SOLAR ENERGY

1. RADIATION FUNDAMENTALS:

h = 6.626 · 10−34 [J · s]; σ = 5.67 · 10−8 [W/m2 K −4 ]

C1 = 3.742 · 108 [W µm4 /m2 ]; C2 = 1.439 · 104 [µm · K]; C3 = 2898 [µm · K];

λ = c/ν
EP = hν
Blackbody spectral emissive power:
C1
Eλ,b (λ, T ) = [W/m2 µm]
λ5 exp(C2 /(λT ) − 1)

Wien’s equation:
C3
λmax = [µm]
T
Stefan-Boltzmann eq:
Eb = σT 4 [W/m2 ]
Radiation intensity:
dq
Iλ,e =
dA1 · cos θ · dω · dλ
Z λ
Eb,λ (λ, T )dλ
0
fλ = (1)
σT 4

λT (µm K) fλ λT (µm K) fλ λT (µm K) fλ λT (µm K) fλ

200 0.000000 3200 0.318102 6200 0.754140 11000 0.931890
400 0.000000 3400 0.361735 6400 0.769234 11500 0.939959
600 0.000000 3600 0.403607 6600 0.783199 12000 0.945098
800 0.000016 3800 0.443382 6800 0.796129 13000 0.955139
1000 0.000321 4000 0.480877 7000 0.808109 14000 0.962898
1200 0.002134 4200 0.516014 7200 0.819217 15000 0.969981
1400 0.007790 4400 0.548796 7400 0.829527 16000 0.973814
1600 0.019718 4600 0.579280 7600 0.839102 18000 0.980860
1800 0.039341 4800 0.607559 7800 0.848005 20000 0.985602
2000 0.066728 5000 0.633747 8000 0.856288 25000 0.992215
2200 0.100888 5200 0.658970 8500 0.874608 30000 0.995340
2400 0.140256 5400 0.680360 9000 0.890029 40000 0.997967
2600 0.183120 5600 0.701046 9500 0.903085 50000 0.998953
2800 0.227897 5800 0.720158 10000 0.914199 75000 0.999713
3000 0.273232 6000 0.737818 10500 0.923710 100000 0.999905

Table 0.1: Blackbody radiation function

1
2

2. SOLAR RADIATION:

ST − LT = ±4(Lgst − Lgloc ) + E − DS [min] W :+ ;E:−

E = 9.87 sin(2B) − 7.53 cos(B) − 1.5 sin(B) [min]

B = (N − 81)360/364 [◦ ]
 
360
δ = 23.45 sin (284 + N ) [◦ ]
365
h = (ST − 12)15 [◦ ]
sin(α) = cos(φ) = sin(L) sin(δ) + cos(L) cos(δ) cos(h)
sin(z) = cos(δ) sin(h)/cos(α)
cos(θ) = sin(L) sin(δ) cos(β) + cos(L) sin(δ) sin(β) cos(Zs ) + cos(L) cos(δ) cos(h) cos(β)+
sin(L) cos(δ) cos(h) sin(β) + cos(δ) sin(h) sin(β) sin(Zs )
Gsc = 1367 [W/m2 ]
Gon = Gsc (1 + 0.033 cos(360/365N )) [W/m2 ]
Go = Gon cos(φ)
GBt
Beam radiation tilt factor, RB : RB = GB

Gt
Total radiation tilt factor, R: R = G

Atmospheric transmittance: τB = GBn /Gon

Clearness index: kT = I/Io or KT = H/Ho

 3

3. FUNDAMENTALS ON HEAT TRANSFER:

3.1 External flow over a flat plate: (Rec = 5 · 105 )

1/2
Laminar (Ts = const) N uL = 0.664ReL P r1/3 for 0.6 < P r < 50
1/2
Laminar (Qs = const) N uL = 0.906ReL P r1/3 for P r > 0.6
4/5
Mixed flow (Ts = const) N uL = (0.037ReL − 871)P r1/3 for 0.6 < P r < 60
4/5
Mixed flow (Qs = const) N uL = (0.0385ReL − 754.5)P r1/3
4/5
Turbulent flow (Ts = const) N uL = 0.037ReL P r1/3 for 0.6 < P r < 60
4/5
Turbulent flow (Qs = const) N uL = 0.0385ReL P r1/3

3.2 Cylinder in cross flow

Re C m
0.4-4 0.989 0.33
4-40 0.911 0.385
40-4000 0.683 0.466
40000-400000 0.025 0.805

3.3 Internal Flow in a pipe: Rec = 2300;

Hydrodynamic entrance region Laminar: Xf d,h = 0.05ReD D and Turbulent: Xf d,h = 10 D

Thermal entrance region Laminar: Xf d,h = 0.05 ReD P r D and Turbulent: Xf d,h = 10 D

Developed laminar flow (see Figure: 0.1).

