forensic chemistry, history and scientific evidence.
2. Differentiate the forms of scientific evidence.
3. Evaluate the practice in forensic chemistry.
DEFINITION OF FORENSIC CHEMISTRY - Forensic chemistry is defined as that branch of
chemistry that deals with the application of chemical principles in the solution of problems that arise in
connection with the administration of justice. It is chemistry applied in the elucidation of legal problem.
SCOPE OF FORENSIC CHEMISTRY: - Forensic chemistry embraces a large and diversified field. It
includes not only the chemical side of criminal investigation with which it is generally associated with the
public mind but also the analysis of any material the quality of which may give rise to legal procedures.
Forensic chemistry is not limited to purely chemical questions involved in legal proceedings. It has
invaded other branches of forensic sciences notably legal medicine, ballistics, questioned documents,
dactyloscopy and photography.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE SCIENTIFIC CRIME LABORATORY IN THE PHILIPPINES:
The development of scientific crime detection is comparatively recent although this aspect of police work
has long been exploited in fiction, notably by Conan Doyle's masterly creation, Sherlock Holmes.
Scientific crime detection as such may well be described as owning its birth to the St. Valentine's Day
massacre which occurred in Chicago on February 14, 1929. A group of public minded individual was
responsible for the establishment of a scientific crime laboratory in that city which today has taken in the
historical annals of police science.
In the Philippines the first public recognition of the value of science in the proper administration of justice
was made when the position of "Medicos Titulares" was created in the Philippines by virtue of the Royal
Decree No. 188 of Spain dated March 31, 1876. For every province a Forensic physician was assigned to
perform public sanitary duties and at the same time medico-legal aids to the administration of justice. On
December 15, 1884, Governor General Joaquin Javellar created a committee to study the mineral waters
of Luzon and appointed Anacleto del Rosarioas chemist. Realizing the importance of this work, the
government established in September 13, 1887 the "Laboratorio Municipal de Manila" under the
inspection of the "Direccion General de Administration Civil" and the control of the "Gobierno de
Provincias". The functions of the laboratory were to make analysis, not only for food, water and others
from the standpoint of public health and legal medicine, but also of specimens for clinical purposes.
Anacleto del Rosario was appointed director after a competitive examination in June 17, 1888. At present,
there are four distinct laboratories in the Philippines performing forensic chemical analyses, namely, the
Forensic Chemistry Division of the NBI, the C.I laboratory of the Manila Police Department, the C.I.D.
laboratory of the Philippine Constabulary and the Camp Crame Crime Laboratory of the Philippine
National Police.
SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE- The investigator is a fact-finder, but he must know the laws concerning the
nature of his activities. He should procure evidence in such a way that findings can be admitted in court
and remain impregnable to any attack by the opposing counsel. The average investigator is n constant
contact with various investigative and enforcement agencies and he should learn to speak their language.
Scientific evidence, therefore, may be defined as the means sanctioned by law, of ascertaining in a
judicial proceeding the truth respecting a matter of fact wherein scientific knowledge is necessary.
Evidence bases on or conforming to the principles and techniques of science.
Evidence is a proof of allegation. It is a means sanctioned by law, of ascertaining in judicial proceedings
the truth respecting a matter of fact. (Sec. 1 Rule 128, Rules of Court). Physical evidence is an article and
material which is found in connection with an investigation and which aid in establishing the identity of
the perpetrator or the circumstances under which the crime was committed or which in general assist in
the prosecution of the criminal. It compasses any and all objects that can establish that a crime has been
committed or can provide a link between a crime and its victim or a crime and its perpetrator.
Evidence may be (a) direct; (b) indirect, which includes circumstantial evidence and (c) hearsay.
A. Direct evidence is simply that which the senses perceive. Any fact to which a witness testifies based on
what he saw, heard, smelled, touched or tasted, is direct evidence.
B. Circumstantial evidence is a kind of evidence which seeks to establish a conclusion by inferences from
proved facts. An evidence which establishes a fact or circumstance from which the court may infer
another fact at issue.
To illustrate the kind of evidence, let us assume that while a policeman was walking his beat, heard a
scream come from a house. He ran to the house and almost immediately he saw man coming out of the
house holding a bloody knife. The
policeman placed the man under arrest and entered the house. There he found a woman slumped to the
floor in a pool of blood with a stab wound on the breast. In this case, the only direct evidence to which the
policeman can testify would be that he saw the man come out of the house holding a bloody knife. He
cannot testify positively that the man killed the woman yet the fiscal may seek to establish the conclusion
that the man with the knife is the killer by inference from the proved facts testified to by the policeman.
Circumstantial evidence is sufficient to produce conviction if there is more than one circumstance, the
facts from which the interferences are derived are proven, and the combination of all the circumstances is
such as to produce conviction beyond reasonable doubt.
C. Hearsay evidence is a statement made by a witness on the authority of another and not from his own
personal knowledge or observation. Hearsay evidence is inadmissible except with certain well-defined
exceptions. Some of the common exceptions to the rules of exclusion generally applicable to hearsay
evidence are declaration against interest, dying declarations, resgestae, reputation, public records and
statements made at a prior time.
FORMS OF SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE
A. Real of Autoptic evidence - it is that evidence which is addressed to the senses of the court. It is not
limited to that which can be known by the sense of vision but extends to those which are perceived by the
senses of hearing, taste, smell or touch.
B. Testimonial evidence - An expert may be placed on the witness stand and answer all questions to be
propounded by both parties in the case. It is a solemn declaration made orally by a witness under oath in
response to interrogation by a lawyer.
C. Experimental evidence - An expert witness may be required to perform certain experiments to prove a
certain matter of fact. The court, however, in its own discretion may or may not allow this kind of
evidence.
D. Documentary evidence - Any written evidence presented by an expert in court which is relevant to the
subject matter in dispute and not excluded by the Rules of Court. Formal written report, expert opinion,
certificates and dispositions are included in this group.
WITNESS - One who testifies in court and has personal knowledge or experience of something. A
person, other than the suspect who is requested to give information concerning an incident or person. He
may be a victim, a complainant, an accuser, a source of information and an observer of an occurrence. A
witness in court may be an ordinary or expert witness.
An ordinary witness is one who states facts and may not express his opinions or conclusions. He may
testify to impressions of common experience such as the speed of a vehicle, whether a voice was that of a
man, woman or child. Beyond this is closely limited.
As ordinary witness, the rules of Court requires that the person must have the following qualifications:
1. He must have the organ and power to perceive.
2. The perception gathered by his organ can be imparted to others.
3. He does not fall in any of the exception provided for by the law, Sec. 26, Rules 123, Rules of Court.
An expert witness is one who possesses a special skill be it in art, trade or science or one who has special
knowledge in matters not generally known to men of ordinary education and experience. He is a person
skilled in some art, trade or science to the extent that he possesses information not within the common
knowledge of man.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ORDINARY AND EXPERT WITNESS:
1. An ordinary witness can only state what his senses have perceived while an expert witness may state
what he has perceived and also give his opinions, deductions or conclusions to his perceptions.
2. An ordinary witness may not be skilled on the line he is testifying while an expert witness must be
skilled in the art, science or trade he is testifying.
3. An ordinary witness cannot testify on things or facts he has not perceived except those provided for by
law while an expert witness may testify on things which he has not seen by giving his opinions,
deductions or conclusions on the statement of facts.
PROBATIVE VALUE OF EXPERT TESTIMONY: - Whether court are, or are not bound by the
testimony of an expert, depends upon the nature of the subject of inquiry. If the subject comes within the
general knowledge of the judge, the latter will not feel bound by the conclusion of the expert as for
example when the question of the genuineness of a handwriting as compared to a standard is in issue.
When, however, the subject of inquiry is of such a nature that a layman can have no knowledge thereof,
as for example, the determination of parentage by blood test, the court must be dependent on expert
evidence.
In weighing the testimony of an expert, all the circumstances of the case must be taken into consideration,
among them (a) the degree pf learning of the witness; (b) the basis and logic of the conclusion; and (c) the
other proof of case.
PRACTICE OF FORENSIC CHEMISTRY:- The work of a forensic chemist is divided into four
stages, namely:
1. COLLECTION OR RECEPTION OF THE SPECIMEN TO BE EXAMINED- It is most
important that whenever possible the chemist should personally collect all the specimens necessary for the
examination. Unless this is done, something essential to the elucidation of the problem may be omitted
and in some cases questions regarding the collection and transit of the specimen are raised during the trial.
In the collection of specimen the following guiding principles must be observed in the practice of forensic
chemistry:
a. SUFFICIENCY OF SAMPLES- Police are usually inclined to be niggardly in taking samples
probably because they have an unqualified belief in the magic of such analytical instrument as the
microscope and spectograph.
This mistake should be avoided.
b. STANDARD FOR COMPARISON- If the evidence in question is found in the presence of foreign
substance, a sample of the foreign substance must be submitted for analysis.
c. MAINTENANCE OF INDIVIDUALITY- Each evidence must be collected and preserved as
separate sample. There must be nk mixing or intermingling of unknown with known.
d. LABELLING AND SEALING- Evidence will have no value in court inspite of the good report of the
expert if the specimen cannot be identified and possibility of tampering excluded.
2. The actual examination of the specimen- The first step in the examination of an article is to
scrutinize it carefully and write down in the laboratory notebook a complete description of its external
appearance including the manner in which it is secured and particulars of the sealing.
3. Communication of the results of the examination - The results of the examination conducted will be
communicated to the requesting party in the form of a written report which must include an enumeration
of the articles received for examination with detailed description of the packing, sealing, and labelling,
date of receipt and from whom received, the purpose of the examination, the findings and conclusion. The
findings should include a brief but sufficient record of all significant facts noted during examination.
4. Court Appearance - The written report of the chemist is usually supplementary at a later date by oral
evidence if the case is brought to court or fiscal's office. In court appearance the witness must be
composed and as much as possible avoid being irritated by upbraiding of the opposite counsel. As
Brouarded said: "If the law has made you witness, remain a man of science. You have ni victim to
avenge, no guilty or innocent person to ruin or save. You must bear witness within the lìmits of Science."
Six Golden Rule in the Practice of Forensic Chemistry:
1. Go slowly: good work cannot be hurried, therefore take all the time necessary to make the case
complete, no matter how urgent it may appear or how pressing others may be of the result; it is generally
possible to adjourn a case if the work cannot be finished in time
2. Be thorough: make a careful and minute examination of everything and do not be satisfied with a
qualitative analysis if a quarantine one be possible; it always pays to do too much rather than too little and
it is difficult to forensee what will or will not be requires in Court.
3. Take notes: keep a full, neat and clear record or everything seen and done.
4. Consult others: many cases will lead the expert into paths with which he is not familiar, and when this
happens he should consult others who are most likely to be know.
5. Use imagination: this is somewhat hazardous advice, since an expert with a vivid and uncontrolled
imagination is a most dangerous person, a disciplined imagination, however, which enables inferences
and deductions to be made from slender and incomplete premise is often very useful.
6. Avoid complicated theories: the simplest explanation is usually the right one.
In the investigation of crimes, whether crime against person or property, or even crimes against the state,
physical evidence is one of the most important factors that should be given special attention. The
prosecuting fiscal may win or lose case on the physical presented to him by investigator. It is probably the
most damaging evidence which can break down the hardened criminal. Unlike testimonial evidence,
physical evidence will not tell a lie.
However, these evidences that are very valuable become lost as far as prospective value is concerned.
Some of the primary reasons that may contribute this disaster are:
1. Improper packing of the specimen.
2. Failure to identify the specimen.
3. Improper precautions used in transmitting the specimen.
4. Improper preservation.
5. Lack of precaution to prevent tampering of the specimen.
In most instances the investigator mishandles the specimen without intention. He commits mistakes
neither due to sheer negligence nor thoughtfulness but rather due to ignorance of the proper method of
handling physical evidence. Sometimes these errors occur because the investigator is so much occupied
with he investigation and he has no time to take proper care of the specimen. He thus turns over the
specimen to a clerk who takes charge of the packing and shipping of them. It is quite heart-breaking if
after spending laborious hours gathering these physical evidence, they become lost because of improper
packing.

