POLYMERIZATION

POLYMER
Polymers are substances with very large molecules which are themselves built up by the
repetition of smaller chemical units.
General molecular formula maybe represented simply as (repeating)n, where n is a very large
whole number
n(CH2=CH2) (-CH2-CH2-)n
All polymers are macromolecules but not all macromolecules are polymers e.g diamond is a
macromolecule but it is not a polymer

DEFINITION OF POLYMERIZATION
Polymerization is the process whereby two or more monomers link together to form a compound
of high molecular mass called polymers.
Monomer + monomers polymers
o
2 n(CH2=CH2) 60 C (CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2)n
Pressure +catalyst polyethene
For example, if ethyne is heated in a red hot tube, it is polymerized into benzene.
3C2H2 C 6 H6
Ethyne benzene
Polymerization as a chemical reaction is characteristic of unsaturated compounds. In the
reaction, the double bonds are broken to form a long chain of single bond units.

Condition for polymerization to occur

1. Heat
2. Chain-initiating substance (initiator)

CHARACTERISTICS OF POLYMER
1. Highly branded polymer tend to have lower tensile strength and melt easily
2. Polymer with much cross-linking tend to be rigid, hard and fairly brittle
3. Polymers tend to be strong and difficult to melt as the intermolecular forces between chain are
high
4. The strength and melting point of a polymer increase with chain length

TYPES OF POLYMERS
1. Natural polymer
2. Synthetic polymer

NATURAL OCCURING POLYMERS

Natural polymers are found in plants such as in carbohydrate (starch and cellulose), wood, wool,
cotton, rubber, Protein etc.

SYNTHETIC POLYMERS
Synthetic polymers are made by the polymerization of monomers.
Nylon, Plastic, Textiles, Perspex, Polyvinylchloride
DISADVANTAGES OF SYNTHETIC POLYMER
1. They non-biodegradable i.e cannot be broken down by bacteria
2. They cannot be economically recycled.

TYPES OF POLYMERIZATION
1. Addition Polymerization
2. Condensation Polymerization

ADDITION POLYMERS
Addition polymerization is the process whereby two or more of the same monomers link together
to form the polymer without elimination of any small molecules
nA (A)n (A= Monomer)

Examples of addition polymers are:

(a) Polythene- used for making firms and sheeting for bags and wrappers.
(b) Polypropylene- used for making ropes.
(c) Polystyrene – used to produce electric insulators, toys, shoes soles and dishes
(d) Polybutylene – use for making car tyres
(e) Perspex – used for making glass
(f) Polyvinylchloride (PVC) – used for coating fabrics, for covering wires and cables and making
gramophone records. (g) Acrilan – used for making textiles

CONDENSATION POLYMERS
Condensation polymerisation is the process whereby two or more monomers link together to
form the polymer with the elimination of small molecules (H2O, NH3, HCl)

Examples of condensation polymer are:

(a) Polyesters – used as the bonding resin in glass, fibre, plastics as well as in wide application in
the textile industry.
(b) Terylene – used in textile industries.

Plastics: are polymers which are more easily deformed

TYPES OF PLASTICS
1. Thermoplastics: these are plastics that can be moulded by melting. E.g polythene, nylon etc.
2. Thermosetting: these are plastics that cannot be softened or melted by heat and remoulded
once they are formed or set. E.g bakelite.

Factors which affect the strength of polymers

1. They must be high molecular mass
2. They must be softened at high possible temperature
ASSIGNMENT
1. Mention four properties of plastics
2. Mention four problems of plastic use

CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are compounds containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen only. The hydrogen and
oxygen atoms are in ratio 2:1.
The general molecular formula for this class of homologous series is CxH2yOy or Cx(H2O)y .
C6H12O6

SOURCES OF CARBOHYDRATES: Rice, yam, maize, millet, guinea corn, potatoes, bread,
Garri e.t.c
CLASSES OF CARBOHYDRATES.
Carbohydrate can be classified into two namely;
1. Simple sugar (Monosaccharaides and Disaccharides)
2. Complex sugar (polysaccharides)

1. Simple Sugars
Simple sugar can be classified into two namely;
1. Monosaccharaides ((glucose, fructose and galactose)
2. Disaccharides (sucrose, maltose, lactose)

Monosaccharaides are crystalline, soluble in water and have sweet taste. They are made up of
six carbon atoms. E.g glucose, fructose and galactose with general formula C6H12O6, but their
atoms are arranged differently within the molecules.