Figure 0.1: Internal laminar flow. [Cengel].

Developed turbulent flow: N uD = 0.023Re0.8 P rn , where n = 0.4 if T s > T m or n = 0.3 if T s < T m

Short tubes (L/D > 1): N uD = N uf d + [a(ReP rDh /L)m ]/[1 + b(ReP rDh /L)n ]

3.4 Internal Flow in channels:

One side heated the other adiabatic (for air): N uD = 0.0158Re0.8

gβ∆T L3c
3.5 Free convection in external flow: (Rac = να = 109 )
  2
0.387Ra1/6
3.5.1 Vertical plate (or cylinder D > 35H/G0.25
h ): N u = 0.825 + 8/27
[1+(0.492/P r)9/16 ]
3.5.2 Tilted vertical plate: change in 3.5.1 g by g cos(θ)
4

1/4 1/4
3.5.3 Upper surface of hot plate: N uL = 0.54RaL for 104 < Ra < 107 and N uL = 0.15RaL for 107 Ra < 1011

3.5.4 Lower surface of hot plate N uL = 0.52Ra5L for 104 < Ra < 109

3.6 Free convection in internal flow:

3.6.1 Tilted plate plate (Fig. 0.2)

Horizontal
6 45
60
5 75

3
Nu

1 3 4 5 6
10 10 10 10
Ra

Figure 0.2: Free convection between parallel plates.

3.6.2 Vertical plate: N u = [1 + (0.0665Ra0.333 /(1 + 9600/Ra)0.25 )2 ]0.5

 1/4
2πkef f (Ti −To ) kef f Pr 1/4 2[ln(ro /ri )]4/3
3.6.3 Concentric Cylinders: q = ln(ri /ro ) , where k = 0.286 0.86+P r Rac and Lc = −3/5 −3/5 5/3
(ri +ro )
 5

4. FLAT PLATE COLLECTOR:

Useful energy: Qu = FR Ac [GT (τ α) − UL (Tin − Ta )]

0
mCP
Heat Removal Factor: FR = Ac UL [1 − exp(− AmC
c UL F
P
)]
Tout −Ta −GT (τ α)/UL 0
Collector efficiency factor: Tin −Ta −GT (τ α)/UL = exp(− AmC
c UL F
P
)

Flow factor: F 00 = FR /F 0
A c UL F 0
FR UL mCp /A[1−exp(− mCP )]
Flow rate effect: r = FR UL |test = FR UL |test

(τ α) 1
Angle modifier: Kθ = (τ α)n = 1 − b0 [ cos(θ) − 1]

N Collector in series:
h N
i
FR (τ α)|series = FR,1 (τ α)1 1−(1−K)
NK
h N
i
FR UL |series = FR,1 UL,1 1−(1−K)
NK

AC FR UL
where K is the correction factor: K = mCP

5. HEATING SOLAR SYSTEMS:

f-chart method:
P
F = Pfi Li
Li

Liquid systems: f = 1.029Y − 0.065X − 0.245Y 2 + 0.0018X 2 + 0.0215Y 3

Air system: f = 1.040Y − 0.065X − 0.159Y 2 + 0.00187X 2 + 0.0095Y 3

where:
F0 F0
h i
Y = FR (τ α)n FR
R
τα
(τ α)n HT N ALc and X = FR UL FR
R
(Tref − T a )∆t ALc
6

6. CSP: Concentrating Solar Power:

Concentration ratio, A:
Aa
C=
Ar
Absorbed radiation p.u.a of unshaded aperture area, S:

S = Ib ρ (γ τ α)n Kγτ α

Compound parabolic collector characteristics curves (see at the end):

Parabolic troughs:
Aperture width of the parabola, Wa :
φr
Wa = 4 f tan
2
Size required to absorb all radiation , D:
4f
D= sin(θs )
1 + cos(φr )
where φr is the rim angle, f is the focal distance and θs = 0.27◦
Absorbed Radiation by a Central Receiver:

Qabs = Nhel Ahel ηF ield DN Iηth

where the heliostat field efficiency, ηF ield :

PN
n=1 ηhel
ηF ield =
N
and the efficiency of each heliostat:
ηhel = ρ ηat ηbs ηsp · cos θ

7. PHOTOVOLTAICS SYSTEMS:
1 eV = 1.602 · 10−19 J;

Photon energy:
EP = hν
   
e·V
I = Iph − I0 exp −1
k · TC
where e = 1.602 · 10−19 (J/V ), k = 1.318 · 10−23 (J/K), V is the voltage across the cell, Tc temp. of the cell and I0 the
dark saturation current. The maximum power:

Pmax = Imax Vmax = Isc Voc F F

where F F is the Fill Factor

M cells in parallel and N cells in series
    
e·V
IT = M Iph − I0 exp −1
k · TC

VT = N Voc
The state of charge, SOC:
q
SOC = · 100%
qmax
The depth of discharge, DOD:
DOD = 100% − SOC
 directly. For example, in a three-surface enclosure this requirement corresponds to

816 Chapter 13
Radiation Exchange Between Surfaces

TABLE 13.1 View Factors for Two-Dimensional Geometries [4]

Geometry Relation TABLE 13.1 Continued
Parallel Plates with Midlines Geometry Relation 13.1
The View Factor 817
Connected by Perpendicular
Parallel Cylinders of
wi Different Radii
i [(Wi
Wj)2
4]1/2  [(Wj  Wi)2
4]1/2 TABLE 13.2 View Factors for Three-Dimensional Geometries [4]
Fij 
2Wi 1
Fij  
[C 2  (R
1)2]1/2 Geometry Relation
2 
L Wi  wi /L, Wj  wj /L rj
ri 2 2 1/2 Aligned Parallel X  X/L, Y  Y/L
 [C (R  1) ]
j j
Rectangles
i 1/2
wj (Figure 13.4) 2 (1
X 2) (1
Y 2)

(R  1) cos1 CR  C1  Fij  ln
X Y  1
X2
Y 2 
Inclined Parallel Plates of Equal s j
Width and a Common Edge L X
 (R
1) cos1
X (1
Y 2)1/2 tan1
CR
C1  (1
Y 2)1/2
j Y i
R  rj /ri, S  s/ri Y
Fij  1  sin X
Y (1
X 2)1/2 tan1  X tan1 X  Y tan1 Y
w 2  C1
R
S (1
X 2)1/2 
α
i Cylinder and Parallel Rectangle Coaxial Parallel Disks Ri  ri /L, Rj  rj /L
w (Figure 13.5) 1
R2j
s1 s2 rj S1

Perpendicular Plates with a r r
tan1  tan1 j R2i
1 2
Fij  s  s
Common Edge
 L L 
j 1
Fij  {S  [S 2  4(rj /ri)2]1/2}
j L ri L 2
1
(wj /wi)  [1
(wj /wi)2]1/2
Fij 
2 i i
wj
s2

i s1 Perpendicular Rectangles H  Z/X, W  Y/X

wi with a Common Edge
(Figure 13.6) 1 1 1
Fij  W tan1
H tan1
Three-Sided Enclosure W  W H
Infinite Plane and Row of Cylinders
1
2 1/2 j  (H 2
W 2)1/2 tan1 2
wi
wj  wk s D Z (H
W 2)1/2
D Fij  1  1  s
wj Fij  i 2 2 W2
2wi
   1 (1
W )(1
H ) W 2(1
W 2
H 2)
wk j j Y X
ln
k 2 2 1/2
D 1s D 4  1
W2
H2 (1
W 2)(W 2
H 2) 
2
i 2 2 2 H2

 s  tan 
D   H (1
H
W )
i 2 2 2
wi

(1
H )(H
W ) 

(continues)
Figure 0.3: View Factors(1). Incropera. the outer surface, since this surface sees itself. However, from the reciprocity rela-
tion, Equation 13.3, we obtain
only 3(3  1)/2  3 view factors. The remaining six view factors may be obtained
by solving the six equations that result from use of Equations 13.3 and 13.4. 1 1
F21  12
To illustrate the foregoing procedure, consider a simple, two-surface enclosure 2 2
AA F  AA 
involving the spherical surfaces of Figure 13.3. Although the enclosure is character- From the summation rule, we also obtain
ized by N 2  4 view factors (F11, F12, F21, F22), only N(N  1)/2  1 view factor
need be determined directly. In this case such a determination may be made by F11
F12  1
inspection. In particular, since all radiation leaving the inner surface must reach the in which case F11  0, and
outer surface, it follows that F12  1. The same may not be said of radiation leaving
F21
F22  1
in which case
1
F22  1 
2
AA 
7
 0.04 Y/L = 0.1
apter 13 䊏 Radiation Exchange Between Surfaces
8
0.03

0.02
1.0 ∞
10
j 4
0.7
L 2
0.01
0.5
0.1
0.4 0.2
i 0.3 0.5 1.0 2 3 4 5 1.010 20
Y
0.3 X X/L
0.6
0.2 0.4
FIGURE 13.4 View factor for aligned parallel rectangles.
Fij