Learning Activities:
1. Write your own reflection in a Microsoft word as to the definition of forensic
chemistry, the development of crime laboratory in the Philippines including scientific
evidence and submit it to my gmail.

2. Search in the internet as to the origin or crime laboratory in the Philippines including
scientific evidence and submit it to my gmail account.
Module-2 Blood and bloodstain

Objectives: at the end of chapter, the student can:

1. Understand the importance in the study of blood.
2. Differentiate preliminary test for blood, confirmatory, Precipitin and blood grouping
for dried blood.
3. Evaluate each test including precipitin test for blood also the collection, packing ,
preservation, and transportation.
BLOOD AND BLOODSTAINS
The significance of blood and bloodstains as evidence in crimes of violence is very obvious such that we
need not place emphasis on this. The test for the identification of blood is employed as an important part
of the routine investigation in many case of violent death. The specimen usually submitted is fresh blood
or fluid blood, dried blood and clotted blood. Very often it is brought to the laboratory in the form of
dried red or brown stains on weapons, clothing or other objects.
BLOOD - has been called the circulating tissue of the body. It is referred to as highly complex mixture of
cells, enzymes, proteins and inorganic substances. It is the red fluid of the blood vessels. Blood is opaque.
On treatment with either, water or other reagents becomes transparent and assumes lake color. It is faintly
alkaline. Normal pH is 7.35 to 7.45
COMPOSITION OF BLOOD
1. 45% Formed elements or the solid materials consisting chiefly of cells.
a. Red Blood Cells or ERYTHROCYTES - contains hemoglobin and carry oxygen to various cells in the
body. Circular, biconcave discs or rounded edges.
b. White Blood Cells or LEUKOCYTES - are masses of nucleated protoplasm. It defends the body from
invading microorganisms. Help fight infection. Blood Platelets or THROMBOCYTES- Cells that are
produced by the bone marrow and are necessary for proper clotting of blood. Normally responsible for the
retraction of blood clot.
2. 55% Plasma- the fluid or portion of blood where the cells are suspended. It is principally composed of:
a. Water (90%)
b. Solid (10%)- largely protein in nature and consists of albumen, several globulins and fibrinogen.
Albumen - the most abundant protein in the blood. It binds with many drugs.
Globulins - has an important role in the immune mechanism of the body. The globulins carry drugs as
well as sex and thyroid hormones, lipids amd iron.
Fibrinogen - the soluble precursor of fibrin, which forms blood clot.
PLASMA - the yellowish fluids of the blood in which numerous blood corpuscles are suspended. A
straw-yellow liquid formed when blood to which an oxalate has been added to prevent clotting is allowed
to stand.
SERUM - a straw-yellow liquid formed when clotted blood is allowed to stand for sometime and the
blood contracts.
IMPORTANCE OF STUDY OF BLOOD
1. As circumstantial or corroborative evidence against or in favor of the perpetrator.
2. As evidence in case of disputed parentage.
3. As evidence in the determination of the cause of death and the length of victim survived the attack.
4. As evidence in the determination of the direction of the case of victim or the assailant.
5. As evidence in the determination of the origin of flow of blood.
6. As evidence in the determination of the approximate time the crime was committed.

PROBLEMS IN THE STUDY OF BLOOD

1. Where blood has to be searched?
In the collection of bloodstains, usually attention is directed to clothing and weapons. We should also
look for bloodstain under the fingernails, linings of the pockets, seams and the folds of the garments of
the suspect, under the edges of the table, etc.
2. Collection, preservation, packing and transportation of specimen suspected to contain blood.
Blood offers little resistance to decomposition. It undergoes a rapid change in its character with the
passage of time as process of clotting and drying commences almost immediately on exposure to air.
Sodium fluoride may be added to blood to preserve it for a week room temperature or infinitely in a
refrigerator. Between 40-50 C is the ideal preserving temperature for blood and other perishable
specimens. Collection of bloodstain should be done as soon as possible. Mere washing of
garment/clothing removes the blood.
3. Does the stain contain blood or another substance?
The examination of the specimen should determine if the stain is blood, if it is animal or human blood,
what blood, groups are present.
THE CHRONOLOGICAL TEST FOR BLOOD
1. PRELIMINARY TEST - determines whether the stains contain blood or another substance. It is used to
demonstrate the presence of blood. It determines whether visible stains do or do not contain blood.
2. CONFIRMATORY- test that possibly identify blood. Determines whether bloodstain really contains
blood.
3. PRECIPITIN TEST - determines whether the stain is of human or animal origin. Determines whether
the blood is of human or non-human origin, and if non-human, the specific animal family from which is
originated.
4. BLOOD GROUPING TEST - determines the blood if human blood.

I. PRELIMINARY TEST FOR BLOOD

A. THE BENZIDINE TEST
An extremely sensitive test that can be applied to minute stain. For many years the most commonly used
preliminary test for blood. Its use has generally been discontinued, as it is known carcinogen. A very
delicate test and will detect blood when present in dilution of 1:300,000 parts. The benzidine test never
fails to detect blood even when very old decomposed stain with all sorts of contamination is examined.
This test is more sensitive than guaiacum test and is valuable as a negative result. If the stain reacts
negatively it is not blood. The positive result is only indicative that blood may be present.
Reagent: a. Benzidine solution (a small amount of powdered benzidine dissolved in glacial acetic acid)
b. 3% solution of hydrogen peroxide
Procedure: Place a small fragment/portion of the stained material on a filter paper. Add drop of benzidine
solution and then a drop of hydrogen peroxide solution.
Positive Result: Intense blue color produced immediately.
Limitation of the Test: Benzidine test is not specific test for blood. Positive result may be obtained from
the substances as sputum, pus, nasal secretion, plant juices, formalin, clay and gum. The reaction is
weaker and produce faint coloration
B. THE PHENOLPHTHALIEIN TEST
An alternative test to benzidine test. It can detect blood in a dilution of 1:80,000,000 parts. A positive
result with this test is highly indicative of blood. The negative result is therefore valuable and is
conclusive as to the absence of blood.
Reagent: a. Phenolphthalein solution (1 to 2 grams of phenolphthalein to 100 ml of a 25% potassium
hydroxide in water added with one gram of zinc powder heated until colorless).
b. 3% solution of hydrogen peroxide
Procedure: Place a small fragment/portion of the standard material on a filter paper. Add a drop of
phenolphthalein solution and then a drop of hydrogen peroxide solution.
Positive result: Rose color develops/deep pink/ permanganate color.
Limitation of the Test: The test is also given by copper salts, potatoes and horseradish.
C. THE GUAIACUM TEST
A fairly delicate test showing the presence of fresh blood in a solution of 1:50,000 dilution. It may not
react to very old stain.
Reagent: a. Fresh tincture of guaiac resin (few lumps of this to 95% alcohol, then filter)
b. 3% hydrogen peroxide solution or few drops of turpentine.
Procedure: Place a small piece of the stained fabric on a porcelain dish. Soak with fresh tincture of guaiac.
Add few drops of hydrogen peroxide.
Positive result: Beautiful blue color that appears immediately.
Limitation of the Test: The test also reacts with saliva, pus, bile, milk, rust, iron salts, cheese, glutten,
potatoes, perspirations and other oxidizing substances.
D. THE LEUCOMALACHITE GREEN TEST
This test is not as sensitive as the benzidine test.
Reagent: a. Leucomalachite green solution (1 gram leucomalachite green dissolved in 48 ml glacial acetic
acid and diluted to 250 ml water).
b. 3% hydrogen peroxide
Procedure: Place a small pieced of a stained fabric on a filter paper. Add a drop of Leucomalachite green
solution and after a few seconds add a drop of hydrogen peroxide.
Positive result: Malachite green or bluish green
E. THE LUMINOL TEST
An important presumptive identification for blood. The reaction of luminal with blood results in the
production of light rather than color. By spraying luminal reagent onto a suspected item, large areas can
be quickly screened for the presence of bloodstains. The sprayed object must be located in a darkened
area while being viewed for the emission of light. Luminol test is extremely sensitive test. It is capable of
detecting bloodstains diluted up to 10,000 times. Luminol is known to destroy many important blood
factors necessary for the forensic characterization of blood, so its use should be limited only to seeking
out blood invisible to the naked eye.
Positive result: Luminescence or emission of light.
PRINCIPLE INVOLVED IN THE FOUR PRELIMINARY COLOR TEST FOR BLOOD
The peroxidase present in hemoglobin acts as career of oxygen from the hydrogen peroxide to the active
ingredients of the reagents (benzidine, guaiac, phenolphthalein and leucomalachite) and produces the
characteristic colored compounds by oxidation.
Peroxidase- is an enzyme that accelerates the oxidation of several classes of organic compounds by
peroxide.
II. THE CONFIRMATORY TEST FOR BLOOD
The actual proof that a stain is blood consists of establishing the presence of the characteristic of blood
pigment hemoglobin or one of its derivatives. Hemoglobin is the red coloring matter of the red blood cells
of the blood.
THE THREE CONFIRMATORY FOR BLOOD
The three confirmatory tests for blood that determine whether stain is really blood are:
1. Microscopic test
2. Microchemical test or microcrystalline test
3. Spectroscopic test
A. THE MICROSCOPIC TEST FOR BLOOD
Microscopic test is useful for the demonstration and mensuration of blood corpuscles for making the
investigation of menstrual, lochial and nasal charges. In short it differentiates mammalian, avian, piscine
and reptilian blood.
Method of Microscopic Examination:
1. Take two small fragments of the dried blood.
2. Place each fragment on separate slides with a drop of 0.9% salt solution.
3. The slides are put in a covered dish to prevent evaporation and the preparation allowed to stand for 1-2
hours.
4. One of the slides is examined as wet preparation.
5. The other preparation is spread evenly over the slide, allowed to dry and stained by:

a. Fix preparation in absolute methyl alcohol for 3 minutes. Stain in a 0.5% aqueous solution of eosin for
1-3 minutes. Loffer's methylene blue is added for 1-3 minutes. Eosin stains the red blood cells, while
methylene blue stains the nuclei.
b. Fix smear with methyl or ethyl alcohol for 3 minutes. Pour off alcohol and flood smear with Geimsa's
stain. Stain for 15 minutes, cover to prevent evaporation, wash in water and dry.
c. Wright's Stain- The smear is flooded with the stain and allowed to stand for a minute. Distilled water is
added until a metallic scum forms on the surface. Let stand for 3 minutes, wash with water and dry.
Visible results:
1. Mammalian red blood cells- circular, biconcave discs with nucleus. Appear as characteristics non-
nucleated discs. Exception is camel and closely related animal as llama whose red blood cells are oval but
also without nucleus.
2. Birds, fish and reptile red blood cells- larges, oval and nucleated.
3. Amphibian red blood cells- are larger than mammals, oval and nucleated.
4. Lamprey eel red blood cells- circular and nucleated.
B. THE MICROCHEMICAL TEST AND MICROCRYSTALLINE TEST FOR BLOOD
The identification of blood can be made more specific if microchemical or microcrystalline test is applied
or performed. Takayama test and Teicmann test are the most popular ones.
The Three Microchemical and Microcrystalline Test for blood
1. Teicmann Haemin Reaction or Teicmann Test or Haemin Crystals Test
2. Acetone-Haemin Test
3. Haemochromogen Crystal Test or Takayama Test
a. THE TEICMANN TEST
The test depends on the addition of the specific chemicals to the blood so that characteristics crystals with
hemoglobin will be formed.
Reagent: Sodium chloride, glacial acetic acid
Procedure: Place a minute fragment of the stain on a glass slide. Add a small crystal of sodium chloride
and 2 to 3 drops of acetic acid. Place cover slip and heat gently over small flame to evaporate the acid.
Cool. Examine under the high power objective.
Positive result: Dark brown rhombic crystal of haemin or haematin chloride arranged singly or in cluster.
Limitation of the test: The test is also given by indigo-dyed fabrics. If the stain is old or washed or is
changed by chemical reagents, the crystals are not formed. The addition of too much salt or presence or
moisture in the acid or over-heating of the slide may result in failure.
b. THE ACETONE-HAEMIN TEST
The test depends on the addition of specific chemicals to the blood so that characteristics crystal with
hemoglobin will be formed.
Reagent: Acetone, dilute acetic acid or oxalic acid
Procedure: Place dried stain on a glass slide and cover with cover slip with a needle interposed to prevent
direct contact of the cover slip with the slide. Add a drop of acetone then a drop of acetic acid.
Positive result: Small dark, diachronic acicular crystals of acetone haemin.
c. THE HAEMOCHROMOGEN CRYSTAL TEST OF THE TAKAYAMA TEST
A delicate test for the presence of hemoglobin. The test depends on the addition of specific chemicals to
the blood so that characteristic crystals of hemoglobin derivatives will be formed.
Reagent: Takayama reagent (3 ml of 10% sodium hydroxide, 33 ml of pyridine, 3 cc of saturated glucose
solution and diluted with 7 ml water)
Procedure: Place a small piece of suspected material on a glass slide. Add a drop of takayama reagent.
Cover with a glass slip.
Positive result: Large rhombic crystals of a salmon pink color arranged in cluster, sheaves and
other forms that appear within 1 to 6 minutes when viewed under the low power objective. To
hasten result heat may be applied.
C. THE SPECTROSCOPE TEST FOR BLOOD
The most delicate and reliable test for the determination of the presence of blood in both old and recent
stains. This test is performed by means of an optical instrument known as Spectroscope, an optical
instrument for forming and examining spectra.
Procedure: Dissolved bloodstain in water or saline solution. Place in small chamber (glass) with parallel
sides so arranged that the rays of light will pass directly through it. The chamber is placed in the
spectroscope and the instrument is so adjusted that the spectrum is clearly visible.
Positive result: Upon absorbing some of the rays from the spectrum, it produced characteristic dark
colored bands, which vary with the type of blood pigment.
Example: oxyhemoglobin is marked by two bands, hemoglobin-broad band, carboxyhemoglobin its
spectrum similar to oxyhemoglobin.
PRINCIPLE INVOLVED IN THE SPECTROSCOPIC TEST: The absorption properties of
translucent colored fluids can be observed on the solar spectrum.
III. THE PRECIPITIN TEST FOR BLOOD
The precipitin test is the standard test used to determine whether the stain/blood is of human or animal
origin. The precipitin test is very sensitive and requires only a small amount of blood for testing. Human
bloodstain dried for as long as 10 to 15 years and longer may still give a positive precipitin reaction. Even
extracts of tissues from mummies four to five years old have given positive reaction with the test.
Experience has shown that human bloodstain dilluted by washing in water and left with only a faint color
may still yield a positive precipitin reaction.
Reagent: Precipitin/antiserum
Procedure: Scrape off bloodstain if on hard material. Powder the scrapings and extract with saline
solution. If the stain is cloth, paper or similar material, cut a small portion and then place in a test tube and
add extract with saline solution. Allow mixture to stand overnight. Centrifuge to clean the solution. Dilute
with saline solution. Layer an extract of the bloodstain on top of the human antiserum/precipitin in a
capillary tube.
Positive Result:
1. Development of a white cloudy line at the contact point of the fluids that appears immediately or
within one or two minutes.
2. Human blood, or for that matter, any protein of human origin in the extract will react
specifically with anti-bodies present in the serum as shown by the formation of cloudy ring or band
at the interface of the two liquids.
Principle Involved in the Precipitin Test:
When a rabbit is injected with a human blood serum or whole human blood, the precipitin that develops
in its serum will react with the protein of human blood serum, other human body fluids and other human
tissue extracts. The reaction is a specific one and if positive, will identify blood proteins or any other
protein as human origin.
Limitation of the Test:
The precipitin reacts not only with blood proteins but also with other body proteins as those in saliva,
semen, mucus and other body fluids. Fot this reason the test does not identify specifically human body but
not only a protein material from the specific animal type. In order that a conclusion of human blood is
arrived the precipitin test must be corroborated by supplementary chemical, microscopic or spectroscopic
tests.
The specificity and delicacy of the precipitin reaction is great, but the reaction may be inhibited or even
destroy by a number of factors
Chemicals like acid, alkalis, alcohols, cresols, formaldehyde, corrosive sublimate or other germicide may
alter blood to such as extent that the reaction cannot be formed. Heat had the same effect. Fluid blood
looses its power of reacting with antiserum if its is heated from 60 to 90 C, while dried blood may stand
150. Rust and postmortem decomposition may react with it poorly. Old stains may be identified after long
period of time.

IV. THE BLOOD GROUPING TEST OF FRESH BLOOD

If the specimen is human foot blood test next question is did it come from the victim, the accused or from
other persons? So the origin of blood or bloodstains will be determined by the identification of the blood
groups to which it belongs, in short to what blood group does it belong? This identification is carried out
on both fresh blood and bloodstains. Human blood of all races can be divided into definite groups.
In the blood grouping of fresh blood A-B-O System is used. It was Land Steiner who discovered the four
blood groups namely Group O, Group A, Group B, Group AB. He named the four groups on the basis of
the agglutinogen or antigen content of the red blood cells. Antigens are characteristics chemical structure
or "principles" that are found on the surface of each red blood cell, which stimulates the production of
agglutinins. There are two agglutinogens classified as agglutinogen A and agglutinogen B on the other
hand serum contains proteins or "principles" known as antibodies or agglutinins, which cause
agglutimation or clumping together of the red blood cells. They are antitoxin substance within the body?
which reacts when confronted with a specific antigen to protect the system. There are two agglutinins
classified as anti-A and anti-B in the serum. Agglutinogen A and B are present at birth while agglutinins
are demonstrable in about 50% of newly born infants. If an individual belongs to group A this indicates
that his red blood cells has agglutinogen A located on its surface. Similarly all group B person O persons
have antigen B, all group AB persons have antigen A and antigen B or group O persons have neither
antigen A nor antigen B.
When the serum of Group A blood was examined, anti-B was found present and no anti-A. Similarly
Group B blood contains only anti-A, Group O has both Anti- A and Anti- B and group AB blood contains
either Anti-A or Anti-B.
Heredity Of The Blood Groups
(Inheritance Of Blood Groups)
Knowledge of the laws of genetics will make it easier to understand the principle involved in the
inheritance of blood groups. The inheritance of human blood groups is predetermined by the presence or
absence in the chromosomes of two factors or genes called gene A and gene B. Since each body cell has a
pair of chromosomes, each of which carries or fails to carry one of these factors, an individual's genetics
constitution may be represented by AB, AA, AO, BB, BO, or OO where O represents the absence in the
chromosomes of either the A or B factor. In the joining of the ovum and spermatozoon during in the
chromosomes of the parents called zygote. If the genes are homozygous or pure i.e. they are alike, and
they are the same in both the father and mother, the characters are transmitted unchanged from generation
to generation. If the two genes are not the same which is called heterozygous òr hybrid a new
combination will arise in the next generation.
Beinsten's Theory Of Blood Group Inheritance
Beinsten's theory postulates the presence of three allelic genes A, B and O. According to him the blood
group of any individual is determined by combinations of A, B and O in a particular pair of
chromosomes. One gene is derived from the father and the other gene from the mother. Genes A and B
are dominant over gene O. A and B determined the presence of the corresponding agglutinogens, while O
determines their absence. The possible combination of this three games arranged in pairs give rise to six
different genotypes corresponding to the four phenotypes or the blood groups. There are ten different
matings possible between the four blood groups.
Definition of terms
1. Gene- any complex chemical units in the chromosomes by which hereditary characteristics are
transmitted. Occurs in pair. A factor occuring singly in a gamete. There are two genes or factors called
gene A and gene B. These are found in the chromosomes. Since chromosomes go on pair, each of which
carries or fails to carry one of these genes and an individual's genetic constitution may be represented by
AA, AB, BB, BO, AO, OO which are called genotypes, where O represents the absence in the
chromosomes of either the A or B gene. Responsible for the transmission of hereditary characteristics.
2. Chromosomes- any of the microscopic rod-shaped bodies bearing genes responsible for the
transmission of hereditary characteristics. Are observed to occur in pairs.
3. Phenotypes- term used to denote the expression of the inherited characteristics as found in the
individual. Actually the blood groups.
4. Genotypes- are paired genes. It is either homozygous or heterozygous.
5. Homozygous genotype or pure genotype- paired genes are similar.
6. Heterozygous genotype or hybrid- paired genes are dissimilar or not alike.
7. Gamete- sexual cells; reproductive cell that unites with one another to form cell that develops into a
new individual.
8. Sperm cell or microgamete - male sexual cell.
9. Egg cell or macrogamete- female sexual cell.
10. Zygote- pair of genes occuring in a gamete produced during fertilization. Cell formed by the union of
an ovum and sperm.
11. Alleles- pairs of contrasting genes, which determines the expression of the inherited characteristics of
an individual.
The M-N System of Blood Group
In 1927 Landsteiner and Levine discovered two new agglutinogens in human red blood cells that define
three types of blood, namely Type M, Type N, Type MN. These are independent of the agglutinogens A
and B. The human sera, however do not contain natural agglutinins for M. The agglutinins can be
demonstrated only by heter-agglutination reaction and just like Anti-A and Anti-B, it determines the
presence of agglutinogen M and N in the red blood cells.
Inheritance Of The Three M-N Types
Six different matings are possible between the three blood types. Types MN is always heterozygous. The
heredity of agglutinogens M and N according to Landsteiner and Levine depends upon a single pair of
allelic genes M and N which give rise to the three genotypes MN, M and N respectively.
Groupings Of Dried Bloodstains
A absorption technique or absorption-elution technique is an indirect grouping technique of bloodstains
and it depends on the detection of agglutinogen in the dried blood.
In dried blood grouping one cannot use the direct method as used in grouping of fresh blood because in
direct grouping the identification of A and B antigens is accomplished by directly reacting the blood with
Anti-A and Anti- B serum. In dried blood, the red blood cells are already ruptured due to dying, leaving
no cells in the stain to be agglutinated. However, although the cells may have disintegrated, the antigens
present on their surface remain and are still identifiable by indirect means.
IMPORTANT OF BLOOD GROUP DATA
Question of illegitimacy and relationship in many cases may be solved by means of blood groups as
determined by the agglutinogens A, B, M and N.
1. Determination of whether a man accused of fathering a child out of wedlock could or not be its parents.
2. Determination of whether a child born of a married woman could or could not have been fathered by
her legal spouse.
3. Determination of whether a child could or could not belong to a given set of parents in the case of
accidental interchange of infants in hospital.
4. Determination of whether a child who has been lost and later recovered after a long interval could or
could not belong to a given set of parents.

Learning Activities;

1. Write your own reflection in a Microsoft word as to the importance in the study of
blood.

2. Search in the internet as to the preliminary test for blood, confirmatory, Precipitin
and blood grouping for dried blood.

3. Illustrate in your activity notebook your conclusion, how to collect, pack,

preservation, transit and submit your final report to my gmail account.