Exercise 1: Draw the structures of glucose, fructose and galactose

Monosaccharide cannot be hydrolysed to simpler compound, while Disaccharide can be
hydrolysed to two monosaccharide molecules.

Exercise 2: Mention three differences between glucose and fructose

2. COMPLEX SUGARS
These are otherwise called polysaccharide. They are non – crystalline, insoluble in water and
tasteless e.g starch and cellulose. They have very high relative molecular masses.

Polysaccharide: A carbohydrate that can be hydrolyzed to many monosaccharide molecules.

Exercise 3: Differences between simple and complex sugar

GLUCOSE:
Glucose is the most important simple sugar found in fruits such as grapes, in honey and the cell
sap of plants. Glucose is the main source of energy for animal tissue and it is sythesized by
plants during photosynthesis and exist in two forms – an open chain and a cyclic forms.

Exercise: Draw the open and cyclic structure of glucose

LABORATORY PREPARATION OF GLUCOSE

By hydrolysis of sucrose with dilute acid in the presence of ethanol
Sucrose + water invertase Glucose + Fructose
 heat
C12H22O11 + H2O C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
Sucrose H2SO4 glucose

INDUSTRIAL PREPARATION OF GLOCOSE

By hydrolysis of starch using dilute acid under pressure
(C5H10O5)n +nH2O nC6H12O6
Starch glucose

PROPERTIES OF GLUCOSE
1. Glucose is a strong reducing agent because of the presence of the –CHO group
2. When heated glucose with concentrated tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid, a black residue of carbon
is formed
C6H12O6 -6H2O 6C
Glucose Carbon (black)
3. Glucose solution is readily fermented to ethanol and carbon (IV) oxide by the enzymes
zymase.
C6H12O6 zymase 2C2H5OH (aq) + CO2 (g)
Glucose ethanol

TEST FOR GLUCOSE

Add a few drops of Fehling’s solution to glucose solution in a test tube. A brick-red precipitate is
obtained on boiling
USES OF GLUCOSE
1. Glucose is use in the manufacturing of jam and sweets.
2. It is use as an immediate source of energy for sick people and sportmen.

DISACCHARIDES
Disaccharides are produced by the condensation of two molecules of monosaccharaides and
elimination of one molecule of water.
They have general formula of C12H22O11. All disaccharide are crystalline solid which are soluble
in water.
Component Disaccharide
Glucose + fructose Sucrose (Cane sugar)
Glucose + Galactose Lactose (milk sugar)
Glucose + Glucose Mlatose (malt sugar)

POLYSACCHARIDES
Polysaccharides are high polymers of very long chain of monosaccharaides linked together by
condensation with the molecular weights ranging from a few thousands to several millions.
Important polysaccharides are glycogen, cellulose, starch and insulin.

PREPARATION OF STARCH
The raw materials (e.g potato or cassava tubers) are first peeled and crushed to break the plant
cells and release the starch granules. The crushed pulp is then mixed with water to extract the
starch. It forms suspension which is allowed to stand for some time, leaving behind the white
starch residue and the water above is decanted.

PROPERTIES OF STARCH
1. Starch is a white, odourless and tasteless powder.
2. It is insoluble in cold water but soluble in hot water, forming a colloidal solution which sets
into a jelly on cooling.
3. Starch is hydrolysed by dilute acids to yield a mixture of maltose and glucose. Further
hydrolysis give glucose.
4. It is decomposed on heating in the presence of the enzyme diastase to form maltose sugar
5. Starch does not contain any free carbonyl group; it does not reduce Fehling’s solution. Hence
it is not a reducing sugar.

TEST FOR STARCH

Add a few drops iodine to some boiled starch. A dark – blue colouration, which disappears on
heating and reappears on cooling results.

USES OF STARCH
1. It is used mainly as food
2. It is used to produce ethanol and glucose
3. It is used as a stiffening agent.

GARRI PRODUCTION
To make Garri, cassava tubers are peeled, washed and grated or crushed to produce a mash. The
mash could be mixed with palm oil (Oil Garri) before being placed in a porous bag. It is then
placed in an adjustable press machine or place heavy stone on the bag for 1 – 3 hours to remove
excess starchy water. When the cassava has become dry enough, it is ready for the next step. It is
then sieved and fried in a large clay or iron frying pot with or without palm oil. The resulting dry
granular Garri can be stored for long periods. It may be poured or ground to make a fine flour.