0.1 0.2
0.07
e the parentheses
0.05
around a subscript indicate that it is a composite surface, in which
j) is equivalent
0.04 to (1, 2, . . . , k, . . . , n). This expression
Y/L = 0.1simply states that radiation

ing a composite0.03surface is the sum of the radiation reaching its parts. Although it per-

to subdivision0.02
of the receiving surface, it may also be used to obtain the second view
relation, which pertains to subdivision of the originating surface. Multiplying
0.01
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 1.0 2 3 4 5 10 20
a) X/L
b)
FIGURE 13.4 View factor for aligned parallel rectangles.
1.0
rj
8 j
here the parentheses around
6 a subscript indicate that it is a composite surface, in which
ri L
se ( j) is equivalent
0.8 to (1, 2, . . . , k, . . . , n). This expression simply states that radiation
5
aching a composite surface is the sum of the radiation reaching its parts. Although it per-
i
ns to subdivision of the receiving surface, it may also be used to obtain the second view
4
ctor relation, which pertains to subdivision of the originating surface. Multiplying
0.6
3
Fij

rj /L
1.0 =2 1.5 1.25
age 869 0.4 rj
8 1.0 j
6
0.8 0.8 ri L
5
0.2 i
4
0.6 0.4
0.6
3 0.3
Fij

3.1 0 Factor
The View 869
䊏
0.1 0.2 =rj2/L 0.4
1.5 0.6 0.8 1 2 4 6 8 10
1.25
0.4
1.0 L/ri

FIGURE 13.5 View factor for coaxial0.8

parallel disks.
0.20.5 Y/X = j
0.02 0.6 0.4 Z
i
0.3 Y X
0.05
0
0.1
0.4 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 2 4 6 8 10
0.1 L/ri

FIGURE 13.5 View factor

0.2 for coaxial parallel disks.
0.3
Fij

0.4

0.6
0.2
1.0

1.5
0.1
2.0 4
10

0 20
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 2 4 6 8 10
Z/X
c)
Figure 0.4: a)
FIGURE View View
13.6 Factor of two
factor parallel rectangles.
for perpendicular b) View
rectangles with aFactor
commonof edge.
two parallel circles. c) View Factor of two
perpendicular rectangles. Incropera.
 10

8 Full CPC


4

Height to aperture ratio

5
6



6



7


3
4


9



12



15
2

21

Concentrating Collectors 189



36

188 10
Solar Energy Collectors
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Concentration ratio
1.4
8 3.35 Ratio of height to aperture for full and truncated

4
FIGURE FullCPCs.
CPC (Reprinted


from
Reflector area to aperture area Height to aperture ratio

Rabl (1976) with permission from Elsevier.)


6


4

3

Full CPC

1.2


5
6


9


6


1
Average number of reflections

1.0


12


7


3

16
4


9


4 1



18 (N)min
1 c



12
0.814 Full CPC



15
2

36


21


5
0.612



36



6
10


7
0.40 2 4 6 8 10 12 14


316
8 Concentration ratio



9
0.2
FIGURE 3.35 Ratio of height to aperture for full and truncated CPCs. (Reprinted from



12


2
6 with permission from
Rabl (1976) Elsevier.)



15


1

04 2


18 4 6 8 10 12 14 16



21



36 Concentration ratio
FIGURE163.34
2 Average number of reflections for full and truncated CPCs. (Reprinted



4
from Rabl (1976) with permission from Elsevier.)
14 Full CPC
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16


5
Reflector area to aperture area

12 Concentration ratio

This equation can also be used to estimate U
CPC,B CPC,D CPC,G ,U , and U in Eq.
FIGURE 3.36 Ratio of reflector to aperture area

for

6full and truncated CPCs. (Reprinted
(3.87), which
from Rabl are usually treated as the same.
10 (1976) with permission from Elsevier.)
Values of n for full and truncated


7
CPCs can be obtained from Figure 3.34.
As noted before, the upper ends of



3
CPCs contribute
8 little to the radiation



9
reaching the receiver, and usually CPCs
are truncated for economic
For a truncated CPC, thereasons. As can beratio
height-to-aperture seenfrom Figure
from
1.4. Then, 3.34, the



12

2Figure
average 6number of reflections is a function of concentration ratio, C, and the
3.35, the concentration ratio drops to 4.2; and from Figure 3.36, the



15

reflector-

1
acceptance
to-aperture half
18Rcto
areaangle,


drops . For a truncated
3, which concentrator,
indicates the line is(1the
how significant  1/C) canin
saving
4
bereflector
taken asmaterial.
the

lower

21 boundfrom
Finally, for the number
Figure 3.34,ofthe
reflections for radiation
average number within
of reflections
the

acceptance angle. Other effects of truncation are shown in Figures 3.35 and

36
is at least
2 1  1/4.2  0.76.

3.36. Figures 3.34 through 3.36 can be used to design a CPC, as shown in the
following example. For more accuracy, the equations representing the curves
0 2 4 6 8
of Figures 3.34 through 3.36 can be used as given 10 12
in Appendix 6. 14 16
COMPOUND PARABOLIC COLLECTORConcentration ratio