Module-3 Semen and seminal stain

Objectives: at the end of chapter, the student can:
1. Understand the parts of the semen where semen can be found.
 2. Differentiate collection, preservation, packaging and transit of semen stained
specimen.
3. Illustrate the physical examination, chemical examination and the microscopic
examination of semen and seminal stained.
SEMEN AND SEMINAL STAIN
The examination of semen and seminal stains is an important part in the routine investigation of
sexual offenses like cases of rape, adultery, sodomy, bestriality and sexual homicide.
SEMEN – A whitish fluid of the male reproductive tract consisting of spermatozoa suspended in secretion
of accessory glands.
PARTS OF THE SEMEN
a. Seminal Fluid – has characteristics alkaline odor, it is vised, gelatinous and sticky. Becomes more
liquid in character when exposed to air for one or half-hour due probably to enzymatic reaction. Slightly
alkaline in reaction.
b. Formed Cellular Elements which includes:
1. Spermatozoa or Sperm Cell - Small objects with a pear-shaped head behind is a short neck and
then a tail ten times as long as the head.
2. Epithelial Cells
3. Crystal of Choline and Lecithin
One point five (1.5) ml to 3.5 mL is the normal quantity of seminal fluid in single ejaculation 400 to 500
million is the total number of spermatozoa contained in a single ejaculate from a healthy young man.
CASES WHERE IN EJACULATION HAS NO SPERMATOZOA
1. Males suffering from aspermia.
Aspermia – a condition wherein males have no spermatozoa at all in their seminal fluid.
2. Males suffering from oligospermia.
Oligospermia – a condition whereby males have abnormality low sperm counts or with few spermatozoa.
These two diseases can be taken from excessive sexual intercourse. Those suffering from chronic
epididymitis and ither testicular diseases. Also taken from chronic venereal diseases.
WHERE SEMEN CAN BE FOUND
1. As Fresh
a. Vaginal contents of the victim
b. Rectal contents of the victim
2. As Wet or Dried Condition
a. Hair
b. Skin around the genitals
3. As Dry Stains
a. Underclothing
b. Bed clothing
COLLECTION, PRESERVATION, PACKAGNG AND TRANSIT SEMEN STAINED
SPECIMENS
1. Seizure of wearing apparel must be done as soon as possible. It often happened that washing the
clothes, chemise, panties and trousers has destroyed important traces, skirts are the most common parts of
wear apparel carrying seminal stain.
2. In packing of wearing apparel there should be no friction between the apparel and the stain. The
packing of wearing apparel or objects carrying seminal stain must be made in such a manner that there is
no friction against the stain. Semen in dried condition is very brittle and is liable to break into small
particles which can be lost. Friction may cause the breaking of the spermatozoa.
3. Specimen should not be rolled for transit. Gently lay between two sheets of cardboard or similar
material which are tied together with a string to avoid friction.
4. Smaller objects like hair should be placed in a test tube and corked.
SEMEN AND SEMINAL STAIN
The examination of semen and seminal stains is an important part in the routine investigation of
sexual offenses like cases of rape, adultery, sodomy, bestriality and sexual homicide.
SEMEN – A whitish fluid of the male reproductive tract consisting of spermatozoa suspended in secretion
of accessory glands.
PARTS OF THE SEMEN
a. Seminal Fluid – has characteristics alkaline odor, it is vised, gelatinous and sticky. Becomes more
liquid in character when exposed to air for one or half-hour due probably to enzymatic reaction. Slightly
alkaline in reaction.
b. Formed Cellular Elements which includes:
1. Spermatozoa or Sperm Cell - Small objects with a pear-shaped head behind is a short neck and
then a tail ten times as long as the head.
2. Epithelial Cells
3. Crystal of Choline and Lecithin
One point five (1.5) ml to 3.5 mL is the normal quantity of seminal fluid in single ejaculation 400 to 500
million is the total number of spermatozoa contained in a single ejaculate from a healthy young man.
CASES WHERE IN EJACULATION HAS NO SPERMATOZOA
1. Males suffering from aspermia.
Aspermia – a condition wherein males have no spermatozoa at all in their seminal fluid.
2. Males suffering from oligospermia.
Oligospermia – a condition whereby males have abnormality low sperm counts or with few spermatozoa.
These two diseases can be taken from excessive sexual intercourse. Those suffering from chronic
epididymitis and ither testicular diseases. Also taken from chronic venereal diseases.

WHERE SEMEN CAN BE FOUND

1. As Fresh
a. Vaginal contents of the victim
b. Rectal contents of the victim
2. As Wet or Dried Condition
a. Hair
b. Skin around the genitals
3. As Dry Stains
a. Underclothing
b. Bed clothing
COLLECTION, PRESERVATION, PACKAGNG AND TRANSIT SEMEN STAINED
SPECIMENS
1. Seizure of wearing apparel must be done as soon as possible. It often happened that washing the
clothes, chemise, panties and trousers has destroyed important traces, skirts are the most common parts of
wear apparel carrying seminal stain.
2. In packing of wearing apparel there should be no friction between the apparel and the stain. The
packing of wearing apparel or objects carrying seminal stain must be made in such a manner that there is
no friction against the stain. Semen in dried condition is very brittle and is liable to break into small
particles which can be lost. Friction may cause the breaking of the spermatozoa.
3. Specimen should not be rolled for transit. Gently lay between two sheets of cardboard or similar
material which are tied together with a string to avoid friction.
4. Smaller objects like hair should be placed in a test tube and corked.
5. Specimen must be thoroughly dried before packing. Presence of moisture certain bacteria act on
the protein constituents of semen, digest the dried protein and thus destroy is stiffness.
6. Fluid semen should be placed in a test tube. It may be preserved by a few drops of toulol or 10%
solution of formation during hot weather there is danger of putrefaction.
THE EXAMINATION OF SEMEN AND SEMINAL STAIN
There are four examinations for seminal stains or seminal fluid in the form of stains namely:
A. Physical Examination
B. Microscopic Examination
1. Florence test
2. Barberio’s test
3. Acid Phosphate test
C. Microscopic Examination
D. Biological Examination

A. THE PHYSICAL EXAMINATION OF SEMINAL STAIN

a. Semen when dry gives stuff, starchy feeling to the cloth and produces slight deepening of the
color with the disappearance of the odor. Stiffness disappears if specimen is not properly dried in open
air. Presence of moisture, bacteria will act on the protein constituent or semen, digest the dried protein
thus destroy its stiffness. Also the bacteria will remove the albunimous matter and also disintegrate the
spermatozoa.
b. Seminal stain exhibits bluish fluorescence under the ultraviolet light. Ultraviolet light is used to
locate invisible seminal stain on cloth. It gives bluish fluorescence provided the cloth is clean and not
dark colored. Bluish fluorescence is not specific of seminal stains and may be seen in some other
albuminous materials,
c. Grayish white, sometimes yellowish stain which is typical of seminal fluid.
d. Have appearance or outline of contour map.
e. May have reddish tint in case of old man.
B. THE CHIMECAL EXAMINATION OF SEMINAL STAINS
1.Florence Test – Thus is known after the name of Dr. Flornence of Lysons, who first introduced it.

Reagent/Chemicals:
Florence regeant (1.65 gram potassium iodine and 25 grams iodine 30 cc of water)
Procedure:
1. Cut a portion of the stain and divide into small bits then soak in saline solution.
2. Transfer into slide, tease ad evaporate the fluid.
3. Add a drop of Florence reagent and cover with cover slip.
4. Examine under microscope.
Visible/Positive Result: Crystals of choline periodide, which are dark brown, rhombic or needle shaped
that occur singly or in cross or even grouped in clusters. It resembles haemin crystals in shape, size and
color.
 Negative reaction maybe due to absence of seminal fluid or spermatic fluid may have not racted
with the reagent due to the very low choline content because of over dilution. Florence test is only
preliminary, presence of spermatozoa confirms the presence seminal stain.
Limitation of Florence Test:
1. Clothes with seminal stains are not dried thoroughly so choline periodide is decomposed completely, so
result is negative.
2. If stain is wet and mixed with blood.
3. After 24 hours it is negative due to rapid decomposition but still spermatozoa can be detected.
4. Even after a long period (2 ½ years) it will give positive result with Florence test provided
thoroughly dried and preserved and if free from blood and other albuminous substance.
If the seminal stain contains too much albumen as it is mixed with blood, the albumen interferes
to some extent in the test by reacting with so much of the iodine as to leave too little for the production of
Florence’s crystals.
2. Barberio’s Test
Reagent/Chemical:
Saturated aqueous or alcoholic solution of picric acid.
Procedure:
1. Soak a piece of stained material in a 2.5% solution of trichloroacetic acid for one hour in a test
tube.
2. Centrifuge the test tube.
3. Get the clear liquid part and add to an equal amount of a saturated aqueous or alcoholic solution
of picric acid on a glass side.
4. Observe under a microscope.
Positive Results: Crystal that are slender yellow tinted, rhomboid needless with obtuse angle or
appear as ovoid crystals. These crystals are made of specimen pictrate.
Note: Barberio’s test is almost specific for human semen. Seminal stain as old as six years are said to
respond to this test. This test is carried out with fresh, dried or dissolved semen.
4. Acid Phosphate Test – This test is the best way to locate and at the same time characterized a
seminal stain. It had replaced the Florence test in reliability and was shown to be specific for human and
higher apes. The test is based fundamentally upon the extraordinarily high acid phosphate content of
human male ejaculate. Phosphate is the enzymes present in semen.
Reagent:
Na-a-naphtilphosphate and Fast Blue B Dye
Procedure:
1. Moisten with water a piece of filter paper.
2. Swab the stained area with the filter paper.
3. The acid phosphatase will be transferred to the filter paper.
4. Add a drop or two of sodium alpha-naphtylphosphate and Fast Blue B dry.

Positive Result: Purple color. Purple color is indicative of acid phosphatase.

Alternative Acid-phosphatase Test Procedure:
Reagent: 23 grams of sodium chloride, 0.55 ml of glacial acetic acid, 2 grams of sodium acetate trihydrate
in 90 ml water, a suspension of 30 mg of athraquinone 0 1 diazonium chloride and 50 grams of calcium –
1 naphtyl phosphate in 1 ml of 1% aerosol.
Procedure:
1. Treat the stained area in water bath a pH 5 containing alpha-naphthyl phosphate as a substance
and anthraquinone – 1- diazonium chloride.
2. Add the above reagents.
Positive Result: Orange-red pigment
Principle of the Test:
Alphanaphtol by the acid phosphatase combines with the diazonium salt to form the color. The
reaction takes place for 30 seconds on fresh stains.
Limitation of the Test: Blood lengthens the time but does not interfere.
C. THE MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF SEMEN AND SEMINAL STAINS
The chief purpose of microscopic examination is to determine the presence of spermatozoa. The
identification of spermatozoa is at present the only specific test for semen.
Procedure:
Determination of spermatozoa in fresh semen is relatively easier than in stains.
1. Transfer a drop of specimen to a glass slide.
2. Add a drop of water saline solution and cover with cover slip.
3. Examine under the high power objective.
4. Observe for the presence of spermatozoa.
Determination if spermatozoa in seminal stain.
1. A piece of material is teased on a slide in a drop of water.
2. Allow the smear to dry and then stain with Loffler’s methylene blue for a minute, wash with
water, dry and examine under the microscope.
Limitation of the Microscopic Test:
1. Absence of sperm does not prove that the stain have not been produced by human semen.
2. Elements which may obstruct detection of spermatozoa:
a. Nature of fabric
b. Age of stain
c. Condition to which the stain was exposed before reaching the laboratory.
d. Handling the specimen.
3. Some medical jurist believes that these can be no semen without the presence of spermatozoa, but
not tru in case of aspermia or oligospermia.
D. BIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION OF SEMEN AND SEMINAL STAIN
The spermato-precipitins are of value in the identification of seminal fluid in certain case like for
example, berstiality when it may be desirable to differentiate between the human seminal fluid from that
of an animal.
This test was originally proposed by Farnum in 1901. He injected human semen to a rabbit from
five to eight time of intervals from six to eight days. The serum obtained from the blood of the rabbit gave
a precipitate with birth recent and old recent and old emulsions of human semen. In 1928, Hektoem and
Rustinant showed that an antiserum produced by immunizing rabbits with human semen is both specie
specific and semen specific i.e.; it gives a positive reaction with human blood.
Limitation of the Test:
The bacterial action that produced disintegration of the spermatozoa in seminal stain is equally
effective in decomposing and digesting the protein constituents of semen that acts the antigen producing
antibodies. Such seminal stains with their protein constituents completely disintegrated cannot possibly
give a positive precipitin reaction.
OTHER STAINS OF MEDICO-LEGAL INTEREST
1. Obstetrical and gynecological stains. Examination at the scene of the crime in cases of criminal
abortion, infacticide and sex offenses may lead to the discovery of bed linen, towels, chemise, skirts,
mattresses, blankets etc. which have stains.
2. Excrements:
Adults – yellowish brown
Infant – greenish yellow
3. Paints stains: The criminal, in committing a crime may have brushed against a newly painted wall or
wall with loose water cement paint and may therefore carry some of the paint on his clothing.
4. Rust stains: Resembles bloodstains.
Rust – reddish-brown in color, insoluble in water and soluble in dilute acid.
5. Synthetic dyes: Resembles old bloodstains but can be recognized by treating with string acids and
alkaline.
6. Mineral stains: These are due to red paints containing oxides of iron.
7. Stains of vegetable origin: Stains resembling blood may be produced by fruit juices like mulberry,
mangosteen. Almost all of the above can be differentiated from bloodstains by active of chemicals. The
active reaction while blood does not.

Learning Activities:
1. Write your own reflection in a Microsoft word as to the importance in the study of
semen.

4. Search in the internet as to the collection, preservation, packaging and transit of

semen stained specimen.

2. Illustrate in your activity notebook your research base on your conclusion and
submit your final report to my gmail account.

Module-4 HAIR AND TEXTILE FIBERS

Objectives: at the end of chapter, the student can:

1. Understand the importance in the study hair and textile fibers.
2. Differentiate Collection, packing of hair, textile fibers evidence, test for hair and test
for fibers.
3. Illustrate each test the result in your activity notebook base on research, write your
conclusion and submit a final report to my gmail account.
HAIR AND TEXTILE FIBER

Hair examination is the one of the oldest forms of physical evidence. Its use is older than fingerprints.
It is valuable because the hair of each kind of animal is different and distinct for all others. Like fiber it is
mostly likely to be involved in contact between the victim and the suspect. Most crimes cause contact
between one person and another and there may be transfer of fibers and hairs the victim to the
criminal the vice versa. The successful investigation of crimes of violence such as rape, murder, assault,
kidnapping, hit and run, etc. are frequently materiality assisted by the result of the examination of the
hair and fibers . Hairs are very resistant to decomposition and putrefaction thus they often remain as a
means of identification long after other such as facial and fingerprints have been destroyed.

The work of Glaister Hussman and others has made relatively simple anf quite positive the
identification of hair as to species. In the negative sense human hair may often be definitely shown not
have come from a particular individual. The obvious difference in color, length and texture can
distinguish one hair from another and served to eliminate a suspect. The use of hair as a means of
positive identification is more uncertain and indeed no expert in his right mind/senses will venture to
give a definite statement as to individual origin of hair.
COLLECTION, PACKING, PRESERVATION AND TRANSPORTATION OF HAIR

1. All of the hair in the questioned specimens should be submitted but do not mix hairs at different
places.

2. In vicious assault and the murder cases, obtain the clothing of the victim from the hospital or morgue
to avoid the lost of evidence by careless handling and to prevent the clothing from being destroyed.

3. Representative samples of hair from the victim as well as the suspect should be obtained if possible.
To be a representative head hair samples from a particular individual it should consist of at least a dozen
hair from different areas of the scalp and preferably full length hair.

4. Don't mix known samples of hair from different parts of the body.

5. The hairs should be placed in a folded paper or in a white wailing envelope, but the corners of the
envelope should be sealed with scotch tape.

6. Do not secure the hair samples to a piece of the paper with Scotch tape because this will damage the
hair.

7. All foreign fibrous debris should be removed from the submitted specimen.

8. Fragmentary hairs or underdeveloped hairs are not suitable for examination.

9. Areas on an object containing hairs should be protected with cellophane or paper taped over the area
before wrapping the object from transmittal to laboratory.

Hair - is a specialized ephitilial outgrowth of the skin which occur everywhere on the human body except
on the palm of the hands and the sole of the feet. It is an appendage of the skin . Hair is not completely
round but may be oval or flattened. Its width is not always the same along its length. It starts out
pointed and narrow and then strays more or less the same.

Two Kinds of Hair (among mammals including human being)

1. Real Hair - generally long and stiff

2. Fuzz Hair - generally short, fine at times curly and wooly

Parts of the Hair

Anatomically hair is consists of three (3) parts namely:

1. Root - portion embedded in the skin

2. Shaft - portion above the surface of the skin . It is the most distinctive part of the hair.

3. Tip - sometimes termed point. The distal end of an uncut hair sharft.

THE HUMAN HAIR

Parts of the Shaft:

1. Cuticle - outermost covering of the hair. It is consist of one layer of non- nucleated polygonal cells
which overlaps like the scales on fish.
2. Cortex - the intermediate and the thickest layer of the shaft and is composed of elongated , spindle
shaped fibrils which cohere. They contain pigment granules in varying proportion depending on the
type of the hair.

3. Medulla or Core - is the central canal of the hair that may be empty or may contain various sorts of
cells more or less pigmented and begins more or less near the root.

Certain hair has medulla. Therefore hair can be classified into two categories namely:

1. Hair without medulla

2. Hair with medulla

MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF HUMAN HAIR

Before performing the examination take note of any foreign material on the hair and should be
identified if present in sufficient quantity. Hair should be cleaned with a mixture of equal parts of
alcohol and ether.

1. Color - a. with naked eye b. Under the microscope

Melanin - the brownish black pigment in the hair, skin , etc. It is chemical responsible for the color of the
hair. Black and brown hair differs only on the amount of melanin. Red hair is thought to be due to iron.

2. Length By Actual Measurement

3. Character of The hair - whether stiff, wiry or soft

4. Width Breath

5. Character of The Hair Tip if Present - Tip of the hair may show whether a hair had been cut. Tips of
body hairs become rounded from rubbing against the cloths. Hair of human usually shows a fine tip.
Men's hair tip is apt to be cut off square.

6. Manner By Which Hair Had Been Cut

7. Condition of Root or Base or Bulb of Hair

TWO KINDS OF ROOTS

1. Living roots - often found on hair in full growth

2. Dry roots - dead roots

The roots do not give much information as to the origin of the hair. Very often the root is missing on
hair found on cloth at the scene of the crime, on weapons, etc. The examination of the root will only
give clue as to whether the hair have been pulled away by the force it have fallen out spontaneously and
there are three possibilities:

1. All hairs have living roots - in case they have no fallen out themselves but have been pulled away by
force.

2. All hairs have dry roots - in the case they have most certainly fallen out themselves.
3. Some hairs have living and some dry roots - in this case they have been pulled away by force , the
living hairs with dry ones.

8. Character of Cuticle

The size, the general shape and the irregularity of the scales are observed.

9. Character of Cortex

Structural features are studied under the microscope. Cortex is embedded with the pigment granules
that impart hair with color. It is the color, shape and distribution of these granules that provides the
criminalist with important points of comparison between the hairs of the different individuals.

10. Presence of Dye in Hair

Dyed hair can be distinguished from natural hair. Under the microscope dyed hair has a dull
appearance and the color tone in constant, whereas natural is not and the individual pigment granules
stand more shapely. If there has been subsequent growth of the hair since dyeing, the undyed root end
portion will stand out markedly. Bleached hairs have a rough appearance, are more uniform in shade
and contain less pigment depending on the amount of bleaching. Dye absorption and chemical test have
been developed for the detection of bleached hair.

11. Determination of Whether Naturally or Artificially Curled

12. Character of Medulla

MEDULLA

The medulla and cortex are the most characteristic portion of the hair. Have more distinguished
quantities, thus cortex and medulla yields the most reliable criteria in diagnosis of hair.

LONGITUDINAL CROSS SECTION OF A HAIR

Medulla or core or the central canal of the hair can be continuous or interrupted. It is continuous in
large number of animals, very often interrupted in human monkey, horses.

Medullas diameter can be absolutely constant. At times alternately narrow and broader. The
diameter of the medulla is of very little importance but the relationship between the diameter of the
medulla and the diameter of the whole hair is the great importance.

Medullary Index (M.I) - is the relationship between the diameter of the medulla and the diameter of the
whole hair . Usually expressed in fraction. Its determination is performed under a microscope provided
with micro meter eyepiece.

1. Hair with narrow medulla (less than 0.5) belongs to human and certain monkey hair

2. Hair with medium (approximately 0.5) belongs to hair of cow, horse and others.

3. Hair with thick medulla ( greater than 0.5) almost all animals belongs to this .

Based on the medulla examination it can be determined whether hair is human or animal origin . The
medulla is usually narrower in width in human hair when present. Had finer and more numerous cross
striations. Animal hairs usually consist of both heavy guard hair and finer fur hair whereas human hair
does not.

COMPARISON BETWEEN HUMAN AND ANIMAL HAIR

HUMAN ANIMAL

1. Medullary index is less than 0.5 1. Medullary index is more than 0.5

2. Medulla may not be present 2. Medulla always present

3. Scale pattern is fine and each one 3. Scale is coarse and overlaps less than 1/2

Overlaps the other more than 4/5 4. Pigment granules are coarse

4. Pigment granules are fine.

OTHER ASPECTS OF HAIR EXAMINATION

1. Determination of characteristics by race

2. Determination of characteristics by sex

3. Determination of the region from which the human hair has been removed

4. Determination of the approximate age of individual

1. Characteristics by Race

In most instances it can be determined whether a human came from Negroid, Mongoloid or
Caucasian race.

Negroid Race Hair:

1. Contain heavy pigment distributed unevenly

2. A thin cross section of the hair is oval in shape

3. Hair is usually kinky with marked variation in the diameter along the sharft

Mongoloid Race Hair:

1. Hair contains dense pigment distributed more evenly than negroid race hair:

2. Cross section of the hair will be round to oval in shape.

3. Hair is course and straight with very little variation in diameter along the shaft of the hair.

4. Usually contains a heavy black medulla or core.

Caucasian Race Hair:

1. Hair contains very fine to course pigment and more evenly distributed than is found in negro or
Mongolian

2. Cross section will be oval to round in shape

3. Usually straight or wavy and not kinky

2. Characteristics by Sex:

Sex cannot be definitely determined from hair examination. Male hair is generally larger in diameter,
shorter in length , more wiry in texture than that of a female. Male hair average approximately 1/350 of
an inch in diameter. Female hair averages approximately 1/450 of an inch in diameter.

If a hair us as much as six inches in length and has a split end, these are good indication that the hair
us from a female, though not a positive proof. Pinning curling, brushing and combining the hair will
cause the tip ends to split. Most males have their haircut often enough to prevent having head hair with
split tip ends.

3. The region of the body from which the human hair has been removed

The region of the body from which the human hair has been removed can be determined with
considerable accuracy that is through length, size , color, stiffness curliness and general gross
appearance.

a. Scalp hair - they are more mature than any other kind of human hair.

b. Beard hair - course, curved, very stiff and often triangular in cross section.

c. Moustache - usually triangular in shape and very stiff.

d. Hairs from eyebrows, eyelid, nose and ear - short stubby and have wide medulla. Eyebrow and
eyelashes are usually very short and has a sharp tip.

e. Trunk hair - vary in thickness along the shaft and are immature but are somewhat similar to ahead
hairs. They have fine, long tip ends.

f. Limb hair - similar trunk hairs but usually are not so long or so course and usually contain less pigment.

g. Axillary hair - are fairly long with unevenly distributed pigment. They vary considerably in diameter
along the shaft and have frequently a bleached appearance. It has an irregular shape and structure.
Looks like public hair but the ends are sharper and the hair is not so curly.

h. Public hair - similar to axillary hairs but are coarser and do not appear bleached. More wiry, have
more construction and twist and usually have continuous broad medulla. Have many broken ends
because the clothing rubs off against it.

4. The approximate age of an individual through hair examination

The approximate age of an individual cannot be determined from hair examination with any degree
of certainty except in infants hairs. Infant hairs are fine, short in length, have the fine pigment and are
rudimentary in character.

Children's hair through adolescence is generally finer and more immature than adult hair cannot be
definitely differentiated with certainty.
 If it is noted that the pigment is missing or starting to disappear in the hair, it can be stated that the
hair is from adult. It is common for a relatively young person to have prematurely gray or white head
hair but not body hairs. The root end of hair from an aged person may show a distinctive degeneration.

Can we say definitely that the hair came from a certain individual?

The identification of a spicemen of hair as having been derived from a certain individual is always
difficult and in most cases impossible. If a number of strands are taken from a known source and
compared with another specimen, it is impossible to say with absolute certainty that they are identical
in origin no matter how similar they may be in appearance, both grossly and under the microscope.
Many individuals have hair that would present the same characteristics on examination and could not
be differentiated. It can be stated with certainty that the criteria available for hair examination are too
few and too ill defined to make this procedure a reliable means of identification. Negatively, the testhas
value exclude an individual if his were found different from the questioned sample.

TEXTILE FIBERS

Ingeneral and broad sense the word "textile" is derived from the latin word " textilis" and the French
"textere" , to weave, hence textile fiber means that can be converted into yarn. A yarns consist a fibers
or filaments that have been twisted together.

TEST FOR TEXTILE FABERS

1. Burning or Ignition test - It is preliminary macroscopic examination. A test that determines whether
fiber is mineral, animal or vegetable fiber.

Procedure:

A single fiber is applied with flame at one end and the following are noted:

a. Manner of burning

b. Odor of fumes

c. Appearance of burnt end

d. Color of ash

e. Action of fumes on moisten red and blue litmus paper

f. Effect of litmus on a piece of filter paper moistened with lead acetate

For animal fibers, fibers smoulder or burn slowly and give odor like that of burning feather. When
removed from the flame they do not continue to burn readily and a charred bead remains at the end of
the fiber. Fumes turn red litmus blue.

Wool - odor strong, disagreeable; fumes turn lead acetate paper black ir brown

Silk - odor not so pungent, fumes have no effect on lead acetate paper.

For vegetable fibers, fibers burn rapidly with a flame and give off but little smoke or fumes. Charred
bead not present when fiber is removed from the flame. Fumes turn blue litmus red.
2. Fluorescent Test - Frequently used to determine the general group to which a fiber belongs. It is not
reliable for positive identification of fibers . In general, the vegetable fibers exhibit a yellow fluorescence
in ultra violet light, whereas the animal fibers show bluish fluorescence.

3. Microscopic Examination - In general, it is the most reliable and best means of identifyiy fiber. The
fiber is placed on a glass slide, teased and covered.

The following are the characteristics of common textile fibers:

Cotton: Unicellular filament, flat, ribbon like twisted spirally to right or left on its axis, central canal or
lumen broad uniform in diameter; cell wall thick, covered by a thin, structureless, waxy cuticle. Fiber
tapers gradually to a blunt or rounded point at one end.

Mercerized Cotton: Straight, cylindrical, with occasional twist; evenly lustrous, smooth except for
occasional transverse folds or wrinkles. Cuticle mostly lacking, lumen irregular in width.

Linen: Multicellular filament, straight and cylindrical, not twisted and flattened, tapering to a Sharp
point. Cell wall thick , the lumen appearing as a narrow dark line in the center of the fiber . Filament
marked by transverse lines at intervals causing the fiber to appear jointed, resembling bamboo. Cross
lines frequently interest appearing like the letter x.

Cultivated Silk: Smooth, cylindrical, lustrous threads , usually single but often double, the twin filaments
held together by an envelope of gum. More or less transparent, without definite structure.

Wild Silk: Similar to cultivated silk but broader and less regular in outline. Marked by very fine
longitudinal striations with infrequently diagonal cross markings.

Artificial Silk: Cylindrical, lustrous, appearing like a glass rod. Microchemicals reaction dissolved rapidly
by half saturated chromic acid, not colored by Millons reagent as in case of true silk.

Wool: Easily distinguished by presence of flattened, over lapping epidermal scales not found on silk or
any of the vegetables fibers. Fiber many celled , cylindrical , shaft composed of three layers, central core
or medulla (seldom seen) ,cortex and scaly cuticle.

4. Chemical Analysis of Fibers - If the sample submitted for analysis is fairly large, such as a piece of
cloth or a number or large threads, it is suggested that a criminal analysis be made to supplement the
microscopic examination and confirm the results obtained from that procedure.

A. Staining Test - The fiber is stained with picric acid, Millon's regeant, stannic chloride or iodine
solution.

B. Dissolution Test - If the fiber is white or light colored it is treated with the following chemicals. If
dyed, the fiber is first decolorized by boiling in either 1% hydrochloric acid, acetic acid or dilute
potassium hydroxide.

Learning Activities;

1. Write your own reflection in a Microsoft word as to the importance in the study of
Hair and textile fibers.
 2. Search in the internet as to the result of your study.

3. Illustrate in your activity notebook your conclusion, and submit your final report to
my gmail account.

Module-5 DETERMINATION OF PROBABLE GUNSHOT RANGE

Objectives: at the end of chapter, the student can:

1. Understand the importance in the study hair and textile fibers.

2. Differentiate Collection, packing of hair, textile fibers evidence, test for hair and test
for fibers.
4. Illustrate each test the result in your activity notebook base on research, write your
conclusion and submit a final report to my gmail account.
GUNPOWDER AND OTHER EXPLOSIVES
In the investigation of crimes involving the use of firearms, there most important problems may arise. The
first and probably importance is the problem of determining whether or not a person has fired a gun with
bare hands within a pertinent period of time. The other is the means of determining the probable gunshot
range i.e., the distance the firearm held from the body of the victim at the time of discharged. A third
problem may come up when the time of the firing of the gun becomes an issue.
Two kinds Of Gunpowder:
1. Black powder- because of its inherent defects modern ammunition plants abandoned the use of this.
2. Smokeless powder- is the most widely used propellant. It can either be a single base propellant or
double propellant.
Blackpowder- possibly the oldest known explosive. It is consists of an intimate mixture of charcoal- 15%,
sulfir- 10% and potassium or sodium nitrate -75%. When exploded in open space the following reactions
occurs.
Smokeless powder- the most widely used propellant. It is consists of cellulose nitrate or glyceryl nitrate
combined with cellulose nitrate and some stabilizers. Among the stabilizers used are nitrates, bichromates
and oxlates. Some of the organic stabilizers are nitrobenzene, graphite and Vaseline. Stabilizers are added
to reduce side reactions. These combine with the products of decomposition and may have a negative or
positive catalytic effect. When exploded the following reactions occur:
POSSIBLE LOCATIONS OF NITRATES WHEN BLACKPOWDER AND SMOKELESS
POWDER EXPLODE
It will be noticed that nitrates are present in both gunpowder so that one will expect to find nitrates (NO)
in the following:
1. Residue of the barrel of the gun
2. In or around the wound
3. On the clothing of the person fired upon at close range
4. On the exposed surface of the hand of the person firing the gun
FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE PRESENCE AND AMOUNT OF GUNPOWDER RESIDUES
a. Type and caliber of the ammunition- different types of ammunition fired in the same weapon and from
the same distance may give different pattern.
b. Length of the barrel of the gun- a weapon having a five inches barrel even though they are fired at the
same distance and with the same type of ammunition.
c. Distance of the muzzle of the gun from the target.
d. Humidity- affects the speed with which powder burns. Powder having lesser amount of moisture will
burn more rapidly and completely within a given time yielding greater amount of residue.
e. Wind velocity and direction- in high winds the residue will be blown in the directions of the wind
yielding a scattered pattern.
f. Direction of firing- firing vertically, slightly greater than firing horizontally from the same distance.
Powder residues have weight. When gun is fired downward or vertically all of the residence will fall on
the target, but when fired horizontally some of the residues are likely to fall short of the target.
I. DETERMINATION OF WHETHER OR NOT A PERSON FIRED A GUN WITH HIS BARED
HANDS
The burned residues are partially burned particles may escape around the breech of the gun and implanted
on the exposed surface of the hand firing the gun and the presence of this particles serves as a basis for
the diphenylamine-paraffin test (DPA- Paraffin Test).
THEORY UPON WHICH THE DIPHENHYDRAMINE PARAFFIN TEST I IS BASED
At the instance of discharge there is a certain amount of gases and mixture of burned residues and
partially burned particles that escape from the breech of the gun. These particles strike the exposed
surface of the hand holding the weapon and became implanted into the sin.
DIPHENHYDRAMINE PARAFFIN TEST or DERMAL NITRATE TEST or LUNGE
Diphenylamine Test- a test to determine whether a person fired a gun or not with bare hands.
Procedure:
a. Paraffin Test- the taking of the cast to extract ghee nitrates embedded or implanted in the skin.
b. Diphenylamine Test- the chemical aspect of the test. It determines the presence and distribution of
nitrates.
Reagent: Diphenhydramine reagent (0.5 gram diphenhydramine crystals dissolved in 100 ml of sulfuric
acid and 20 ml of water).
Visible Result: Deep blue specks that develop when nitrates come in contact with the
diphenylamine reagent.
Limitation of the Diphenylamine - paraffin test:
1. The test is not specific for nitrates since the role of nitrate is simply oxidizing agent. The test cannot
determine the source of nitrate.
2. There are other substances which contain nitrate oxidizing agents that are not in the ordinary course of
life fertilizers, explosives m, tobacco, firecrackers, urine, cosmetics and detergents.
3. In general persons do not have nitrates from other sources other than gunpowder or matter of common
occurence.
4. Hands contaminated with nitrates from other sources other than gunpowder or any oxidant one will
expect to find either a smear blue color or conglomeration of blue specks located at the different places of
the hand both dolsar and palmar aspects.
POSSIBILITIES THAT A PERSON MAY BE FOUND POSITIVE FOR NITRATES EVEN IF HE
DID NOT ACTUALLY FIRE A GUN
1. It is possible that the gunpowder particles may have been blown on the hand directly from the barrel of
the gun being fired by another person.
2. An attempt to shield the body by raising the hand would in some instances result in the implanting of
powder particles on the hand of the person close to one firing a gun.
POSSIBILITIES THAT A PERSON MAY BE FOUND NEGATIVE FOR NITRATES EVEN IF
HE DID NOT ACTUALLY FIRED A GUN
1. Use of automatic pistol 5. Use of gloves
2. Direction of the wind 6. Knowledge of chemicals that will remove the nitrates
3. Wind velocity
4. Excessive precipitation
The leakage of powder is apt to occur when the gun fired is old weapon where the breech mechanism is
no longer tightly titled and when the gun used is of the revolver type.
In cases involving shooting incidents where paraffin test is required, the person suspected to have fired a
gun should be subjected to diphenylamine paraffin test immediately and in no case should it be postponed
seventy-two (72) hours after shooting. It is possible to detect nitrates as late as three days even though the
hands have been washed. I our country the period is reduced to two days only due to excessive
perspiration.
II. DETERMINATION OF THE PROBABLE GUNSHOT RANGE OR THE DISTANCE THE
FIREARM WAS HELD FROM THE BODY OF THE VICTIM AT THE TIME OF DISCHARGE
The clothing of the victim with bullet perforation should be submitted for possible gunshot range.

HOW TO COLLECT, PRESERVE AND PACK CLOTHING

Clothing removed from the victim should be cautiously and careful handled to prevent powder residues
for becoming dislodge.
a. A large area as possible surrounding the gunshot hole should be made available for the test. If the
condition and the appearance of the wound point to a contact shot at all of the clothing in the path of the
bullet should be collected and submitted for examination.
b. Do not wad the specimen or pack it loosely for shipment. Secure the area to be rested between two
layers of heavy cardboard fastened together tightly prevent the specimen from becoming jostled about in
transit.
c. Each specimen should be wrapped separately.
d. Clothing heavily smeared with blood should be dried thoroughly before packing. If wet, they may
become mildewed or stick together in such a way that they will be unsuitable for the test.
The letter transmitted should contain all information as to existing circumstances and conditions known to
the investigator which may become helpful in making the test.
HOW TO DETERMINE THE PROBABLE GUNSHOT RANGE
The clothing is examined microscopically for possible powder residue, singeing, burning, smudging and
powder tattooing.
Singeing- slight burning
Smudging- blackening of area around the bullet hole
Tattooing- individual specks of nitrates around the bullet hole visible to the naked eye. It is black coarsely
peppered pattern.
THREE ZONES OF DISTANCES FROM WHICH A FIREARM WAS DISCHARGED
1. Those in which a muzzle of the gun was held directly in contact with the body or practically so.
2. Those in which the muzzle of the gun was held 2 inches to 36 inches away.
3. Those in which the muzzle of the gun was held beyond 36 inches.
Held directly in contact:
1. Gaping hole where fabric is badly torn;
2. Smudging;
3. Singeing of the fibers at the entrance;
4. And tattooing.
Presence of partially burned powdered residues around the entrance hole that may be embedded in the
fabric. This could be present originally but may have become dislodged by rough handling of the
specimen or may have been blown into the wound or may have been washed by bleeding.
Held from 2 inches to 8 inches(maximum): The smoke and soot from the burned powder will be
deposited around the hole of entrance producing a dirty grimy appearance (covered with soot, dirt
adhering or embedded on the surface). More pronounced when the ammunition used contains
blackpowder. Smudging around the perforation will be found to diminish in size as the muzzle of the gun
is held a distance of eight inches and all the blackening around the hole completely disappear and few
individual specks of tattooing will be visible with the naked eye. The size of the smudge depends upon
the caliber of the gun, type of powder used, length of the barrel, distance of the muzzle of the gun was
held from the body. The size of the area if the powder tattooing will also depend on the caliber, powder
charge and distance of firing. A close observation of the area surrounding the gunshot hole will show that
the granule mark or powder tattooing is not distributed evenly around the hole. A greater bulk of them is
deposited on one side of the hole. This is due to the fact that when cartridge is fired, the bullet leaves the
muzzle of the gun first, followed by the expanding gases and the burning powder. This cause the gun to
kick, throwing the muzzle off the target and this kick is slways towards the direction of the sights. The
kick of the gun causes the smudge and powder tattooing to be deposited more on one side of the hole than
on the other, and the side of the greatest deposit indicates the side on which the sights of the gun was
mounted. This observation is helpful in determining whether the wound was due to suicide or murder. If
the gun was discharged from a position in which the victim could not easily have held himself, it intends
to indicate a murder. The size of the area of powder tattooing will also depend on the caliber, powder
charge and the distance of firing.
Held from 8 inches to 38 inches: Tattooing is visible. The partially burned and unburned powder particles
will be driven into the surface around the gunshot hole producing a black coarsely peppered pattern called
tattooing.
Held beyond 36 inches: Evidence of powder tattooing is seldom present.
CHEMICAL TEST FOR GUNPOWDER RESIDUES
There are two methods of determining the presence of gunpowder residues around the gunshot hole
namely:
1. A method patterned after the diphenylamine-paraffin test.
Procedure: Coat a piece of clean gauze with a sufficient amount of paraffin to produce a layer of about
1/8 inch. Press this layer of paraffin while still warm against the area to be examined.
2. Walker's Test- This test is used if the powder particles are deeply embedded. It is based on the
conversion of nitrates to a dye.
Procedure:
1. Immerse the photographic paper in a new hypo solution for 15 minutes so that all silver salts are
dissolved.
2. The paper is washed in running water for one hour.
3. The desensitize paper is immerse in a 5 to 10% aqueous solution of C-acid (2-napthylamine-4, 8-
disculfonic acid) for ten minutes and then dry.
4. Lay a clean towel on the table and the prepared C-paper is laid face up on this.
5. The fabric to be examined is then laid face-down on the photographic paper.
6. Place a thin dry towel of cotton cloth moistened with 20 to 25% acetic acid.
7. Place another layer of dry towel.
8. Press the laminated arrangement with warm electric iron for ten minutes.
Visible Result: a number of orange, red spots are imprinted on the photographic paper.
Gunshot Range of Weapon Other Than Pistol and Revolver
1.Rifle- A weapon on high velocity projectile; Gunshot range is difficult to estimate due to high velocity
of the projectile and the wide variation produced on the wound of entrance. The tissue through which the
size of the wound closely approximates the size of the bullet.
2.Shotgun or Sporting gun – The projectile is a collection of small shot consisting of lead pellets that vary
in size with types of cartridge. The pellets disperse soon after their exit from the barrel and the dispersion
increases with the range.
b. The shot discharged from the average cylinder sporting gun will cluster has travelled approximately 3
to 4 feet from the muzzle of the weapon.
c. If a shot is fired closed to the body up to a few inches the shot enters as a mass and the liberated gas
and flame lacerate the tissue around the hole and show evidence of burning, carbon deposit and powder
tattooing.
d. When fired from 3 feet from the body up to a more or less irregular circular wound about 1 inches to 2
inches in diameter will be produced. There will be scorching, carbon deposit and power tattooing.
e. At a range over a yard and up to about 3 yards evidence of burning disappears and probably only faint
tattooing will be found.
f. Beyond a yard the entering shot produces an irregular wound and as a result of commencing dispersion
of the shots individual pellet holes may be detected.
lll. DETERMINATION OF THE PROBABLE TIME THE GUN HAS BEEB FIRED
In the determination of the approximate time of last discharge the specimen firearm is needed in
the examination.
At the Crime Laboratory, if the gun is examined immediately after the shooting the chemistry rely
more on the odor of the barrel. A character smell will be present that decrease in intensity with lapse of
time, as smell of hydrogen sulfide. If the gun is examined later presence of nitrate, nitrites, rust soot and
metallic fragments are determined.
Procedure- The barrel is swabbed with the aid of a barbecue stick and the presence of the following is
determined microscopically and chemically.
EXPLOSIVES
The Crime Laboratory does not only examine confiscated from some lawless elements of society that
they utilize for criminal purposes, but also explosives used in illegal fishing.
Explosive- is any substance that may cause an explosion by its sudden decomposition or combustion. A
material either a pure single substance or mixture of substance which is capable of producing an
explosion by its own energy. When exploded always accompanied with the liberation of heat and almost
with the formation of gas.
Explosives Can Be Classified as follows:
1. From the viewpoint of chemical composition
 2. With respect to functioning characteristics
CLASSIFICATION OF EXPLOSIVES FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF CHEMICAL
COMPOSITION
A. Inorganic Compound
Examples: Lead azide Pb(N) ; Ammonium nitrate NH NO
B. Organic Compound
Examples: Trinitrotoluence (TNT); picric acid (trinitrophenol);
nitrocellulose; mercury fulminate Hg (ONC)
C. Mixture of oxidizable materials and oxidizing agents that are not explosives separately
Examples: Blackpowder- used today mainly as igniter for nitrocellulose gun propellants and also in
pyrotechniques.
CLASSIFICATION OF EXPLOSIVES WITH RESPECT TO FUNCTIONING
CHARACTERISTICS
1. Propellant or Low Explosives - are combustible materials containing within themselves all oxygen
needed for their combustion which burn but do not explode and function by producing gas which
produces explosions.
Examples: blackpowder, smokeless powder, firecrackers and pyrotechniques
2. Primary Explosives or Indicators - explode or detonate when they are heated or subjected to shock.
They do not burn. Sometimes they do not even contain the elements necessary for combustion. The
materials themselves explode and the explosion results whether they are confined or not.
Examples: blackpowder, smokeless powder, firecrackers and pyrotechniques.
3. High Explosives - explode under the influence of the shock of the explosion of a primary explosive.
They do not function by burning, in fact not all of them can be ignited by a flame and in small amount
generally burn tranquilly and can be extinguished easily. If heated to a high temperature by external heat
or by their own combustion, they sometimes explode.
Examples: Ammunition nitrate (AN) - most readily available and cheapest salt of nitric acid. White
compound used as a solid oxidizer in explosive mixture.
Dynamite- made by mixing nitroglycerine with powdered clay or sawdust.
TNT - or trinitrotoluene, the most widely used explosive. Used mostly for military explosive. A safe
explosive. It will burn but does not expode if set on fire.
Nitroglycerine (NG) - widely used in industrial explosive. Has been the main component in many
dynamites. It is a mixture of nitric acid, sulfuric acid and glycerine. Oily liquid that is very dangerous
because the slightest shake will cause to it explode.
Plastic explosive - a military explosive that looks like ordinary putty or molding clay. Military explosives
are chiefly solids or mixtures so formulated as to be solid at normal temperature of use.
Pitric acid- also called trinitrophenol
Other Explosives:
1. C-4 - often referred to as a plastic explosive. White and dough like in consistency. It is commonly
encountered of the RDX based explosive.
2. RDX - (1,3,5-trinitro -1,3,5 triazacyclophexane). Also called hexogen or cyclonite,
cyclotrimethylenetrinitramite. A a plastic explosive. Most important military explosives used today.
3. Chloroacetophenone (CN) - The principal constituent in the filter used in tear gas solutions. Commonly
used tear gas.
4. Fire bombs
a. Molotov cocktail - is an incendiary device, nit a bomb. Easily constructed of the most common
materials. Consists of frangible container, like glass bottle filled with gasoline or any inflammable
mixture and having a piece of absorbent cloth for a wick or fuse. To function the container is turned
upside down and the wick absorbs the flammable mixture, the wick lighted and thrown. On impact the
bottle breaks scattering the flammable mixture which is ignited by the burning wick.
b. Modern Molotov - consists of 2/3 and 1/3 gas and sulfuric acid respectively. A blotter which has been
saturated in potassium chlorate and sugar is wrapped and to secured to the bottle. A snowball consists of
potassium chlorate and sugar mixture embedded in a wax mold using a length of safety fuse for an
ignitor.
c. Acids mixed with the gasoline and wicks attached to the outer bottle.
d. Mixture of alcohol and gasoline using a chrome oxide strip taped to the bottle which when thrown will
burst violently.
5. Demotion and Fragmentation Explosives
1. Composition A - mixture of RDX and beeswax. Semi plastic in nature.
2. Composition B - is a mixture of RDX, TNT and beeswax.
3. Composition C - sometimes referred to as plastic explosive, is RDX and inert plasticizer composition.
4. C-2 is RDX and explosive plasticizer. Contains no tetryl.
5. C-3 is RDX and an explosive plasticizer with tetryl substituted in part of RDX.
6. C-4 is RDX and plastic explosive composition.

Learning Activities;

1. Write your own reflection in a Microsoft word as to the importance in the study of Gun
powder and other explosives
2. Search in the internet as to the result of your study.

3. Illustrate in your activity notebook your conclusion, and submit your final report to my
gmail account.
Module-6 EXPLOSIVE -PARAFFIN CASTING-DIPHENYLAMINE

Objectives: at the end of chapter, the student can:

1. Understand the importance in the study hair and textile fibers.
2. Differentiate Collection, packing of hair, textile fibers evidence, test for hair and test
for fibers.
3. Illustrate each test the result in your activity notebook base on research, write your
conclusion and submit a final report to my gmail account.
4. Understand the concepts of Paraffin Casting-Diphenylamine
Module-7 Foot impression and tool impression

Objectives: at the end of chapter, the student can:

1. Understand the importance in the study Foot impression and tool impression
2. Illustrate each test the result in your activity notebook base on research, write
your conclusion and submit a final report to my gmail account.
FOOT IMPRESSION AND TOOL IMPRESSION

Traces left by a criminal in the form of foot impression, tool impression and tire impression in cases
like left, robbery, etc. will be studied in this chapter. The evidential value of an impression made by
shoe, hand, tool or other articles in based in the theory that no two physical objects are alike and hence
that impressions made by such object often is marked by uniquely identifying characteristics. A given
impression can only be produced by one object.

IMPRESSION - a strong mark produced by pressure that goes below the surface. A stamp, form or figure
resulting from physical contact. It causes damage to object.

IMPRINT - weak mark made by pressure that stays on the surface.

In scientific criminal investigation the problem of reproducing the faithful representation of an object
is of great evidential value. In many cases reliance has been placed on photographic method. In cases
involving footprints, tool marks , tooth impression, photographic presentation may not serve the
purpose. Using a mold called moulage can only make a faithful reproduction of these objects.

MOULAGE - a faithful reproduction of an impression with the use of casting materials. It is admitted that
moulage cannot reproduce all characteristics of the object under all circumstances but whatever is
mission in a moulage it can be supplied by the photograph.

CASTING MATERIAL - any material which can be changed from a plastic or liquid state to the solid
condition.

For foot impression and tire impression, Plaster of Paris is the best casting material.

Sometimes it is desirable to hasten or retard the setting time of the Plastic of Paris

Hastening - add one half teaspoonful of table salt to the plaster.

Retarding - add one part of saturated solution of borax to ten parts of water to be used in making the
plaster. One teaspoonful of sugar may also be used.

Hardening - to give dried cast greater durability it can be placed in a saturated solution of sodium
bicarbonate and allow to remain in the solution for sometime. It is then removed and dried.

Drawback of Plaster of Paris - Poor mechanical strength. The fluid plastic flows into all the interstice of
the mark but when the cast is removed from the mark the finer details have a tendency to break off.

OTHER CASTING MATERIALS:

1. Wood's metal - used for small impressions as tooth impression, tool impression . It is variety of
soldier with melting point 60⁰ to 70⁰C. It is made of B 50%,Pb - 25%, Sn - 12.5% and Cd - 12.5 %.

2. Plastic Material - like plasticine and dental composition . Used for small impression. Dental
composition is the best casting material for making the cast of tool marks .

Drawback - distorts when remove from the impression since plastic and never fluid and does not flow to
the very interstices of the impressions.

Negocoll - used for human body as cast of hand or face. It is rubbery gelatinous consisting material
consisting of collida magnesium soap.

4. Calerit - brown substances used for backing and strengthening the hominid

Cast of Human Body - it is sometimes required to make a cast of a human hand or face . It is important
that the temperature of the negative material should be below 110⁰F ( 43.3⁰C ) . A temperature higher
than this will be uncomfortable if not injurious to the subject.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD CASTING MATERIAL:

1. It must be readily fluid or plastic when applied - so that it can penetrate into minute depression or
cracks o the impression. Fluid materials are more satisfactory than plastic materials in this respect since
even the most plastic material does not enter into the crevices of all the minute depression.

2. Must harden rapidly to a rigid mass - so that no deformation of the cast takes place when it is being
removed from the impression. Rapid hardening is desirable as the time factor is often of importance.

3. Must not be deformable nor shrinks- so that if measurements are ti made from the cast ,it can retain
exactly its size and shape.

4. Must be tough - so that the minute lines and ridges in the impression do not break or disintegrate, so
that it will stand the wear and wear and tear it will receive during examination.

5. Must be easy to apply - since casts have to taken under all kinds of difficult circumstances, it can
readily be seen that the simpler the method the better the result.

6. Must not have the tendency to adhere to the impression.

7. Should have fine, even composition and surface - the grain of the surface must be considerably
smaller than the smallest detail it is desired to show in the cast otherwise this detail is lost in the grain.
8. Should not injure the impression

9. Should be easily obtainable

10. Should be cheap.

TOOL IMPRESSIONS

Tool impression may be classified into two general classes.

1. Those produced by such instruments like axe, hammer, pliers and cutters which touch the area only
once in producing the impression.

a. Compression marks - produced by a single application of the tool in one area of contact. Example is
the impression of a single blow of a hammer

b. Friction marks - these are series of scratches or striations produced by pushing a tool across the
surface such as those produced by cutters, axe and Jimmy.

2. Those produced by suchs instruments like saw or file that is applied in repeated strokes over the same
area. It is hard to identify since one mark overlaps the other.

EXAMINATION OF TOOL IMPRESSION

Examination of tool impression is done by comparative examination the purpose of which is to

determine or to show that the particular tool made the impression in question.

Learning Activities;

1. Write your own reflection in a Microsoft word as to the importance in the study of Foot
impression and tool impression
2. Write your own reflection in a Microsoft word as to the importance in the study of Gun
powder and other explosives
3. Search in the internet as to the result of your study.
4. Illustrate in your activity notebook your conclusion, and submit your final report to my
gmail account.

Module-8 GLASS FRACTURES

Objectives: at the end of chapter, the student can:

1. Understand the importance in the study glass fracture.
2. Illustrate each test the result in your activity notebook base on research, write your
conclusion and submit a final report to my gmail account.
GLASS AND GLASS FRAGMENTS AND FRACTURES

Glass is important as physical evidence because it breaks and pieces are scattered at the
crime scence and one the suspect. It is a common type of thing carried away evidence in and
 burglary and vehicle hit and run cases. The evidence maybe fragments of a haedlight leads
found at the scence of a hit and run accident,window glass from the scence of robbery, or
glass through which a bullet was fired.

GLASS- is a supercooled liquid which possesses high viscosity and rigidity. It is a non crystalline inorganic
substance.

COMPOSITION OF GLASS

Glass is usually composed of oxides like SiO ( silica ), BO ( boric oxide ) PO ( phosphorus pentoxide ) . For
commercial use silica is the most important oxide. It is the base of commercial glasses. It is made of silica
sand and other metallic oxides. Oxide is for fluxing, durability and reduction of viscosity. Glass, like
window and plate which are made in mass production is fairly uniform in composition. This may contain
incidental impurities and the presence of this substances is invaluable for the identification and
comparison of glass by spectrographic analysis. Gas has also presence of trace elements which maybe
sufficient to establish or negate tha fact of a common source for two samples of glass.

COMMON OXIDES USED IN GLASS MANUFACTURERE

OXIDES FUNCTION
1. Silica (SiO²) ------------------------------------ base of commercial
2. Soda ( Na²0) ------------------------------------ acts as flux for silica
3. Lime (Ca0) ------------------------------------ gives the glass chemical
Durability which it other lack because Of the water soluble Na²O
4. Magnesia (MgO) ----------------------------------- present as impurity or substitute for
CaO
5. Alumina (Al²O³) ---------------------------------- gives the glass greater chemical
durability Lower coefficient of expansion, and
greater freedom from devitrification.
6. Potash (K²O) -------------------------------- for chemical durability and resistance to
devitrifivation

ANALYSIS OF GLASS

The most important problem commony referred to a forensic chemist is the comparison
of two or more samples of glass.
Test/Analysis for Glass
1. Spectrographic Test
2. X - ray Diffraction Test
3. Physical Properties Examination
4. Ultraviolet Properties Examination
5. Polish Marks Test

DISCUSSION TEST
 3. 1. Spectrographic test - an instrument method of analysis which determines the presence of
trace elements. Shows the constituent elements of glass. It will not give sufficient
information to establish is the origin of the samples examined. A rapid examination and an
adequate method for glass analysis since it requires only a small amount of sample. In the
absence of trace elements it maybe difficult to determine whether two samples of common
type of glass are identical. If similar trace elements are found of both samples it is obvious
they come from the same source.
2. X- ray diffraction test - not as effective as the spectrographic analysis. It determine the
typey of pattern of glass. The type if pattern depends upon the composition of glass
3. Physical properties examination - the most sensitive method of determining
differencesof composition in glass samples and depends upon the study of the physical
properties of glass. Properties like specific gravity and density, refractive index. Density and
refractive index can be measured wii great accuracy. Density or specific gravity is an espey
important physical property from the viewpoint of the forensic chemist.

Method of measuring Density of glass:

Floatation method - a rapid and convenient method of determining the density of small glass
fragments. Procedure and principle is the same as in soil.

Method of Measuring the Refractive Index of Glass:

Immersion method - method use to measure the refractive index of the glass. It is difficult to
distinguish between two samples of glass by density and refractive index. It maybe mentioned that two
glass from independent sources can vary conceivably have the same index of refraction or the same
density the same .

4. Ultraviolet light examination - determines the differences in the appearance of the

flourescent thus indication of physical and chemical differences.
5. Polish marks - optical glass and other fine glasswares are usually polished. In the polishing
of glass fine marks are often left on the surface which can sometimes served as a basis of
comparison.

Procedure for the Determination of Fine Marks

The surfaceis cleaned with alcohol and then etched by spraying with 20 to 25% hydrofluoric acid. The
acid is permitted to remain on the surface for several minutes. The is again washed with alcohol and
dried. If the surface is illuminated by oblique light, a photograph can be made to show the polish marks.

GLASS AS EVIDENCE OF CRIME

In the field of forensic chemistry emphasis is placed on.

1. Automobile glass in case of hit and run.

2. Broken windows cause by pressure, blow or bullet in case of robbery.

3. Broken bottles, drinking glasses, spectacles found ate the scence of an assault or othercrimes, of
violence, which would suggest examination of the soles and heels of a suspect for imbedded glass
fragments.
HOW GLASS BREAKS

(How glass forms cracks when a blow or pressure is applied on one of its surface)

When the blow strikers the glass on one of its surface , the front for example, the glass
first bends a little owing to its elasticity. When the limit of elasticity is reached the glass
breaks along radial lines starting from the pointwere the portion or surface which is more
subjected to stretching by bending. The front surface is only pushed. While the radial
fractures are taking place the newly created glass triangle between the radial rays also bend
away from the direction of the destroying force. Bythis bending the glass is stretched along
the front surface and when the limit of elasticity is reached, the glass breaks in concentric
cracks. These originate on the front of the glass because of stretching.

ANALYSIS OF GLASS FROM VEHICLES

Hit and run accidents represent a good percentage of crimes. If an automobile or any vehicle for that
matter discovered in which fragments of the lens can be found, a comparison maybe made with the
fragments found at the scene of accident employing the methods of analysis for glass.

ANALYSIS OF BROKEN WINDOWS

Examination of window fragments in robbery cases is important when there is a question

of " as to whether the glass was broken from the outside or inside". Since our penal law specifically
provides the mode of entrance before a crime maybe classified as a robbery, this particular kind of
examination becomes very important. The general procedure to determine whether the glass was
broken from the outside or inside or to determine the side from which a pane of glass was broken it to
collect and piece together as much of the glass as possible i order to study the patterns of cracks and to
be able to orient the pieces in their original position.

BROKEN WINDOW CAUSED BY BULLET HOLES

Generally it maybe said that the hole produced by a bullet of a strong charge has the sharpest edges;
but if a bullet has been fired from the very long distance and has come to have a low speed it will break
the pane in the same manner as will a stone. A shot from a very short distance will produce the same
result the pressure of the powder gas itself will smash the glass.

It is easy to determine the direction from which the shot was fired.

1. On one side of the hole numerous small flakes of glass will be found to have been blown away giving
the hole appearance of a volcano creater. Such appearance indicates that the bullet was fired from the
opposite direction of the hole from which the flakes are missing.

2. If the shot was fired perpendicular to the window pane the flakes marks are evenly distributed around
the hole.
3. If the shot was fired at an angle from the right, the left side will suffer more flaking than from the
right.

4. Excessive flaking on the right side of a window pane would indicate a short fired at angle from the
left.

( The direction is taken from the person shooting )

BROKEN WINDOW CAUSED BY FIRST OR STONE

The direction of the blow in case a firsy or stone smashed the window is quite difficult but the
principle of radial crack and concentrate crack or fracture will apply.

Glass fractures produced by a low speed impact such as a rock (left) and by a high speed projectile such
as a bullet ( right)

The Principle of 3R's Rule for Radial Crack - states " stress lines on a radial crack will be at right angle to
the rear side of the glass".

The principle of RFC Rule Concentrate Crack - states" stress lines on a concentric crack will be at right
angle to the front side ", that is the side from which the blow came rather than the rear side.

The rule for concentric crack is the reverse of the 3R's rule provided the concentric cracks can be
examined is near, preferably adjacent to the point if impact.

Procedure: Piece together as many as you can gather of the glass fragments as possible. Select a
triangular piece bounded by two radial crack and one concentric crack. The triangular piece must be
adjacent to the point of impact, if it is not available select a piece as close as possible to the point of
impact.

THE BULLET HOLES IN A WINDOW

Where there are two bullet holes in a window, one from each side, the problem if which one was first
becomes important to determine who is the aggressor. It will be found that the fracturea caused by the
first will be complete especially and end stopped at point where they intersect those from the first.

FRACTURES IN SAFETY G FRACTURES IN SAFETY GLASS

Laminated glass that is now being used in automobiles does not shatter when struck sharply.
Frequently the cracking if safety glasd is not complete. The radial cracks do not extend to the side of
impact and the spiral cracks do not extend to the other side.

The Cracking of Safety Glass:

The cracking into radial lines divides the pane into a number if triangles. These triangles are pushed
out from the point of impact by the initial impulse. The main body of the glass that is fairly rigid resists
this pushing out. The effect of a torque is produced, and if the force is sufficient, the glass is now
pushed in the opposite direction until again the limit of elasticity is exceeded and the glass begins to
break on the side where the blow was struck. The cracking now takes place along the quasi circle
concentric with point of impact . It was demonstrated that the number of spirals crack present in a
fracture depends upon the nature of impringing force. A rapid dynamic force produces more spiral
pattern than the slow , relative static force even though the total energy involved is the same in both
cases.

The radial or concentric cracks cannot be definitely established the side from which the blow came
cannot be determined.

Learning Activities;

1. Write your own reflection in a Microsoft word as to the importance in the study of Glass
fragment and fracture.
2. Search in the internet as to the result of your study.

2. Illustrate in your activity notebook your conclusion, and submit your final report to my
gmail account.

Presented and critically discussed various issues relevant to forensic science.

1. Familiarized themselves with the case update locally and internationally.
2. Submitted a reaction paper on issues presented during the course.

end